CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
• A closed system of the heart and blood
vessels
➢ The heart pumps blood
➢ Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to
all parts of the body
• Functions of the cardiovascular system:
➢ Deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells and
tissues
➢ Remove carbon dioxide and other waste
products from cells and tissues
COVERING AND WALLS OF THE HEART
• Pericardium - a double-walled sac
➢ Fibrous pericardium
➢ Serous membrane
1. Parietal pericardium - outside layer
that lines the inner surface of the
fibrous pericardium.
2. Visceral pericardium – next to heart;
also known as the epicardium
➢ Serous fluid fills the space between the
layers of pericardium. Pericardial space
contains 5-20 ml fluid.
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
• Pericardium
➢ Keeps the heart and prevents the heart
from over-expanding when blood volume
increases.
• Three layers of the heart wall:
1. Epicardium – outside layer
2. Myocardium – middle layer
3. Endocardium – inner layer known as
endothelium
CHAMBERS AND ASSOCIATED GREAT VESSELS
• Four Chambers:
➢ Atria (right atrium and left atrium)
- Receiving chambers
➢ Ventricles (right ventricle and left
ventricle)
- Discharging chambers
• Interventricular septum
➢ Separates the two ventricles
• Interatrial septum
➢ Separates the two atria
• Pulmonary Circulation
➢ Blood flows from the right side of the
heart to the lungs and back to the left of
the heart
• Systemic Circulation
➢ Blood flows from the left side of the heart
through body tissues, and back to the
right side of the heart
HEART VALVES
• Allow blood to flow in only one direction, to
prevent backflow.
• AV valves
➢ Anchored in place by chordae tendineae
➢ Open during heart relaxation and closed
during ventricular contraction
• Semilunar valves
➢ Closed during heart relaxation and open
during ventricular contraction
• These valves open and close in response to
pressure changes in the heart
Four valves
➢ Atrioventricular (AV) valves – between
atria and ventricles
- Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left side of
the heart
- Tricuspid valve (right side of heart)
➢ Semilunar valves – between ventricle and
artery
- Pulmonary semilunar valve
- Aortic semilunar valve
ASSOCIATED GREAT VESSELS 1. (CA) Circumflex artery – encircle heart
muscles, supplies blood in LA, side
• The great blood vessels provide a pathway for
and back of LV
the entire cardiac circulation to proceed
2. (LADA) Left anterior descending artery
• Superior and inferior vena cava – pumps the – supplies front & bottom LV and
blood through the pulmonary trunk. front of septum
• Pulmonary arteries – carry blood to the lungs, • Smaller branches of the coronary arteries
where oxygen picked up and carbon dioxide is include: obtuse marginal (OM), septal
unloaded. perforator (SP), and diagonals
• Pulmonary veins – oxygen-rich blood drains
from the lungs and is returned to the left side
of the heart through the four pulmonary
veins.
• Aorta – blood returned to the left side of the
heart is pumped out of the heart into the
aorta from which the systemic arteries branch
to supply essentially all body tissues.

CARDIAC CIRCULATION

• Blood in the heart chamber does not nourish

the myocardium
• The heart has its own nourishing circulatory
system consisting of:
➢ Coronary arteries – branch from the aorta
to supply the heart muscle with
oxygenated blood
➢ Cardiac veins – drain the myocardium of
blood
➢ Coronary sinus – a large vein on the
posterior of the heart, receives blood
from cardiac veins
CORONARY ARTERIES OF THE HEART
• Blood Supply to the wall of the Heart
• Right coronary artery- supplies blood to RA,
RV, bottom portion of LV and back of septum,
SA & AV nodes (w/c regulate heart rhythm).
➢ Right posterior descending artery
➢ Marginal artery
➢ Left anterior descending artery
➢ Right coronary artery
• Coronary veins - take oxygen-poor
“deoxygenated” blood that has already been
used by muscle of the heart and return it to
the right atrium.
• Coronary sinus - major venous tributary of
the greater cardiac venous system; it is
responsible for draining most of the
deoxygenated blood leaving the myocardium.
• Left coronary artery - supplies blood to your
left atrium and left ventricle.
➢ Divide into 2 branches:
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART
• Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system) of
the heart
• Components include:
➢ Sinoatrial (SA) node – located in the right
atrium. Serves as the heart’s pacemaker.
➢ Atrioventricular (AV) node - is at the
junction of the atria and ventricles
➢ Atrioventricular (AV) bundle (bundle of
his) and bundle branches are in the
interventricular septum.
➢ Purkinje Fibers – spread within the
ventricle wall muscles
HEART CONTRACTIONS
• Intrinsic conduction system enforces 75 beats
per minute
• Contraction is initiated by the sinoatrial node
• Sequential stimulation occurs at other
autorhythmic cells
• Force cardiac muscle depolarization in one
direction – from atria to ventricles
HEART CONTRACTIONS
• Homeostatic imbalance
➢ Heart block – result is in a slower heart
rate as ventricles contract at their own
rate
➢ Ischemia – lack of adequate oxygen
supply to heart muscle
➢ Fibrillation – a rapid, uncoordinated
shuddering of the heart muscle
• Homeostatic imbalance (continued)
➢ Tachycardia – rapid heart rate over 100
beats per minute
➢ Bradycardia – slow heart rate less than 60
beats per minutes
• S2 “Dubb“
➢ Closure of SL valves
➢ End of ventricular systole
➢ Loudest at the base of the heart
ABNORMAL HEART SOUNDS
• S3 “Ventricular gallop”
➢ Heard in early diastole
➢ Lu-dub-by cadence similar to
Kentucky (SLOSH-ing-in)
➢ Caused by Rapid ventricular filling
• S4 “Atrial gallop”
➢ Low frequency sound in late diastole
➢ Le-lub-dub cadence similar to
Tennessee (a-STIFF-wall)
➢ Caused by the atrial kick into a non-
compliant ventricle
➢ Seen in patients with stiffened left
ventricles

CARDIAC CYCLE AND HEART SOUNDS

• Cardia cycle refers to one complete heartbeat

➢ Systole - contraction
➢ Diastole – relaxation CARDIAC CYCLE
• Heart beats approximately 75 times per • The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events
minute that take place during one heartbeat. It can be
• Cardiac cycle length is normally 0.8 second divided into three phases: atrial systole,
AUSCULTATING HEART SOUNDS ventricular systole and diastole.

5 AREAS FOR LISTENING TO THE HEART ELECTROCARDIOGRAM

• Aortic
• Pulmonic
• ERB’s Point
• Tricuspid
• Mitral

NORMAL HEART SOUNDS

• S1 “Lubb”
➢ Closure of AV valves
➢ Beginning of ventricular systole
➢ Loudest at the apex and lower left
sternal border
COMPONENTS OF AN ECG TRACE • Calculated by multiplying the heart rate (HR)
by the stroke volume (SV)
• An ECG trace records the electrical activity of
the heart (vertical axis) over time (horizontal
axis)

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

• An extremely valuable tool for diagnosing a

number of cardiac abnormalities
➢ P wave – depolarization of the atrial
myocardium
➢ QRS complex – depolarization of the
ventricles
➢ T wave – repolarization of ventricles
➢ PR interval – movement of electrical
activity from atria to ventricles
➢ ST segment – time between REGULATION OF HEART RATE
ventricular de-polarization and
repolarization • Heart rate is modified by:
➢ QT interval – time take from 1. Neural (ANS) controls (Autonomic
ventricles to depolarize, contract and nervous system)
repolarize ➢ Sympathetic Nervous System speeds
heart rate
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGIC PROPERTIES ➢ Parasympathetic Nervous System
primary vagus nerve fibers, slow and
Contractility
steady the heart rate
Refractoriness
2. Hormones and ions
Automaticity
➢ Epinephrine and thyroxine speed
Conductivity
heart rate
Excitability
➢ Excess or lack of calcium, sodium, and
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE potassium ions also modify heart
activity
• Faulty valves reduce the efficiency of the
3. Physical factors
heart as a pump and result in abnormal heart
➢ Age, gender, exercise, body
sounds (murmurs).
temperature influence heart rate
CARDIAC OUTPUT ➢ Resting heart rate in fetus (140 – 160
bpm)
• Cardiac Output (CO) ➢ Average adult females (72-80); male
➢ Amount of blood pumped by each (64-72)
side (ventricle) of the heart in one
minute REGULATION OF STROKE VOLUME
• Stroke Volume (SV) • 60 percent of blood in ventricles (about 70
➢ Volume of blood pumped by each ml/2 ounces)
ventricle in one contraction (each
• Starling’s law of the heart
heartbeat)
➢ The critical factor controlling SV is
➢ About 70 ml of blood is pumped out
how much cardiac muscle is stretched
of the left ventricle with each
➢ The more the cardiac muscle id
heartbeat
stretched, the stronger the
• Heart Rate (HR) contraction
➢ Typically 75 beats per minute
• Venous return is the important factor
Males: around 5.6L (5600ml) influencing the stretch of heart muscle.

