Forensic Science International 219 (2012) 290.e1–290.

e7

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Forensic Science International

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/forsciint

Forensic Anthropology Population Data

Estimating sex of the human skeleton based on metrics of the sternum

Rosanne Bongiovanni *, M. Katherine Spradley
Department of Anthropology, 601 University Drive, Texas State University – San Marcos, San Marcos, TX 78666, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Estimating the sex of skeletal remains is critical in creating the biological profile of an adult individual.
Received 10 January 2011 Previous research has shown that analyzing the sternum may lead to an accurate estimation of sex based
Received in revised form 28 August 2011 on studies performed on various populations around the globe, such as Indian, European, African,
Accepted 30 November 2011
Canadian and North American. The motivation of the current study is to develop classification functions
Available online 29 December 2011
and sectioning points for use in forensic investigations in the United States. The majority of previously
published methods are population specific, meaning the data would not prove useful in the United States
Keywords:
[8–12,14,16–23].
Forensic anthropology
Sex estimation
For this study, sternal measurements were collected from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal
Sternum Collection located at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville following the metric definitions provided by
Forensic anthropology population data Schwartz [41] and Bass [35]. This collection consists of recent skeletal remains with known age at death,
ancestry and sex. Material for the present study consisted of 410 human sterna: 285 male (256 American
White/29 American Black) and 125 female (120 American White/5 American Black).
Previous studies [8,9,12,17,18,23] analyze the applicability of Hyrtl’s law in the estimation of sex. This
law follows that the mesosternum is greater than twice the length of the manubrium in males and in
females the length of the manubrium is greater than half the length of the mesosternum. In this study,
comparisons of the proportion of the length of the manubrium to the length of the mesosternum were
performed to determine if Hrytl’s law is applicable in an American population. Comparisons of these
measurements between individuals identified as American Black and American White were analyzed to
determine whether this method could be used on both population groups. Further, discriminant function
analysis was used to estimate sex and provide a population specific classification function for use in the
United States.
The discriminate function analysis produced an overall cross-validation classification rate of 84.12%
for sex estimation. The cross-validation classification rate for males and females was 80.00% and 88.24%,
respectively.
ß 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction pelvis is ‘‘fragile and susceptible to damage’’ (385). Moreover, the

Estimating the sex of skeletal remains is a critical facet in
creating the biological profile of an adult individual. The biological
profile consists of an individual’s age, sex, stature and ancestry.
Traditionally, forensic anthropologists rely primarily on methods
of sex assessment based on analyses of the pelvis and skull, which
are considered to be highly accurate [1,2]. Relying heavily on these
two areas within a forensic context is limiting, because they are
subject to trauma, prone to taphonomic processes, or may not be
present [3]. For instance, Walker [4] states that while the pelvis is
considered the most reliable element to use for sex estimation, the
* Corresponding author at: Department of Anthropology, 32 Campus Drive,
University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States. Tel.: +1 561 702 7739.
E-mail addresses: rosanne.bongiovanni@umontana.edu (R. Bongiovanni),
mks@txstate.edu (M.K. Spradley).
skull has been proven to be less accurate than previously believed,
achieving lower accuracy rates than postcranial elements using
metric analyses [5]. Therefore, alternative elements of the skeleton
need to be investigated as potential indicators of sex.
The pelvis is not always recovered in a forensic context or may
be too incomplete to visually assess sex. According to data
obtained from the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank (FDB)
(courtesy of Dr. Richard L. Jantz), out of 1553 cases that include
an inventory of skeletal remains, the recovery rate of the
manubrium and sternum is just over 59%. With a high recovery
rate in a forensic context, the sternum is potentially a useful
element in anthropological analyses.
To date, different methods have been developed utilizing select
parts of the skeleton in order to assess or estimate the sex of the
individual. Previous researchers have found the sternum to provide
an accurate estimation of sex [6–23], however, the majority of prior
research utilized skeletal remains from populations outside of the

