CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM  Middle layer

 Mostly cardiac muscle

o Endocardium
The Cardiovascular System  Inner layer
 Endothelium
• A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
o The heart pumps blood
o Blood vessels allow blood to circulate
to all parts of the body
• The function of the cardiovascular system is to
deliver oxygen and nutrients and to remove
carbon dioxide and other waste products

The Heart

• Location
o Thorax between the lungs
o Pointed apex directed toward left hip
• About the size of your fist
o Less than 1 lb.

The Heart: Coverings

• Pericardium - a double serous membrane

o Visceral pericardium
 Next to heart
o Parietal pericardium
 Outside layer
 Endocardium
o Serous fluid fills the space between
the layers of pericardium

The Heart: Heart Wall

• Three layers The Heart: Valves

o Epicardium
 Outside layer • Allow blood to flow in only one direction
 This layer is the parietal • Four valves
pericardium o Atrioventricular valves - between atria
 Connective tissue layer and ventricles
o Myocardium  Bicuspid valve (left)
 Tricuspid valve (right)
 o Semilunar valves between ventricle • Atrioventricular bundle (Bundle of His)
and artery • Bundle branches (right and left)
 Pulmonary semilunar valve • Purkinje fibers
 Aortic semilunar valve
• Valves open as blood is pumped through
• Held in place by chordae tendineae ("heart
strings")
• Close to prevent backflow

Valve Pathology

• Incompetent valve = backflow and repump

• Stenosis = stiff= heart workload increased
• May be replaced
• Lup Dub Heart Sound

The Heart: Associated Great Vessels

• Aorta
o Leaves left ventricle
• Pulmonary arteries
o Leave right ventricle Electrocardiograms (EKG/ECG)
• Vena cava • Three formations
o Enters right atrium o P wave: impulse across atria
 Pulmonary veins (four) o QRS complex: spread of impulse down
o Enter left atrium septum, around ventricles in Purkinje
Coronary Circulation fibers
o T wave: end of electrical activity in
• Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish ventricles
the myocardium
• The heart has its own nourishing circulatory Pathology of the Heart
system • Damage to AV node = release of ventricles
o Coronary arteries from control = slower heart beat
o Cardiac veins • Slower heart beat can lead to fibrillation
o Blood empties into the right atrium • Fibrillation = lack of blood flow to the heart
via the coronary sinus • Tachycardia = more than 100 beats/min
Cardiac Pathology • Bradychardia = less than 60 beats/min

• Rapid heart beat

• = Inadequate blood
• = Angina Pectoris
The Heart: Cardiac Cycle

• Atria contract simultaneously

The Heart: Conduction System • Atria relax, then ventricles contract
• Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system) • Systole = contraction
o Heart muscle cells contract, without • Diastole = relaxation
nerve impulses, in a regular,
continuous way
• Special tissue sets the pace
o Sinoatrial node (right atrium)
 Pacemaker
• Atrioventricular node (junction of r&l atria
and ventricles)

The Heart: Cardiac Output
• Cardiac output (CO)
o Amount of blood pumped by each
side of the heart in one minute
o CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke
volume [SV])
• Stroke volume
o Volume of blood pumped by each
ventricle in one contraction
• CO= HR x SV
o 5250 ml/min = 75 beats/min x 70
mls/beat
o Norm = 5000 ml/min
• Entire blood supply passes through body once
per minute.
• CO varies with demands of the body.
 Thyroxine
o Exercise
o Decreased blood volume
• Decreased heart rate
o Parasympathetic nervous system
o High blood pressure or blood volume
o Decreased venous return
o In Congestive Heart Failure the heart
is worn out and pumps weakly.
Digitalis works to provide a slow,
steady, but stronger beat
Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
• Decline in pumping efficiency of heart
• Inadequate circulation
• Progressive, also coronary atherosclerosis,
high blood pressure and history of multiple
Myocardial Infarctions
• Left side fails = pulmonary congestion and
suffocation
• Right side fails = peripheral congestion and
edema
Blood Vessels: The Vascular System