Females: around 4.9L (4900ml)

BLOOD VESSELS: THE VASCULAR SYSTEM ➢ When precapillary sphincters are
closed, blood by passes the local area
• Vascular system transports blood to the
via the vascular shunt
tissues and back to the heart
➢ Vessels that carry blood away from
the heart:
- Arteries and arterioles
➢ Vessels that play a role in exchanges
between tissues and blood:
- Capillary beds
➢ Vessels that return blood toward the
heart:
- Venules and veins

WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSELS?

• The structure of blood vessels is closely

related to their functions in transporting
blood.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF BLOOD VESSELS
• VARICOSE VEINS
• Three layers (tunics) in blood vessels (except ➢ Structural defect due to incompetent
the capillaries) valves
➢ Tunica intima forms a friction- ➢ Common vascular problem, especially
reducing lining in people who are obese and people
- Endothelium who stand for long periods of time
➢ Tunica media ➢ Predisposing factor for
- Smooth muscle and elastic tissue thrombophlebitis
- Controlled by sympathetic nervous
system MAJOR ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
➢ Tunica externa forms protective
• Aorta
outermost covering
➢ Largest artery in the body
- Mostly fibrous connective tissue
➢ Regions
STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES IN ARTERIES, VEINS, - Ascending aorta – leaves the left
CAPILLARIES ventricle
- Aortic arch – arches to the left
• Arteries have a thicker tunica media than - Thoracic aorta – travels downward
veins to withstand changes in pressure through the thorax
• Veins have a thinner tunica media than - Abdominal aorta – passes through
arteries and operate under low pressure the diaphragm into the
• Capillaries are only one cell layer thick (tunica abdominopelvic cavity
intima), to allow for exchanges between blood
and tissue
➢ Capillaries form networks called
Capillary beds
➢ Blood flow through a capillary bed is
known as microcirculation
➢ Capillary beds consist of two types of
vessels
1. Vascular shunt
2. True capillaries
➢ Entrances to capillary beds are
guarded by precapillary sphincters
PULSE PRESSURE (PP)

➢ defined as the difference between systolic

blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood
pressure (DBP),which represent the maximal
and minimal circulatory pressures during the
cardiac cycle.
• Formula
PP = SBP – DBP
• Normal Range
40 – 60 mmHg