0379-0738/$ – see front matter ß 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.11.034
290.e2 R. Bongiovanni, M.K. Spradley / Forensic Science International 219 (2012) 290.e1–290.e7

United States, such as Canada, India and Europe. Because variations

in sexual dimorphism are population specific [4,24–27], the data
from various Canadian, Indian, or European population samples may
not provide reliable estimates for the United States population. The
Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH),
which identifies ‘‘best practices’’ within all aspects of the discipline,
proposes that sex estimation methods should be population specific
[28]. The goals of this paper are to evaluate the applicability of the
sternum for sex estimation of adult skeletal remains in the United
States, and to expand the current methods using a recent sample
from the United States.
The earliest known research on sexual dimorphism of the
sternum, as mentioned in Krause [29], dates to the late 18th
century. Wenzel [42] compared the ratio between the lengths of
the manubrium and mesosternum of males and females [29]. A
century later, both Dwight [7] and Hyrtl [30,31] conducted similar
tests on the sternum and recognized the pattern of a 1:2 ratio in
females and 2:1 ratio in males. This discovery prompted the
creation of Hyrtl’s Law, which states, ‘‘the manubrium of the
female sternum exceeds half the length of the body, while the
body in the male sternum is, at least, twice as long as the
manubrium’’ (as quoted in [6]:327). Contemporarily, Strauch [32],
Petermoller [33], and Bogusat [34] each performed additional
research on the sternum, with results generally verifying Hyrtl’s
Fig. 1. Measurements of the sternum provided by [35]: 112, Fig. 64. Measurements
Law, however, exceptions did exist such as considerable overlap
are as follows: 24 – manubrium length; 25 – mesosternum length; 26 – sternebra 1
between the sexes and a common trend where the mean was width; 27 – sternebra 3 width.
found to be useful but not the individual measurement. This Law
continues to be taught as true, regardless of the many studies that
found it to be unreliable [8–10,12,14,17,18,21,23]. Therefore, definitions presented in Bass [35]. These definitions correspond to
Hyrtl’s Law will be tested on a recent sample from the United the illustration provided in Fig. 1.
States.
Emulating the researched performed by Dahiphale et al. [17], the  Manubrium length (ML*): the distance from the jugular notch to
hypothesis of this study is that (1) in male samples, the the sagittal midpoint of the manubriosternal joint [35].
mesosternum will be greater than twice the length of the  Mesosternum length (BL*): the distance from the sternal angle to
manubrium in a recent population from the United States, and (2) the sagittal midpoint of the xiphisternal joint [35].
in female samples, the length of the manubrium will be greater than  Sternebra 1 width (S1W*): the distance between the left and the
half the length of the mesosternum in a recent population from the right first sternebra (depressions between the articulation
United States. These measurements will then be compared to notches for the second and third costal cartilage) [35].
individuals identified as American Black and American White to  Sternebra 3 width (S3W*): the distance between the left and right
determine whether population differences exist between these two third sternebra (depressions between the articulation notches
groups. Ultimately, the goal of this research is to provide a for the fourth and fifth costal cartilage) [35].
classification function for forensic anthropologists to utilize.
Additionally, this study will test (1) sexual dimorphism of the
sternum between American Black and American White popula- * Abbreviations added by author.
tions, (2) the sternum as a reliable indicator of sex for recent While taking the measurements, the sternum was held at a
skeletal remains in the United States, and (3) provide a right angle to the digital calipers. For sterna that were unfused, the
discriminate function for forensic anthropologists in the United calipers were positioned spanning the entire thickness of bone, and
States to use for sex estimation. measurements were not taken from the edge of the anterior
surface. Fusion of the manubrium and mesosternum, and of the
2. Materials and methods mesosternum and xiphoid process, presented uncertainties while
taking measurements, and thus were considered estimated
Material for the present study consisted of 410 human sterna: measurements. Measurements were taken only if a partial fusion