• Taking blood to the tissues and back

o Arteries
o Arterioles
o Capillaries
o Venules
o Veins

The Heart: Regulation of Heart Rate

• Stroke volume usually remains relatively

constant
o Starling's law of the heart - the more
that the cardiac muscle is stretched,
the stronger the contraction
• Changing heart rate is the most common way
to change cardiac output

Regulation of Heart Rate

• Increased heart rate Blood Vessels: Anatomy

o Sympathetic nervous system
 Crisis • Three layers (tunics)
 Low blood pressure o Tunic intima
o Hormones  Endothelium
 Epinephrine o Tunic media
  Smooth muscle • Repiratory Rate
 Controlled by sympathetic • Body Temperature
nervous system • All indicate the efficiency of the system
o Tunic externa
Pulse
 Mostly fibrous connective
tissue • Pulse - pressure
wave of blood
Differences Between Blood Vessel Types
• Monitored at
• Walls of arteries are the thickest "pressure points"
• Lumens of veins are larger where pulse is
• Skeletal muscle "milks" blood in veins toward easily palpated
the heart
• Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer thick
to allow for exchanges between blood and
tissue

Movement of Blood
Blood Pressure
Through Vessels
• Measurements by health professionals are
• Most arterial blood
made on the pressure in large arteries
is pumped by the
o Systolic - pressure at the peak of
heart
• Veins use the ventricular contraction
milking action of o Diastolic - pressure when ventricles
muscles to help relax
move blood • Pressure in blood vessels decreases as the
distance away from the heart increases

Capillary Beds

• Capillary beds consist of two types of vessels

o Vascular shunt - directly connects an
arteriole to a venule

Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors

• Neural factors
o Autonomic nervous system
adjustments (sympathetic division)
• Renal factors
o Regulation by altering blood volume
o Renin - hormonal control

Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors

Vital Signs
• Temperature
• Arterial pulse o Heat has a vasodilation effect
• Blood pressure
 o Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
• Chemicals
o Various substances can cause
increases or decreases
• Diet

Variations in Blood Pressure

• Human normal range is variable

o Normal
 140-110 mm Hg systolic
 80-75 mm Hg diastolic
o Hypotension
 Low systolic (below 110 mm
HG) Often associated with
illness
o Hypertension
 High systolic (above 140 mm
HG)
 Can be dangerous if it is
chronic

DIGESTIVE
The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
• Digestion
o Breakdown of ingested food
• Absorption
o Passage of nutrients into the blood
• Metabolism
o Production of cellular energy (ATP)
Organs of the Digestive System
• Two main groups
1. Alimentary canal - continuous coiled
hollow tube
2. Accessory digestive organs
Organs of the Alimentary Canal
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Anus
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
• Lips (labia) - protect the anterior opening
• Cheeks - form the lateral walls
• Hard palate - forms the anterior roof
• Soft palate - forms the posterior roof
• Uvula – fleshy projection of the soft palate
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
• Vestibule-space between lips externally and
teeth and gums internally
• Oral cavity - area contained by the teeth
• Tongue - Tongue attached at hyoid and styloid
processes of the skull, and by the lingual
frenulum
• Tonsils
o Palatine tonsils
o Lingual tonsil
Processes of the Mouth
• Mastication (chewing) of food
• Mixing masticated food with salival
• Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
• Allowing for the sense of taste
Pharynx Anatomy
• Nasopharynx- not part of the digestive system
• Oropharynx - posterior to oral cavity
• Laryngopharynx- below the oropharynx and
connected to the esophagus
Pharynx Function
• Serves as a passageway for air and food
• Food is propelled to the esophagus by two
muscle layers
o Longitudinal inner layer
o Circular outer layer
• Food movement is by alternating contractions
of the muscle layers (peristalsis)
Esophagus
• Runs from pharynx to stomach through the
diaphragm
• Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic
squeezing)
• Passageway for food only (respiratory system
branches off after the pharynx)
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organ
• Mucosa
o Innermost layer
o Moist membrane
 Surface epithelium
 Small amount of connective
tissue (lamina propria)
 Small smooth muscle layer
• Submucosa
o Just beneath the mucosa
 o Soft connective tissue with blood
vessels, nerve endings, and lymphatics
• Muscularis externa - smooth muscle
o Inner circular layer Stomach Functions
o Outer longitudinal layer
• Acts as a storage tank for food
• Serosa
• Site of food breakdown
o Outermost layer - visceral peritoneum
• Chemical breakdown of protein begins
o Layer of serous fluid-producing cells
• Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small
intestine

Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach

• Simple columnar epithelium

o Mucous neck cells - produce a sticky
alkaline mucus
o Gastric glands - secrete gastric juice
o Chief cells - produce protein-digesting
enzymes (pepsinogens)
o Parietal cells - produce hydrochloric
acid
o Endocrine cells - produce gastrin

Structure of the Stomach Mucosa

Stomach Anatomy • Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa
• Located on the left side of the abdominal • Glands and specialized cells are in the gastric
cavity gland region
• Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
• Regions of the stomach
o Cardiac region - near the heart
o Fundus
o Body
o Phylorus - funnel-shaped terminal end
• Food empties into the small intestine at the
pyloric sphincter
• Rugae - internal folds of the mucosa
• External regions
o Lesser curvature
o Greater curvature
• Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach
o Lesser omentum - attaches the liver to
the lesser curvature
o Greater omentum - attaches the
Small Intestine
greater curvature to the posterior
body wall • The body's major digestive organ
o Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and • Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
protect abdominal organs • Muscular tube extending form the pyloric
sphincter to the ileocecal valve
• Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall
by the mesentery

Subdivisions of the Small Intestine "Dogs Just Itch!

• Duodenum
 o Attached to the stomach
o Curves around the head of the
pancreas
• Jejunum
o Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
• lleum
o Extends from jejunum to large
intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
• Source of enzymes that are mixed with chyme
o Intestinal cells
o Pancreas
• Bile enters from the gall bladder
Villi of the Small Intestine
• Fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa
• Give the small intestine more surface area
Microvilli of the Small Intestine
• Small projections of the plasma membrane
• Found on absorptive cells
Structures Involved in Absorption of Nutrients
• Absorptive cells
• Blood capillaries
• Lacteals (specialized
lymphatic
capillaries)
Folds of the Small Intestine
• Called circular folds or plicae circulares
• Deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa
• Do not disappear when filled with food
• The submucosa has Peyer's patches
(collections of lymphatic tissue)
Digestion in the Small Intestine
• Enzymes from the brush border
o Break double sugars into simple
sugars
o Complete some protein digestion
• Pancreatic enzymes play the major digestive
function
o Help complete digestion of starch
(pancreatic amylase)
o Carry out about half of all protein
digestion (trypsin, etc.)
• Pancreatic enzymes play the major digestive
function (continued)
o Responsible for fat digestion (lipase)
o Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)
o Alkaline content neutralizes acidic
chyme
Absorption in the Small Intestine
• Water is absorbed along the length of the
small intestine
• End products of digestion
o Most substances are absorbed by
active transport through cell
membranes
o Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
• Substances are transported to the liver by the
hepatic portal vein or lymph
Propulsion in the Small Intestine
• Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
• Segmental movements
o Mix chyme with digestive juices
o Aid in propelling food
Large Intestine
• Larger in diameter, but shorter than the small
intestine
• Frames the internal abdomen
 Salivary Glands