BLOOD PRESSURE

➢ Exerts against the inner walls of the blood

vessels
➢ The force that causes blood to continue to
flow in the blood vessels

MEAN ARTERIAL PRESSURE

➢ defined as the average pressure in a patient’s

arteries during one cardiac cycle. It is
considered a better indicator of perfusion to
vital organs than systolic blood pressure(SBP).
• Formula
MAP = SBP + DBP (2) / 3
• Normal Range
70 – 100 mmHg
BLOOD
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BLOOD
• Physical Characteristics of Blood
➢ Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
➢ Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
• pH must remain between 7.35 and 7.45
• Blood temperature is slightly higher than body
temperature, at 100.4°F (38 °C)
➢ °F – 32 x 5/9 = °C
• In a healthy man, blood volume is about 5–6
liters or about 6 quarts.
• Blood makes up 6-8 percent of body weight.
➢ Kgs – 8% (x 0.08) =
FUNCTIONS: MR PC 3T’s
• Maintenance of body temperature.
• Regulation of pH and osmosis.
• Protection against foreign substances.
• Clot formation.
• Transport of gases, nutrients, & waste
products.
• Transport of processed molecules.
• Transport of regulatory molecules.
BLOOD
• A type of connective tissue that consists of a
liquid matrix
• Components of blood
➢ Living cells: Formed elements
➢ Nonliving matrix: Plasma
55% PLASMA
1% WBC AND PLATELETS
44% RBC
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
• Plasma – liquid matrix
• Formed elements – cells & cell fragments
➢ 4–5L in females;5–6L in males
➢ 8% of total body weight
• The blood is made up of cells that are
suspended in liquid called plasma.
• Plasma makes up 55% of the blood.
• Blood cells make up the remaining 45% of the
blood.
• RBCs make up 99% of the blood cells.
• WBCs and platelets make up the other 1%.
HEMATOPOIESIS
• the formation and development of blood
cells.
• Occurs in red bone marrow
• All blood cells are derived from a common
stem cell (hemocytoblast)
• Hemocytoblast differentiation
➢ Lymphoid stem cell produces
lymphocytes
➢ Myeloid stem cell produces all other
formed element.
• Give rise to 5 types of precursor cells
• Precursors develop into RBCs, WBCs and
“giant” megakaryocytes which produce
platelets by cytoplasmic fragmentation.
Blood is a circulating tissue consisting of three types
of cells.
1. Red Blood Cells - Erythrocytes
2. White Blood Cells - Leukocytes
3. Platelets – Thrombocytes
The cells listed above are suspended in a liquid known
as plasma
PLASMA
91% water 7% proteins, 2% ions/gases
Plasma Proteins
• Albumin – water balance bet. the blood and
tissues
• Globulins – part of the immune system;
function as transport molecules; a clotting
factor
➢ Alpha globulins – transport
hormones, prothrombin, high density
lipoprotein (HDL/healthy cholesterol)
➢ Beta globulins – transport vitamins,
minerals, and other lipoproteins
(LDL/bad cholesterol)
➢ Gamma globulins – antibodies that
provide immunity
• Fibrinogen – a clotting factor
➢ Fibrin - threadlike protein that forms
blood clots.
RED BLOOD CELLS
• Erythrocytes or RBCs
➢ Most abundant cell in the blood
(4 million – 6 million per microliter of
blood)
➢ Formed in the bone marrow
➢ Mature forms do NOT have a nucleus
➢ Shaped as biconcave disks
 ➢ 6-8 micrometers in diameter
➢ Life span of about 120 days
➢ Hemoglobin (iron protein) is found in
the RBC
➢ Hemoglobin carries oxygen from the
lungs to the rest of the body and
carbon dioxide binds to the RBC and is
taken to the lungs to be exhaled.
• RBC production – stimulated by low blood O2
level
➢ hemoglobin – main component of
RBCs; iron-containing CHON,
pigmented protein responsible for its
red color. Normal blood contains 12-
18g of hgb/100 ml of blood
- Globin – each protein
- Heme – red-pigmented molecules
that composes a globin
➢ Iron – necessary for O2 transport
➢ B vitamins folate & B12 – required for
cell division; necessary for the
synthesis of DNA.
HEMATOCRIT
• Measurement of RBC percentage in total
blood volume.
➢ Can detect medical conditions,
especially blood disorder
➢ Can be used to monitor internal
bleeding post-surgery
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• Leukocytes or WBCs
➢ Largest sized blood cells
➢ Lowest numbers in the blood (4,500-
11,000 per microliter)
➢ Formed in the bone marrow and
some in lymph glands
➢ Primary cells of the immune system
➢ Fights disease and foreign invaders
➢ Contain nuclei with DNA, the shape
depends on type of cell
➢ Certain WBCs produce antibodies
➢ Life span is from 24 hours to several
years
➢ Size is 8-20 micrometers in diameter
• Ameboid movement – like an ameba; cell
projects a cytoplasmic extension that attaches
to an object.
• five different types of WBCs: “BEN ML”
1. Granulocytes – large cytoplasmic granules
“BEN”
A. Basophil
• Release histamine and other
chemicals that promote inflammation
• Release heparin which prevents the
formation of clots
B. Eosinophil
• Involved in inflammatory responses
associated with allergies and asthma
• Involved in destroying certain worm
parasites.
C. Neutrophil - Most common type of WBCs.
• Phagocytize microorganism and other
foreign substances, avid phagocytes
at sites of acute infection, and are
particularly partial to bacteria and
fungi.
Pus – dead neutrophils, cell debris and fluid that
accumulates at sites of infections
2. AGRANOLOCYTES
A. Lymphocyte
• Smallest of the WBCs
• Play an important role in body’s
immune response
• Production of anti-bodies and other
chemicals that destroy
microorganisms.
B. Monocyte
• Largest of the WBCs
• Macrophages – enlarged monocytes;
phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, cell
fragments; can break down
phagocytized foreign substances in
chronic infxn.
PLATELETS
• Thrombocytes or PLTs
➢ Formed in the bone marrow
➢ Clotting factors that plasma when
blood vessels are ruptured or broken.
➢ Fragments from the cytoplasm of
megakaryocytes
➢ Smallest of the blood cells
➢ 1-4 micrometers in diameter
➢ Shape can be round, oval, or appear
spiky
➢ Life span of around 8-12 days
➢ Involved in the clotting process
➢ Seal wounds and prevent blood loss
➢ Help repair damaged vessels
 ➢ 150,000 – 400,000 per microliter of • Blood Typing
blood ➢ determines the ABO and Rh blood
➢ Platelets stain bluish with reddish or groups of a blood sample.
purple granules. • Rh Blood Group
- Named because of the presence
HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS
or absence of one of eight Rh
• ABO Blood Group antigens (agglutinogen D) that
➢ ABO antigens appear on the surface was originally defined in Rhesus
of the RBCs monkeys.
• Antigen • Can occur through
➢ Foreign/invaders ➢ Transfusion
• Antibodies ➢ Transfer of blood across the placenta
➢ Recognizers/defense to a mother from her fetus.
• ABO blood groups
➢ based on which of two antigens, type
A or type B, a person inherits; absence
of both antigens results in type O
blood, presence of both antigens
leads to type AB, and the presence of
either A or B antigen yields type A or
B blood.
• Rh blood groups.
➢ one of the eight Rh antigens
(agglutinogen D) was originally
identified in Rhesus monkeys; later
the same antigen was discovered in
human beings; most Americans are
Rh+ (Rh positive), meaning that their
RBCs carry the Rh antigen.
• Anti-Rh antibodies.
➢ Unlike the antibodies of the ABO
system, anti-Rh antibodies are not
automatically formed and present in
the blood of Rh- (Rh-negative)
individuals.
• Hemolysis.
➢ (rupture of RBCs) does not occur with
the first transfusion because it takes
time for the body to react and start
making antibodies.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- master controlling and communicating
system of the body.
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
- To carry out its normal role, the nervous
system has three overlapping functions.
• MONITORING CHANGES
➢ uses its millions of sensory receptors
to monitor changes occurring both
inside and outside the body; these
changes are called stimuli, and the
gathered information is called sensory
input.
• INTERPRETATION OF SENSORY INPUT
➢ It processes and interprets the sensory
input and decides what should be
done at each moment, a process called
integration.
• EFFECTS RESPONSES
➢ activating muscles or glands (effectors)
via motor output.
• MENTAL ACTIVITY
➢ The brain is the center of mental
activity, including consciousness,
thinking, and memory.
• HOMEOSTASIS
➢ This function depends on the ability of
the nervous system to detect,
interpret, and respond to changes in
internal and external conditions.
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The nervous system does not work alone
to regulate and maintain body
homeostasis
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
- Two subdivision
➢ Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- Include neural tissue outside the CNS
(nerves).
➢ Central nervous system (CNS)
- consists of the brain and spinal cord, and
act as the integrating and command
centers of the nervous system.
NEURON
- also called nerve cells, are highly specialized
to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one part
of the body to another
NERVE TISSUE
- Nerve cells are called neurons, or nerve
fibers
• PARTS
➢ Cell body
➢ contains the nucleus and is essential for
the continued life of the neuron.
➢ Dendrites
➢ processes (extensions) that transmit
impulses toward the cell body.
➢ Axon
➢ a neuron transmits impulses away from
the cell body.
➢ Axon hillock
➢ Each neuron has only one axon, which
arises from a cone like region of the cell
body called the axon hillock.
➢ Axon terminals
➢ contain hundreds of tiny vesicles or
membranous sacs that contain
neurotransmitters.
SCHWANN CELL
• In the peripheral nervous system, axons and
dendrites are “wrapped” in specialized cells
called Schwann cells. Schwann cells grow to
surround the neuron processes, enclosing
them in several layers of Schwann cell
membrane.
MYELIN SHEATH
• Layers are the myelin sheath; myelin is a
phospholipid that electrically insulates
neurons from one another.
NODES OF RANVIER
• The spaces between adjacent Schwann cells,
or segments of the myelin sheath, are called
nodes of Ranvier (neurofibril nodes).
SYNAPSE
• Neurons that transmit impulses to other
neurons do not actually touch one another.
The small gap or space between the axon of
one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of
the next neuron is called the synapse.
TYPES OF NEURONS
• Structural Classification
➢ Multipolar neurons
➢ Several processes, this is the most
common structural type. Found in brain
and spinal cord.
➢ Bipolar neurons
➢ Two processes, found only in some special
sense organs, where they act in sensory
processing as receptor cells. Found in eye,
in the inner ear, and in the olfactory.
➢ Unipolar neurons
➢ a single process emerging from the cell’s
body.
NERVOUS TISSUE
➢ made up of just two principal types of cells-
supporting cells and neurons.
• Supporting Cells
➢ Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped
together” as neuroglia, literally mean
“nerve glue”.
• Neuroglia
➢ Many types of cells that generally support,
insulate, and protect the delicate neurons.
Simply called either glia or glial cells, has
special functions.
NEURONS AND NEUROGLIA
• Astrocytes
➢ form a living barrier between the
capillaries and neurons.
• Microglia
➢ These are spiderlike phagocytes that
dispose of debris, including dead
brain cells and bacteria.
• Ependymal cells
➢ Ependymal cells are glial cells that line
the central cavities of the brain and
the spinal cord.
• Oligodendrocytes
➢ A glia that wraps their flat extensions
tightly around the nerve fibers, producing
fatty insulating coverings called myelin
sheaths.
• Satellite cells
➢ act as protective, cushioning cells.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
BRAIN
➢ The brain is the largest and most complex
mass of nervous tissue in the body.
➢ 6 main sections
1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Diencephalon
4. Midbrain
5. Pons
6. Medulla Oblongata
CEREBRUM
➢ largest section and its divided into two
major hemispheres which are the right
and left hemisphere. the cerebrum is
further divided into four lobes:
➢ Parietal lobe
➢ The primary somatic sensory area
➢ Occipital lobe
➢ The visual area
➢ Temporal lobe
➢ The olfactory areas, for the sense of smell
and auditory areas for hearing.
➢ Frontal lobe
➢ The motor areas that generate the
impulses for voluntary movement.
• The surface of the cerebrum is gray matter
called the cerebral cortex. Gray matter
consists of cell bodies of neurons, which carry
out the many functions of the cerebrum
• The folds are called convolutions or gyri and
the grooves between them are fissures or
sulci.
➢ Basal ganglia
➢ Help regulate muscle tone, and they
coordinate accessory movements such as
swinging the arms when walking or
gesturing while speaking.
➢ Corpus callosum
➢ A band of nerve fibers that connects the
left and right cerebral hemispheres
CEREBELLUM
➢ The cerebellum provides precise timing for
skeletal muscle activity and controls our
balance and equilibrium. It is responsible
for muscle coordination, balance,
posture, and muscle tone.
DIENCEPHALON
➢ Found between the cerebrum in the
midbrain. It contains two structures the
thalamus and the hypothalamus.
• Thalamus
➢ behaves much like a relay station and
direct sensory impulses to the
cerebrum.
• Hypothalamus
➢ controls and regulates autonomic
nervous system functions such as
temperature, appetite, water balance,
sleep and blood vessel constriction in
dilation. It also plays a role in the
emotions such as anger, fear, pleasure,
pain and affection.
BRAIN STEM
➢ is about the size of a thumb in diameter
and approximately 3 inches long. Its
structures are the midbrain, pons, and the
medulla oblongata.
• Midbrain
➢ It is responsible for certain eye and
auditory reflexes.
• Pons
➢ It is responsible for certain reflex actions
such as chewing tasting and saliva
production.
• Medulla oblongata
➢ “The Center for Respiration”. It is
responsible for regulating the heart and
blood vessel function digestion,
respiration, swallowing, coughing,
sneezing and blood pressure.
PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Meninges
➢ The three connective tissue membranes
covering and protecting the CNS structures
are the meninges.
➢ Dura mater
➢ The outermost layer, is a double-layered
membrane where it surrounds the brain;
one of its layer is attached to the inner
surface of the skull.
➢ Arachnoid mater
➢ The middle layer. Its threadlike extensions
span the subarachnoid space to attach it
to the innermost membrane.
➢ Pia mater
➢ the innermost meningeal layer, clings
tightly to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord, following every fold.
• Subarachnoid space
➢ Between the arachnoid and the pia mater
is the subarachnoid space, which contains
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), the tissue fluid of
the central nervous system.
• The ventricles (cavities) of the brain: two
lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the
fourth ventricle. Each contains a choroid
plexus, a capillary network that forms
cerebrospinal fluid from blood plasma.
• Cerebrospinal Fluid
➢ a watery “broth” similar in its makeup to
blood plasma, from which it forms.
➢ forms a watery cushion.
• Lumbar tap.
➢ The CSF sample for testing is obtained by a
procedure called lumbar or spinal tap.
SPINAL CORD
➢ The spinal cord is the link between the
brain and the nerves in the rest of the
body. The spinal cord is divided into four
different regions:
➢ Cervical
➢ Thoracic
➢ Lumbar
➢ Spinal Nerves (Afferent and Efferent
Nerves) which merged to form the PNS
• Afferent Spinal Nerves
➢ Responsible for carrying information from
the body to the brain
• Efferent Spinal Nerves
➢ Responsible for carrying information from
the brain to the body.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
• Somatic Nervous System
➢ responsible for carrying motor and sensory
information both to and from the central
nervous system. Also responsible for
nearly all voluntary muscle movement.
➢ Afferent simply means conducting inward
and Efferent means conducting outward.
• The Autonomic Nervous System
➢ Sympathetic Nervous System
➢ is vital to our survival. It is also known as
“Fight-or-Flight” response to danger.
➢ Parasympathetic Nervous System
➢ parasympathetic brings all the systems of
the body back to normal.
CRANIAL NERVES
➢ The 12 pairs of cranial nerves primarily
serve the head and the neck.
Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet Ah
Heaven
• Olfactory
➢ it carries impulses for the sense of smell.
• Optic
➢ carries impulses for vision
• Oculomotor
➢ Movement of eyelid and eye muscles
controlling lens shape and pupil size.
• Trochlear
➢ It supplies motor fibers for one external
eye muscle. (Vertical eye movement).
• Trigeminal
➢ it conducts sensory impulses. Also
contains motor fibers that activate the
chewing muscles (Facial sensation and
expression).
• Abducens
➢ it supplies motor fibers to the lateral
rectus muscle, which rolls the eye laterally
(Lateral eye movement).
• Facial
➢ it activates the muscles of facial
expression and the lacrimal and salivary
glands; carries sensory impulses from the
taste buds of the anterior tongue (Facial
expression, taste(interior), and
salivation).
• Vestibulocochlear (Auditory)
➢ Vestibular branch transmits impulses for
the sense of balance, and cochlear branch
transmits impulses for the sense of
hearing (Hearing and Balance).
• Glossopharyngeal
➢ it supplies motor fibers that promote
swallowing and saliva production; it
carries sensory impulses from the taste
buds of the posterior tongue and from
pressure receptors of the carotid artery
(Taste(posterior) and swallowing).
• Vagus
➢ the fibers carry sensory impulses and
motor impulses. Most motor fibers are
parasympathetic fibers that promote
digestive activity and help regulate heart
activity (Vocal cords and swallowing).
• Accessory
➢ Fiber arises from the medulla and
superior spinal cord and travels to
muscles of the neck and back (Head and
shoulder).
• Hypoglossal
➢ motor fibers control tongue movements;
sensory fibers carry impulses from the
tongue (Movement of the tongue).
 NERVES S/M FUNCTION • Lens
1 Oh Olfactory S Smell ➢ made of a transparent, elastic protein,
2 Oh Optic S Vision and like cornea, it has no capillaries.
3 Movement • Iris
of the eyelid ➢ the colored part of the eye; its
Oh Oculomotor M and pupil pigment is form of melanin.
construction
& dilation Middle Choroid layer
4 Vertical Eye
To Trochlear M
Movement • Choroid layer
5 Facial ➢ contains blood vessels and a dark blue
S& (Somatic) pigment that absorbed light within
Touch Trigeminal the eyeball and thereby prevents
M Sensation &
Expression glare.
6 Lateral Eye ➢ The anterior portion of the choroid is
And Abducens M
Movement modified into more specialized
7 Facial structures: the ciliary body and the
Expression, iris.
S&
Feel Facial Taste • Ciliary body
M
(Anterior) &
➢ a circular muscle that surrounds the
Salivation
edge of the lens and is connected to
8 Hearing &
Very Vestibulocochlear S the lens by suspensory ligaments.
Balance
9 Taste • Lens
S& (Posterior) ➢ made of a transparent, elastic protein,
Good Glossopharyngeal and like cornea, it has no capillaries.
M &
Swallowing • Iris
10 Vocal Cords ➢ the colored part of the eye; its
S&
Velvet Vagus & pigment is form of melanin.
M
Swallowing
11 Head & Inner retina
Ah Accessory M
Shoulder • Retina
12 Movement
➢ lines the posterior two-thirds of the
Heaven Hypoglossal M of the
eyeball and contains the visual
tongue
receptors, the rods and cones.
• Rods
THE EYE AND EAR ➢ detect only the presence of light
• Cones
LAYERS OF THE EYEBALL
➢ detect colors, which, as you may
• THREE LAYERS know from physics, are the different
➢ Outer sclera wavelengths of visible light.
➢ Middle choroid layer
The eye contains the receptors for vision and a
➢ Inner retina
refracting system that focuses light rays on the
Outer sclera receptors in the retina.