285 male (256 American White/29 American Black) and 125 or a fusion scar was present, and examples of the different types of
female (120 American White/5 American Black). The specimens fusion are provided in Fig. 2. Measurements were not taken in
were measured at the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection specimens if the line of fusion could not be determined. If the
located at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, a collection of manubrium was fused to the mesosternum, a mark was made at
recent skeletal remains with known age at death, ancestry and sagittal midpoint of the manubriosternal joint so that both
sex. The individuals represented in this sample exemplify a manubrium length and mesosternum length may be acquired. If
population with birth years spanning from 1903 to 1983. Sterna the mesosternum was fused to the xiphoid process, a mark was
from American Black and American White males and females that made at sagittal midpoint of the xiphisternal joint in order to
were fully ossified were measured. Any sterna with signs of acquire the mesosternum length. Any estimated measurements
pathology, trauma, extreme variation, and/or postmortem dam- were noted in the data and were not used in the statistical analysis.
age that interfered with the integrity of the bone, and therefore an It is important to note that these measurements are not maximum
accurate measurement, were not used. A Mitutoyo Digimatic lengths. Following the definitions, measurements were taken at
Caliper1 was used to take the measurements. Measurements sagittal midpoint for manubrium length and mesosternum length,
were taken in millimeters, with precision of 0.01 mm, according to regardless of whether the bone was longer on the left or right sides.
 R. Bongiovanni, M.K. Spradley / Forensic Science International 219 (2012) 290.e1–290.e7
Fig. 2. Examples of different types of fusion: (A) unfused manubrium and mesosternum, (B) fused mesosternum and xiphoid process with arrow detailing partial fusion.
The sternebra widths follow this design as well. The measurements
were taken at midpoint of the first and third sternebra on each side of
the specimen. In most specimens, the right and left sides of the
sternebra were perpendicular to the length of the mesosternum. In
some cases, however, the right and left sides were not perpendicular
to the sagittal plane of the mesosternum. In these cases, excluding
extreme variations, measurements were still obtained. In addition,
various specimens contained a fracture across the anterior side of
the mesosternum. The fracture did not exhibit signs of healing and
may possibly be attributed to CPR efforts at or around the time of
death. As long as the posterior surface of the mesosternum was
complete, the mesosternum length was recorded if the author felt
that the integrity of the bone was not compromised. Lastly, the total
length of the sternum was calculated by summing the manubrium
length and mesosternum length. Again, no estimated values were
used to calculate this value. Pictures of the sterna were taken with a
Canon Powershotß SD400.
2.1. Intra-observer error
Before testing the main hypotheses of this study an intra-
observer test was performed.
Test-retest reliability of the sample was conducted after the
measurements were taken in order to test intra-observer variation. A
retest sample includes a subsample of the data to be re-measured at
a different point in time in order to discover the reliability of the test.
Thirty complete sterna were selected at random of which all four
measurements could be collected. These thirty sterna were split into
two groups of fifteen to be re-measured. The two sets of data for the
test-retest were entered into SPSS 16.0 to calculate the correlation
co-efficient between variables. A Spearman’s rho correlation
analysis was run to discover whether the correlation between the
two data sets is significant at the 0.01 and 0.05 two-tailed level.
2.2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for population group differences
Next, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) using PROC GLM (the
general linear model) in SAS 9.1.3 was calculated to ascertain if
there are ancestry specific differences between American White
290.e3
males and American Black males. The results of the ANOVA will
specify whether or not there is a need for separate discriminant
functions for American White males and American Black males.
Insufficient data were gathered from American Black females to
include in the analysis. The assumption was made that if there is a
significant difference between American White males and Ameri-
can Black males, the same would hold true for American White and
Black females.