• Saliva-producing glands
o Parotid glands - located anterior to
Functions of the Large Intestine
ears
• Absorption of water o Submandibular glands
• Eliminates indigestible food from the body as o Sublingual glands
feces
Saliva
• Does not participate in digestion of food
• Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a • Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
lubricant o Helps to form a food bolus
• Contains salivary amylase to begin starch
Structures of the Large Intestine
digestion
• Cecum - saclike first part of the large intestine • Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
• Appendix
Teeth
o Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that
sometimes becomes inflamed • The role is to masticate (chew) food
(appendicitis) • Humans have two sets of teeth
o Hangs from the cecum o Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
• Colon o 20 teeth are fully formed by age two
o Ascending • Permanent teeth
o Transverse o Replace deciduous teeth beginning
o Descending between the ages of 6 to 12
o S-shaped sigmoidal o A full set is 32 teeth, but some people
• Rectum do not have wisdom teeth
• Anus external body opening
Classification of Teeth
Food Breakdown and Absorption the Large Intestine
• Incisors
• No digestive enzymes are produced • Canines
• Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients • Premolars
o Produce some vitamin K and B • Molars
o Release gases
• Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
• Remaining materials are eliminated via feces

Propulsion in the Large Intestine

• Sluggish peristalsis
• Mass movements
o Slow, powerful movements
o Occur three to four times per day
• Presence of feces in the rectum causes a
defecation reflex
o Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
o Defecation occurs with relaxation of
the voluntary (external) anal sphincter

Accessory Digestive Organs Regions of a Tooth

• Salivary glands • Crown – exposed part

• Teeth o Outer enamel
• Pancreas o Dentin
• Liver o Pulp cavity
• Gall bladder • Neck
 o Region in contact with the gum • Bile is introduced into the duodenum in the
o Connects crown to root presence of fatty food
• Root • Gallstones can cause blockages
o Periodontal
Processes of the Digestive System
membrane attached to the bone
o Root canal carrying blood vessels and • Ingestion - getting food into the mouth
nerves • Propulsion - moving foods from one region of
the digestive system to another
Pancreas
• Peristalsis - alternating waves of contraction
• Produces a wide spectrum of digestive • Segmentation - moving materials back and
enzymes that break down all categories of forth to aid in mixing
food • Mechanical digestion
• Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum o Mixing of food in the mouth by the
• Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes tongue
neutralizes acidic chyme o Churning of food in the stomach
• Endocrine products of pancreas o Segmentation in the small intestine
o Insulin • Chemical Digestion
o Glucagons o Enzymes break down food molecules
into their building blocks
Liver o Each major food group uses different
• Largest gland in the body enzymes
• Located on the right side of the body under  Carbohydrates are broken to
the diaphragm simple sugars
• Consists of four lobes suspended from the  Proteins are broken to amino
diaphragm and abdominal wall by the acids
falciform ligament  Fats are broken to fatty acids
• Connected to the gall bladder via the common and alcohols
hepatic duct • Absorption
o End products of digestion are
Bile absorbed in the blood or lymph
• Produced by cells in the liver o Food must enter mucosal cells and
• Composition then into blood or lymph capillaries
o Bile salts • Defecation
o Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from o Elimination of indigestible substances
the breakdown of hemoglobin) as feces
o Cholesterol
o Phospholipids
o Electrolytes

Role of the Liver in Metabolism

• Several roles in digestion

• Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
• Degrades hormones
• Produce cholesterol, blood proteins (albumin
and clotting proteins)
• Plays a central role in metabolism

Gall Bladder

• Sac found in hollow fossa of liver

• Stores bile from the liver by way of the cystic
duct
Control of Digestive Activity

• Mostly controlled by reflexes via the

parasympathetic division
• Chemical and mechanical receptors are
located in organ walls that trigger reflexes
• Stimuli include:
o Stretch of the organ
o pH of the contents
o Presence of breakdown products
• Reflexes include:
o Activation or inhibition of glandular
secretions
o Smooth muscle activity

Nutrition - Take a Class!

• Nutrient - substance used by the body for

growth, maintenance, and repair
• Categories of nutrients
o Carbohydrates: simple sugars,
starches, fiber
o Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids,
fatty acids
o Proteins: amino acids
o Vitamins

Body Energy Balance

• Energy intake = total energy output (heat +

work + energy storage)
o Energy intake is liberated during food
oxidation
o Energy output
 Heat is usually about 60%
 Storage energy is in the form
of fat or glycogen