• Sclera ● Conjunctiva - The eyelids are lined with a thin

➢ thickest layer and is made of fibrous membrane.
connective tissue.
● Lacrimal glands – Tears are produced. Tears
• Cornea
are mostly water, with about 1% sodium
➢ differs from the sclera, it is
chloride, similar to other body fluids. Tears
transparent and has no capillaries,
also contain lysozyme, an enzyme that
covers the iris and pupil inside the
inhibits the growth of most bacteria on the
eye, and is the first part of eye that
wet, warm surface of the eye.
refracts, or bends, light rays.
 • The six extrinsic muscles of the eye are The process of hearing involves the transmission of
attached to this bony socket and to the vibrations and the generation of nerve impulses.
surface of the eyeball. There are four rectus When sound waves enter the ear canal, vibrations are
(straight) muscles that move the eyeball up transmitted by the following sequence of structures:
and down or side to side; the name tells you eardrum, malleus, incus, stapes, oval window of the
which direction. inner ear, and perilymph and endolymph within the
• Refraction cochlea.
➢ light rays is the deflection or bending
As you may recall, the auditory areas are in the
of a ray of light as it passes through
temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex.
one object and into another object of
greater or lesser density.
➢ The refraction of light within the eye
takes place in the following pathway
of structures: the cornea, aqueous
humor, lens, and vitreous humor.
• Nearsightedness (myopia)
➢ the eye sees near objects well but not
distant ones.
• Farsightedness (hyperopia)
➢ the eye sees distant objects well.

The ear

- The ear consists of three areas: the outer

ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The
ear contains the receptors for two senses:
hearing and equilibrium.
• Outer Ear
➢ consists of the auricle and the ear
canal. The auricle, or pinna, is made
of cartilage covered with skin.
• middle ear
➢ air-filled cavity in the temporal bone.
The eardrum, or tympanic
membrane, is stretched across the
end of the ear canal and vibrates
when sound waves strike it.