In order to test if the sternum can provide accurate sex
estimation, univariate and multivariate tests were conducted.
With the understanding that forensic cases do not always contain
complete and normal sterna, univariate analyses were used in
order to evaluate whether there is a difference between males and
females with each variable separately using sectioning points.
Averaging the means of the male and female measurements for
each variable created sectioning points. The multivariate test
included using a discriminant function analysis to find out which
variables provide the best measures for discrimination of sex.
2.3. Sectioning points
Descriptive statistics were calculated in order to create
sectioning points for each variable by utilizing the functions in
Microsoft Excel 2008. Each variable was separated by sex, and the
sample size, mean, standard deviation, sectioning point, frequency
rate, and overall classification rate were calculated. The results
from the univariate analysis that are greater than the sectioning
point are considered male individuals, and results that are less
than the sectioning point are considered female individuals, with
results that are equal to the sectioning point being classified as
indeterminate.
2.4. Discriminant function analysis (DFA)
A stepwise discriminant (PROC STEPDISC) function was
performed in order to find out which variables provide the best
measures for discrimination of sex. This was followed by a linear
discriminant function (PROC DISCRIM) analysis (DFA). These two
analyses were run in SAS 9.1.3. The DFA maximizes between-group
290.e4 R. Bongiovanni, M.K. Spradley / Forensic Science International 219 (2012) 290.e1–290.e7
differences, and reduces error rates by excluding the sample being
classified from the function. This produces cross-validation
classification rates [36,37]. The linear discriminant function scores
were then utilized to generate a classification function. The
classification function is a formula that allows a user to input their
sternal measurements and estimate whether the individual is male
or female. The cross-validation classification rates indicate how
well the classification function performs.
2.5. Sternal index
Lastly, the sternal index was calculated in Excel by creating a
formula that divided the length of the manubrium by the length of
the mesosternum and multiplied by 100, following the definition
provided by Hunnargi et al. [23]. The average of the sternal index for
males and females were compared to see if there was a significant
difference between the two sexes. According to Hyrtl’s Law, the
sectioning point should be 50%, since the ratio of manubrium to
mesosternum is thought to be 2:1 in males. In addition to this
sectioning point, the male and female mean were divided by two in
order to generate a true sectioning point, separate from that
conforming to Hyrtl’s Law. In this case, however, values below the
sectioning point indicate male, and values above the sectioning
point indicate females, with values equaling the sectioning point
considered indeterminate. The frequency rate, or the percentage of
sterna that were correctly classified utilizing the sectioning point,
was taken into account to decide whether or not the sternal index
would prove to be a useful method in estimating sex of the sterna.
3. Results
3.1. Intra-observer error
The Spearman’s rho correlation analysis provided a near perfect
positive linear relationship. The two data sets for ML, BL and S1W
had a correlation coefficient of 0.998, which was significant at the
0.01 confidence level. The two data sets for S3W were also significant
at the 0.01 confidence level, with a correlation coefficient of 0.997.
This indicates the reliability of this method is very high.
3.2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for population group differences
The ANOVA using the PROC GLM produced a p-value of 0.13,
indicating no significant difference between American White
males and American Black males. Therefore, American White
males and American Black males were grouped together in
subsequent analyses. In addition, because there were not enough
females to run this analysis between population groups, the
assumption was made that no difference existed between
American White females and American Black females and they
were also pooled for all further analyses.
3.3. Sectioning points
Sectioning points are listed in Table 2 for each measurement.
Values falling above the sectioning point are male, below are
female, and values equal to the sectioning point are indeterminate.
For manubrium length, the sample size includes 234 males and
104 females. The mean is 51.84 mm in males and 48.24 mm in