These vibrations are transmitted to the three auditory

bones: the malleus, incus, and stapes. The stapes
then transmits vibrations to the fluid-filled inner ear
at the oval window.

The eustachian tube (auditory tube) extends from the

middle ear to the nasopharynx and permits air to
enter or leave the middle ear cavity.

A canal that links the middle ear with the back of the
nose. The eustachian tube helps to equalize the
pressure in the middle ear. Equalized pressure is
needed for the proper transfer of sound waves. The
eustachian tube is lined with mucous, just like the
inside of the nose and throat.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- contributes to homeostasis by breaking down
food into forms that can be absorbed and used
by body cells. It also absorbs water, vitamins,
and minerals, and eliminates wastes from the
body.
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Ingestion
➢ Food must be placed into the mouth
before it can be acted on. This is an
active, voluntary process.
• Propulsion
➢ If foods are to be processed by more
than one digestive organ, they must be
propelled from one organ to the next.
Peristalsis (involuntary, alternating
waves of contraction and relaxation of
the muscles in the organ wall).
• Food breakdown: mechanical digestion
➢ degradation by enzymes by physically
fragmenting the foods into smaller
pieces.
• Food breakdown: chemical digestion
➢ The sequence of steps in which the
large food molecules are broken down
into their building blocks by enzymes.
▪ PROTEIN- AMINO ACIDS
▪ FATS- FATTY ACIDS, GLYCEROL
▪ CARBS- GLUCOSE
Micronutrient Forms
Enzymes
• CARBS– AMYLASE
• FATS- LIPASE
• PROTEIN- PROTEASE
• Absorption
➢ Transport of digested end products
from the lumen of the GI tract to the
blood or lymph is absorption.
• Defecation
➢ the elimination of indigestible residues
from the GI tract via the anus in the
form of feces.
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- It can be separated into two main groups:
those forming the alimentary canal and the
accessory digestive organs.
Layers of GI Tract
• Mucosa
• Submucosa
• Serosa
ORGANS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
- alimentary canal, also called the
gastrointestinal tract, is a continuous, hollow
muscular tube that winds through the ventral
body cavity and is open at both ends.
MOUTH
- Food enters the digestive tract through the
mouth, or oral cavity.
• Lips
➢ protect its anterior opening.
• Cheeks
➢ form its lateral walls.
• Palate
➢ hard palate forms its anterior roof,
and the soft palate forms its posterior
roof.
• Uvula
➢ extends inferiorly from the posterior
edge of the soft palate.
• Vestibule
➢ The space between the lips and the
cheeks externally and the teeth and
gums internally.
• Oral cavity proper
➢ The area contained by the teeth.
• Tongue
➢ occupies the floor of the mouth and
has several bony attachments- two of
these are to the hyoid bone and the
styloid processes of the skull.
• Lingual frenulum
➢ a fold of mucous membrane, secures
the tongue to the floor of the mouth
and limits its posterior movements.
• Palatine tonsils
➢ At the posterior end of the oral cavity
are paired masses of lymphatic tissue.
• Lingual tonsil
➢ cover the base of the tongue just
beyond.

.
STOMACH
- acts as a temporary “storage tank” for food as
PHARYNX
- food passes posteriorly into the oropharynx
and laryngopharynx.
• Oropharynx
➢ posterior to the oral cavity
• Laryngopharynx
➢ common passageways for food, fluids,
and air.
ESOPHAGUS
- The esophagus or gullet, runs from the
pharynx through the diaphragm to the
stomach.
• Size and function
➢ About 25 cm (10 inches) long, it is
essentially a passageway that
conducts food by peristalsis to the
stomach.
• Mucosa
➢ innermost layer, a moist membrane
that lines the cavity, or lumen, of the
organ; it consists primarily of surface
epithelium, plus a small amount of
connective tissue (lamina propria).
• Submucosa
➢ it is a soft connective tissue layer
containing blood vessels, nerve
endings, lymph nodules, and lymphatic
vessels.
• Muscularis Externa
➢ a muscle layer typically made up of an
inner circular layer.
• Serosa
➢ the outermost layer of the wall that
consists of a single layer of flat serous
fluid-producing cells, the visceral
peritoneum.
• Intrinsic nerve plexuses
➢ two important intrinsic nerve
plexuses- the submucosal nerve
plexus and the myenteric nerve
plexus, both of which are networks of
nerve fibers that are actually part of
the autonomic nervous system.
well as a site for food breakdown.
• Cardiac region
➢ surrounds the cardio esophageal
sphincter, through which food enters
the stomach from the esophagus.
• Fundus
➢ the expanded part of the stomach
lateral to the cardiac region.
• Body
➢ the midportion, and as it narrows
inferiorly, it becomes the pyloric
antrum, and then the funnel.
• Pylorus
➢ the terminal part of the stomach and it
is continuous with the small intestine
through the pyloric sphincter or valve.
• Size
➢ The stomach varies from 15 to 25 cm
in length, but its diameter and volume
depend on how much food it contains;
when it is full, it can hold about 4 liters
(1 gallon) of food, but when it is empty
it collapses inward on itself.
• Rugae
➢ The mucosa of the stomach is thrown
into large folds called rugae when it is
empty.
• Greater curvature
➢ The convex lateral surface of the
stomach.
• Lesser curvature
➢ The concave medial surface.
• Lesser omentum
➢ a double layer of peritoneum, extends
from the liver to the greater curvature.
• Greater omentum
➢ helps to insulate, cushion, and protect
the abdominal organs.
• Stomach mucosa
➢ produce a protective layer of
bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus that
clings to the stomach mucosa and
protects the stomach wall from being
damaged by acid and digested by
enzymes
• Gastric glands
 ➢ dotted with millions of deep gastric
pits, which lead to gastric glands that
secrete the solution called gastric
juice.
• Intrinsic factor
➢ a substance needed for the absorption
of vitamin b12 from the small
intestine.
• Chief cells
➢ produce protein-digesting enzymes,
mostly pepsinogens.
• Parietal cells
➢ produce corrosive hydrochloric acid,
which makes the stomach contents
acidic and activates the enzymes.
• Enteroendocrine cells
➢ produce local hormones such as
gastrin, that are important to the
digestive activities of the stomach.
• Chyme
➢ After food has been processed.
SMALL INTESTINE
- The body’s major digestive organ
• Location
➢ a muscular tube extending from the
pyloric sphincter to the large intestine.
• Size
➢ 2.5 to 7 m (8 to 20 feet) in a living
person.
• Subdivisions
➢ the duodenum, the jejunum, and the
ileum.
• Ileocecal valve
➢ ileum meets the large intestine at the
ileocecal valve, which joins the large
and small intestine.
• Hepatopancreatic ampulla
➢ main pancreatic and bile ducts join at
the duodenum to form the flasklike
hepatopancreatic ampulla, literally,
the ”liver-pancreatic-enlargement”.
• Duodenal papilla
➢ the bile and pancreatic juice travel
through the duodenal papilla and
enter the duodenum together.
• Microvilli
➢ tiny projections of the plasma
membrane of the mucosa cells that
give the cell surface a fuzzy
appearance sometimes referred to as
the brush border.
• Villi
➢ fingerlike projections of the mucosa
that give it a velvety appearance and
feel, much like the soft nap of a towel.
• Lacteal
➢ a rich capillary bed and a modified
lymphatic capillary called a lacteal.
• Circular folds
➢ also called plicae circulares, are deep
folds of both mucosa and submucosa
layers.
• Peyer’s patches
➢ local collections of lymphatic tissue
found in the submucosa increase in
number toward the end of the small
intestine.
LARGE INTESTINE
- dry out indigestible food residue by absorbing
water and to eliminate these residues from the
body as feces.
• Size
➢ 1.5 m (5 feet) long
• Subdivisions
➢ cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, and
anal canal.
 • Cecum
➢ first part of the large intestine.
• Appendix
➢ a potential trouble spot because it is
an ideal location for bacteria to
accumulate and multiply.
• Ascending colon
➢ travels up the right side of the
abdominal cavity and makes a turn the
right colic (or hepatic) flexure.
• Transverse colon
➢ travel across the abdominal cavity.
• Descending colon
➢ It then turns again at the left colic (or
splenic) flexure, and continues down
the left side.
• Sigmoid colon
➢ The intestine then enters the pelvis,
where it becomes the S-shaped
sigmoid colon.
• Anal canal
➢ canal ends at the anus which opens to
the exterior.
• External anal sphincter
➢ composed of skeletal muscle
• Internal involuntary sphincter
➢ formed by smooth muscles.
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
TEETH
- tear and grind the food, breaking it down into
smaller fragments.
• Deciduous teeth
➢ The first set of teeth, also called baby
teeth or milk teeth.
• Permanent teeth
➢ The second set of teeth, the deeper
permanent teeth, enlarge and
develop.
• Incisors
➢ Adapted for cutting.
• Canines
➢ Tearing and piercing.
• Premolars and molars
➢ Premolars (bicuspids) and molars have
broad crowns with round cusps (tips)
and are best suited for grinding.
• Crown
➢ The exposed part of the tooth above
the gingiva or gum.
• Enamel
➢ The hardest substance in the body.
• Root
➢ covered by a substance called
cementum, which attaches the tooth
to the periodontal membrane
(ligament).
• Dentin
➢ a bonelike material, underlies the
enamel and forms the bulk of the
tooth.
• Pulp cavity
➢ contains a number of structures
(connective tissue, blood vessels, and
nerve fibers) collectively called the
pulp.
• Root canal
➢ provides a route for blood vessels,
nerves, and other pulp structures to
enter the pulp cavity of the tooth.
SALIVARY GLANDS
• Three pairs of salivary glands empty their
secretions into the mouth
➢ Parotid Glands
➢ Submandibular Glands
➢ Sublingual Glands
 • Saliva
- product of the salivary glands, it is a mixture of
mucus and serous fluids.
➢ Salivary amylase
- contains an enzyme, It in a bicarbonate-rich
juice that begins the process of starch
digestion in the mouth.
PANCREAS
- produces enzymes that break down all
categories of digestible foods.
• Location
➢ referred to as retroperitoneal.
• Pancreatic enzymes
➢ neutralize the acidic chyme coming in
from the stomach.
• Endocrine function
➢ it produces hormones insulin and
glucagon.
LIVER
- the largest gland in the body. It produce bile.
• Falciform ligament
➢ The liver has four lobes and is
suspended from the diaphragm and
abdominal wall by a delicate
mesentery cord.
• Bile
➢ a yellow-to-green, watery solution
containing bile salts, bile pigments,
cholesterol, phospholipids, and a
variety of electrolytes.
• Bile salts
➢ Bile does not contain enzymes but its
bile salts emulsify fats by physically
breaking large fat globules into smaller
ones.
GALLBLADDER
- bile is concentrated by the removal of water.
• Location
➢ gallbladder is a small, thin-walled
green sac that snuggles in a shallow
fossa in the inferior surface of the liver.
• Cystic duct
➢ When food digestion is not occurring,
bile backs up the cystic duct and enters
the gallbladder to be stored.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
ACTIVITIES OCCURRING IN THE MOUTH, PHARYNX,
AND ESOPHAGUS
1. Food Ingestion and Breakdown
• Physical breakdown
➢ the food is physically broken down into
smaller particles by chewing.
• Chemical breakdown
➢ the food is mixed with saliva, salivary
amylase begins the chemical digestion
of starch, breaking it down into
maltose.
• Stimulation of saliva
➢ the simple pressure of anything put
into the mouth and chewed will also
stimulate the release of saliva.
• Passageways
➢ The pharynx and the esophagus have
no digestive function; they simply
provide passageways to carry food to
the next processing site, the stomach.
2. Food Propulsion
• Deglutition
➢ or swallowing, is a complex process
that involves the coordinated activity
of several structures (tongue, soft
palate, pharynx, and esophagus).
• Buccal phase of deglutition
➢ Voluntary, occurs in the mouth; once
the food has been chewed and well
mixed with saliva, the bolus (food
mass) is forced into the pharynx by the
tongue.
• Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
➢ Involuntary, transports food through
the pharynx and esophagus; the
parasympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system controls
this phase and promotes the mobility
of the digestive organs from this point
on.
• Food routes
➢ All routes that the food may take,
except the desired route distal into the
digestive tract, are blocked off.
 • Stomach entrance
➢ Once food reaches the distal end of the
esophagus, it presses against the
ACTIVITIES OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
cardio esophageal sphincter, causing it
to open, and food enters the stomach.
ACTIVITIES OF THE STOMACH
1. Food Breakdown
• Gastric juice
➢ Secretion of gastric juice is regulated
by both neural and hormonal factors.
• Gastrin
➢ The presence of food and a rising pH in
the stomach stimulate the stomach
cells to release the hormone gastrin.
• Pepsinogen
➢ it activates pepsinogen to pepsin, the
active protein-digesting enzyme.
• Rennin
➢ the second protein-digesting enzyme
produced by the stomach, works
primarily on milk protein and converts
it to a substance that looks like sour
milk.
• Food entry
➢ As food enters and fills the stomach, its
wall begins to stretch (at the same
time as the gastric juices are being
secreted).
• Stomach wall activation
➢ the three muscle layers of the stomach
wall become active; they compress
and pummel the food, breaking it
apart physically.
2. Food Propulsion
• Peristalsis
➢ Once the food has been well mixed, a
rippling peristalsis begins in the upper
half of the stomach, and the
contractions increase in force as the
food approaches the pyloric valve.
• Pyloric passage
➢ The pylorus of the stomach, which
holds about 30 ml of chyme, acts like a
meter that allows only liquids and very
small particles to pass through the
pyloric sphincter.
• Enterogastric reflex
ACTIVITIES OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
➢ this reflex “puts the brakes on” gastric
activity and slows the emptying of the
stomach by inhibiting the vagus nerves
and tightening the pyloric sphincter,
thus allowing time for intestinal
processing to catch up.
1. Food Breakdown and Absorption
• Digestion
➢ carbohydrate and protein digestion
has begun, but virtually no fats have
been digested up to this point.
• Brush border enzymes
➢ break down double sugars into simple
sugars and complete protein digestion.
• Pancreatic juice
➢ contains enzymes that, along with
brush border enzymes, complete the
digestion of starch, carry out about
half of the protein digestion, and are
totally responsible for fat digestion
and digestion of nucleic acids.
• Chyme stimulation
➢ When chyme enters the small
intestine, it stimulates the mucosa
cells to produce several hormones;
two of these are secretin and
cholecystokinin which influence the
release of pancreatic juice and bile.
• Absorption
➢ most substances are absorbed through
the intestinal cell plasma membranes
by the process of active transport.
• Diffusion
➢ Lipids or fats are absorbed passively by
the process of diffusion.
• Debris
➢ enters the large intestine through the
ileocecal valve.
2. Food Propulsion
• Peristalsis
➢ the food is moved through the small
intestine in much the same way that
toothpaste is squeezed from the tube.
• Constrictions
➢ Rhythmic segmental movements
produce local constrictions of the
intestine that mix the chyme with the
digestive juices, and help to propel
food through the intestine.
1. Food Breakdown and Absorption
• Metabolism
 ➢ The “resident” bacteria that live in its • Relaxation
lumen metabolize some of the ➢ Within a few seconds, the reflex
remaining nutrients, releasing gases contractions end and rectal walls relax;
(methane and hydrogen sulfide) that with the next mass movement, the
contribute to the odor of feces. defecation reflex is initiated again.
• Flatus
➢ About 50 ml of gas (flatus) is produced
each day, much more when certain
carbohydrate-rich foods are eaten.
• Absorption
➢ Absorption by the large intestine is
limited to the absorption of vitamin K,
some B vitamins, some ions, and most
of the remaining water.
• Feces
➢ the more or less solid product
delivered to the rectum, contains
undigested food residues, mucus,
millions of bacteria, and just enough
water to allow their smooth passage.
2. Propulsion of the Residue and Defecation
• Haustral contractions
➢ slow segmenting movements lasting
about one minute that occur every 30
minutes or so.
• Propulsion
➢ propels the luminal contents into the
next haustrum.
• Mass movements
➢ Mass movements are long, slow-
moving, but powerful contractile
waves that move over large areas of
the colon three or four times daily and
force the contents toward the rectum.
• Rectum
➢ The rectum is generally empty, but
when feces are forced into it by mass
movements and its wall is stretched,
the defecation reflex is initiated.
• Defecation reflex
➢ a spinal (sacral region) reflex that
causes the walls of the sigmoid colon
and the rectum to contract and anal
sphincters to relax.
• Impulses
➢ As the feces is forced into the anal
canal, messages reach the brain giving
us time to make a decision as to
whether the external voluntary
sphincter should remain open or be
constricted to stop passage of feces.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM ➢ Storage of calcium and to release it on
demand.
FUNCTIONS:
TYPE OF BODY MOVEMENTS
• Producing movement
• Maintaining posture Origin
• Stabilizing joints
➢ Attached to the immovable or less
• Generating heat
movable bone.

Insertion

➢ Attached to the movable bone.

• Flexion
➢ Two bones closer together
• Extension
➢ Distance between two bones
• Rotation
➢ movement of a bone around
longitudinal axis
• Abduction
➢ moving the limb away from midline.
• Adduction
➢ movemet of a limb toward the body
PARTS OF MUSCLE CELL midline.
• Circumduction
- Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleate. ➢ Combination of, flexion, extension,
• Sarcolemma abduction and adduction.
➢ Cell membrane of muscle cell
➢ Allow who enter and exit in muscle Special Movements
cell. • Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion
• Myofibrils ➢ Dorsiflexion
➢ Responsible to performs muscle - Lifting the foot
contraction. ➢ Plantar flexion
• Light and dark bands - Depressing the foot (ballet)
➢ Perfectly aligned myofibrils give the • Inversion & eversion
muscle cell as a whole its striped ➢ Inversion
appearance. - Invert the foot turn the sole medially.
• Sarcomeres ➢ Eversion
➢ Allow to coordinate muscle - Evert the foot turn the sole laterally.
contraction. • Supination & pronation
• Myofilaments ➢ Supination
➢ Regulators of contraction - Palm anterior
• Thick filaments ➢ Pronation
➢ Also called myosin filaments, generate - Palm posterior
the power for muscle contraction.
• Cross bridges INTERACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES IN THE BODY
➢ Also called myosin beads, when they • Prime mover
link the thick and thin filaments ➢ Responsible for causing movement
together during contraction. • Antagonist
• Thin filaments ➢ Oppose or reverse a movement and
➢ Also called actin, allowing (or also stretched and relaxed.
preventing) myosin-bead binding to
actin. Anchored to the Z disc.
• Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
 • Synergists
➢ Help prime movers by producing the
same movements or by reducing
undesirable movements.
• Fixators
➢ They hold a bone still or stabilize the
origin of a prime mover so all tension
can be used to move the insertion
GROSS ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
bone
• Pennate
➢ the fascicles insert into only one side of
the tendon and the muscle is
unipennate; if the fascicles insert into
opposite sides of the tendon or from
several different sides, the muscle is
bipennate or multipennate.

NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES

• Direction of the muscle fibers

➢ Rectus (Straight) and Oblique (Slant)
• Relative size of the muscle
➢ Such terms as maximus (largest) ,
minimus (smallest), and longus (long)
are often used in the names of
muscles.
• Location of the muscle
➢ Some muscles are named for the bone
with which they are associated; for
example, the temporalis and frontalis
muscles lie in the skull's temporal and
frontal bones.
• Number of origins
➢ When the term biceps, triceps, or
quadriceps forms part of a muscle Facial Muscles
name, one can assume that the muscle
• Frontalis
has two, three, or four origins.
➢ allows you to raise your eyebrows and
• Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
wrinkle your forehead.
➢ muscles are named for their
• Orbicularis occuli
attachment sites.
➢ it allows you to close your eyes,
• Action of the muscle
squint, blink, and wink.
➢ When muscles are named for their
• Orbicularis oris
actions, terms such as flexor, extensor,
➢ Kissing muscle.
and adductor appear in their names.
• Buccinator
• Shape of the muscle
➢ Cheek muscle
➢ Some muscles have a distinctive shape
• Zygomaticus
that helps to identify them.
➢ Smilingng muscle
ARRANGEMENT OF FASCICLES
Chewing Muscles
• Circular
• Masseter
➢ circular muscles are typically found
➢ covers the angle of the lower jaw; this
surrounding external body openings
muscle closes the jaw by elevating the
which they close by contracting.
mandible. Use for action of
• Convergent
mastication.
➢ a muscle is triangular or fan-shaped.
• Temporalis
• Parallel
➢ it inserts into the mandible and acts
➢ these muscles are straplike; a
as a synergist of the masseter in
modification of the parallel
closing the jaw.
arrangement, called fusiform.
 Anterior Muscles

• Pectoralis major
➢ this muscle forms the anterior wall of
the axilla and acts to adduct and flex
the arm.

Neck Muscles
• Platysma
➢ Producing a myriad of facial
expressions.
• Sternocleidomastoid
➢ Plays important role in tilting your
head and turning your neck.
• Intercostal muscles
➢ deep muscles found between the ribs,
external intercostals are important in
breathing because they help you to
raise the rib cage when you inhale,
internal intercostals, which lie deep
to the external intercostals, depress
the rib cage, which helps to move air
out of the lungs when you exhale
• Muscles of the abdominal girdle
➢ The anterior abdominal muscles
(rectus abdominis, external and
internal obliques, and transversus
abdominis) form a “natural girdle”
that reinforces the body trunk

Posterior Muscles
• Trapezius
Trunk Muscles
➢ extend the head also can elevate,
depress, adduct, and stabilize the
scapula.
• Latissimus dorsi
➢ flat muscles that cover the lower
back, very important muscles when
the arm must be brought down in a
power stroke.
• Erector spinae
➢ provide resistance that helps control
the action of bending over at the
waist.
• Quadratus lumborum
➢ acting together, they extend the
lumbar spine.
• Deltoid
 ➢ form the rounded shape of the
shoulders, the deltoids are the prime
movers of arm abduction.
MUSCLES OF THE UPPER LIMB
The upper limb muscles fall into three groups.
1. Humerus Muscles
2. Elbow joint Muscles
3. Forearm Muscles
MUSCLE OF THE HUMERUS THAT ACT ON THE
FOREARM:
• Biceps brachii
➢ this muscle is the powerful prime
mover for flexion of the forearm and
acts to supinate the forearm.
• BrachialiS
➢ lies deep to the biceps muscle and is
as important as the biceps, brachialis
lifts the ulna as the biceps lift the
radius.
• Brachioradialis
➢ a fairly weak muscle that arises on the
humerus and inserts into the distal
forearm.
• Triceps brachii
➢ the only muscle fleshing out the
posterior humerus; being the
powerful prime mover of elbow
extension, it is the antagonist of
biceps brachii.
MUSCLES CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE HIP JOINT:
• Gluteus maximus
➢ Form most of flesh of the buttock, it is
a powerful hip extensor that acts to
bring the thigh in a straight line with
the pelvis.
• Gluteus medius
➢ a hip abductor and is important in
steadying the pelvis during walking.
• Iliopsoas
➢ a prime mover of hip flexion and also
acts to keep the upper body from
falling backward when we are
standing erect.
• Adductor muscles
➢ muscles of the adductor group form
the muscle mass at the medial side of
each thigh, they adduct, or press, the
thighs together
Muscle of the Lower Limb
• Muscles that act on the lower limb cause
movement at the hip, knee and foot joints.
largest and strongest muscle in the body and
are specialized for walking and balancing the
body.
MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE KNEE JOINT;
• Hamstring group
➢ Muscle mass of the posterior thigh
are the hamstrings; the group consists
of three muscles, the biceps femoris,
semimembranosus, and
semitendinosus, which originate on
the ischial tuberosity and run down
the thigh to insert on both sides of
the proximal tibia.
• Sartorius
➢ It acts as a synergist to bring about
the cross-legged position.
• Quadriceps group
➢ consists of four muscles, the rectus
femoris muscle and three vastus
muscles– that flesh out the anterior
thigh; the group as a whole Jacts to
extend the knee powerfully.
MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE ANKLE &
FOOT
• Tibialis anterior
➢ it arises from the upper tibia and then
parallels the anterior crest as it runs
to the tarsal bones.
• Extensor digitorum longus
➢ Lateral to the tibialis anterior, it is a
prime mover of toe extension and a
dorsiflexor of the foot.
• Fibularis muscles
➢ three fibularis muscles- longus,
brevis, and tertius- are found on the
lateral part of the leg; the group as a
whole plantar flexes and everts the
foot.
• Gastrocnemius
➢ forms the curved half of the posterior
leg; it is a prime mover for plantar
flexion of the foot.
• Soleus
➢ arises from the tibia and fibula, it
does not affect knee movement.
NERVE STIMULUS AND THE ACTION POTENTIAL filaments are slightly pulled toward
the center of the sarcomere.
• Neurotransmitter
➢ When a nerve impulse reaches the
axon terminals, a chemical referred to
as the neurotransmitter is released ;
the specific neurotransmitter that
stimulate skeletal muscle cells is
acetylcholine or ACh.
• Temporary permeability
➢ If enough acetylcholine is released, the
sarcolemma at that point becomes
temporarily more permeable sodium
ions, which rush in to the muscle cell,
and to potassium ions, which diffuse
out of the cell.
• Action potential
➢ More channels in the sarcolemma
open up to allow only sodium to enter,
which generates an electrical current
called an action potential.
• Break down of enzymes
➢ Acetylcholine, which began the
process of muscle contraction, is
broken down to acetic acid and choline
by enzymes present on the
sarcolemma.

MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION: THE

SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY

• Relaxed muscle cell

➢ the regulatory proteins forming part of
the actin myofilaments prevent
myosin binding; when an action
potential sweeps along its sarcolemma
and a muscle cell is excited, calcium
ions are released from intracellular
storage areas.
• Contraction trigger
➢ The flood of calcium acts as the final
trigger for contraction, because as
calcium binds to the regulatory
proteins on the actin filaments, they
change both their shape and their
position on the thin filaments.
• Attachment
➢ The physical attachment of myosin to
actin “springs the trap” causing the
myosin heads to snap toward the
center of the sarcomere; because actin
and myosin are firmly bound to each
other when this happens, the thin
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
➢ Composed of glands and cells that secrete the
chemical signals called hormones into the
plasma of the blood
➢ The hormones are secreted in response to
humoral, neural, or hormonal stimuli and
then travel in the blood plasma to target cells,
where they regulate homeostasis.
FUNCTIONS:
• Regulation of metabolism
• Control of food intake and digestion
• Modulation of tissue development
• Regulation of ion levels
• Control of water balance
• Changes in heart rate and blood pressure
• Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
• Control of reproductive functions
• Stimulation of uterine contractions and milk
release
• Modulation of immune system function
PITUITARY GLAND AND HYPOTHALAMUS
• Pituitary Gland
➢ Also called hypophysis (an
undergrowth). secretes nine major
hormones that regulate numerous
body functions and the secretory
activity of several other endocrine
glands.
➢ It rests in the sella tunica of the
sphenoid bone
➢ 1cm in diameter, weighing 0.5 – 1.0g
• Hypothalamus
➢ regulates the secretory activity of the
pituitary gland in response to other
hormones, sensory information, and
emotions.
STRUCTURE OF THE PITUITARY GLAND
PITUITARY GLAND
• Posterior Pituitary
➢ Also called neurohypophysis because
it is continuous with the hypothalamus
in the brain.
➢ Its hormones are called
neuropeptides, or neurohormones.
• Anterior Pituitary
➢ It is from oral cavity.
➢ The hormone secreted are traditional
hormones.
RELATIONSHIP OF THE PITUITARY GLAND TO THE
BRAIN: THE HYPOTHALAMUS
• Neurons of the hypothalamus produce
neurohormones.
• Stimulate called releasing hormones
• Decrease called inhibiting hormones
HORMONES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY
• Growth Hormone (GH)
➢ Responsible for growth
• Prolactin (PRL)
➢ Responsible for the growth for breast
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
➢ Regulates the endocrine activity of the
cortex portion of the adrenal gland.
• Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
➢ Also called thyrotropin hormone
influences the growth and activity of
the thyroid gland.
• Gonadotropic Hormone
➢ Regulate the hormonal activity of
gonads (ovaries and testes).
• Follicles-stimulating Hormone (FSH)
➢ Stimulates follicle development in the
ovaries. It produces estrogen and egg.
• Luteinizing Hormone
➢ Triggers ovulation of an egg from the
ovary and causes the ruptured follicle
to produce progesterone and some
estrogen.
HORMONES OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY
• Oxytocin
➢ released in significant amount only
during childbirth and in nursing
women.
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
 ➢ Causes the kidneys to reabsorb more
water from the forming of urine.
➢ Vasopressin increases blood pressure
by causing constriction of the
arterioles.
THYROID AND PARATHYROID GLANDS
Thyroid Glands
➢ Controls the rate at which glucose is
“burned” oxidized, and converted to
body heat and chemical energy.
Types of Thyroid hormones
• Thyroxine or T4
➢ Major hormone secreted by the
thyroid follicles.
• Triiodothyronine or T3
➢ Formed at the target tissues by
conversion of the thyroxine to
triiodothyronine.
Parathyroid Glands
➢ Mostly tiny masses of glandular tissue.
➢ Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) or
parathormone, which is the most
important regulator of calcium ion
homeostasis of the blood.
➢ Also stimulates the kidneys and
intestines to absorb more calcium.
ADRENAL GLANDS
- Also known as suprarenal glands. It produces
hormones that help regulate metabolism,
immune system, blood pressure, response to
stress and other essential functions.
- The adrenal cortex produces three major
groups of steroid hormones, which are
collectively called corticosteroids–
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex
hormones.
• Mineralocorticoids
➢ Help in regulating the water and
electrolyte balance in the body
• Renin
➢ An enzyme produced by the kidneys
when the blood pressure drops.
• Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP)
➢ Prevents aldosterone release, its goal
being to reduce blood volume and
blood pressure.
• Glucocorticoids
➢ Promote normal cell metabolism and
help the body to resist long-term
stressors. Also reduce pain and
inflammation by inhibiting some pain-
causing molecules called
prostaglandins.
• Sex Hormone
➢ Androgens (male sex hormone)
➢ Estrogens (female sex hormone)
PANCREATIC ISLETS
- The Islets of Langerhans, also called pancreatic
islets, are little masses of hormone-producing
tissue scattered among the pancreas's
enzyme-producing acinar tissue.
• Islet cells
➢ Acts as fuel sensors. Secreting insulin
and glucagon
• Beta cells
➢ High levels of glucose. Release of
insulin.
• Alpha cells
➢ Low blood glucose level. Release of
glucagon.
Hormones of Pancreatic Islets
• Insulin
➢ Its sweeps glucose out of the blood, its
effect is said to be hypoglycemic.
• Glucagon
➢ Acts as an antagonist of insulin; its
action is basically hyperglycemic.
PINEAL GLAND
- hangs from the roof of the brain’s third
ventricle.
• Melatonin
➢ the only hormone that appears.
➢ “sleep trigger” that plays an important
role in establishing the body’s day-
night cycle.
THYMUS GLANDS
➢ located in the upper thorax, posterior
to the sternum.
➢ produces a hormone called Thymosin
and the immune response.
GONADS

➢ produce sex hormones that are identical to

those produced by adrenal cortex cells; the
major difference are the source and
relative amount produced.

Hormones of the Ovaries

➢ Besides producing female sex cells, ovaries

produce two groups of steroid hormones.
• Estrogen
➢ Responsible for the development of sex
characteristics in women at puberty.
• Progesterone
➢ Acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle.

Hormones of the Testes

➢ male sex cells, or sperm, the testes also

produce male sex hormones, or
androgens, of which testosterone is the
most important.
• Testosterone
➢ It promotes the growth and maturation of
the reproductive system organs to prepare
the young man for reproduction.

PLACENTA

➢ a remarkable organ formed temporarily in

the uterus of pregnant women. Also
produces several proteins and steroid
hormones that help to maintain the
pregnancy and pave the way for the
delivery of the baby.

Placenta Hormone

• Human chorionic gonadotropin

➢ Produced by the developing embryo and
then by the fetal part of the placenta.
• Human placental lactogen (HPL)
➢ Preparing the breasts for lactation.
• Relaxin
➢ causes the mother’s pelvic ligaments and
the pubic symphysis to relax and become
more flexible, which eases birth passage.