females with a standard deviation of 4.93 mm and 3.98 mm,
respectively, with a sectioning point of 50.04 mm. The classification
rate for males is 61% and 68% for females, with an overall
classification rate of 64.50%.
For mesosternum length, the sample size includes 103 males
and 40 females. The mean is 104.80 mm in males and 89.38 mm in
females with a standard deviation of 9.83 mm and 8.33 mm,
Table 1
Cross-validated classification rates for females and males by variable.
Variable Female (n) Male (n) Female (%) Male (%) Overall (%)
ML, BL, S1W 35 89 85.71 79.78 82.75
All variables 34 85 88.24 80.00 84.12
respectively, with a sectioning point of 97.09 mm. The classification
rate for males is 80% and 77% for females, with an overall classification
rate of 78.50%.
For sternebra 1 width, the sample size includes 255 males and
114 females. The mean is 27.35 mm in males and 24.29 mm in
females with a standard deviation of 4.22 mm and 3.20 mm,
respectively, with a sectioning point of 25.82 mm. The classification
rate for males is 61% and 71% for females, with an overall
classification rate of 66%.
For sternebra 3 width, the sample size includes 249 males and
109 females. The mean is 34.47 mm in males and 30.15 mm in
females with a standard deviation of 6.33 mm and 4.91 mm,
respectively, with a sectioning point of 32.31 mm. The classification
rate for males is 58% and 68% for females, with an overall
classification rate of 63%.
For total length, the sample size includes 91 males and 36
females. The mean is 154.97 mm in males and 136.75 mm in
females with a standard deviation of 10.85 mm and 8.23 mm,
respectively, with a sectioning point of 145.86 mm. The classification
rate for males is 77% and 86% for females, with an overall
classification rate of 81.50%.
Adopting methods from previous research [8,12,14,17], a
‘‘Rule’’ was calculated for the total length. The midpoint of the
overlap section between the two sexes is found, and treated as a
sectioning point. For this sample, no male has a total length that is
less than 132.43 mm and no female has a total length that is
greater than 158.9 mm. Therefore, the overlap section between the
two sexes is 132.44–158.8 mm. The midpoint of the overlap
section is 145.62 mm. The corresponding rule then is the ‘‘145
Rule’’. This rule is very similar to the original sectioning point of
145.86 mm. In using the rule, however, any value between
145.00 mm and 145.99 mm is considered indeterminate. As a
result, the frequency rate is 82% for males and 83% for females, with
an overall classification rate of 82.50%.
3.4. Discriminant function analysis (DFA)
Significant differences were found between sexes according to
the PROC DISCRIM for both male and female individuals, at p < .001
(Table 1). According to the stepwise results, all variables provide the
highest classification rate of 84.12% (Table 1). Therefore, the
discriminant function analysis was run using all variables. The
classification rates can be found in Table 2. A linear discriminant
function for sex was calculated and resulted in the following
formula:
y = (ML  0.1706) + (BL  0.17032) + (S1W  0.24504) + (S3W  -
0.06407) + 28.97601, where y equals the discriminant function
score. To use this formula, multiply each measurement by the factor
provided above, take the sum of those values, and add the constant.
The sectioning point for this formula is zero (0), negative values are
considered females and positive values are considered males, with
values equaling zero (0) being indeterminate. The overall classifica-
tion rate is 84.12%.
3.5. Sternal index
The sternal index for males ranged from 36.30% to 66.91%, with a
mean of 48.81%. The sternal index for females ranged from 40.34% to
69.41%, with a mean of 53.68%. While differences are obvious in the
 R. Bongiovanni, M.K. Spradley / Forensic Science International 219 (2012) 290.e1–290.e7 290.e5

Table 2
Descriptive statistics, sectioning points, and overall classification rates for all variables.

Female Male

Variable n Mean StdDev %Correct n Mean StdDev %Correct Sect. point Overall classification rate (%)

ML 104 48.24 3.98 68 234 51.84 4.93 61 50.04 64.50

BL 40 89.38 8.33 77 103 104.80 9.83 80 97.09 78.50
S1W 114 24.29 3.20 71 255 27.35 4.22 61 25.82 66
S3W 109 30.15 4.91 68 249 34.47 6.33 58 32.31 63
Total length 36 136.75 8.23 86 91 154.97 10.85 77 145.86 81.50

Table 3 The present results are noteworthy in that they provide a

Sternal Index mean for females and males with corresponding frequencies and
sectioning points.
Female
n 36
Mean 53.68%
Frequency: sectioning point 50% 55.6%
Frequency: sectioning point 51.25% 52.78%
sternal index means, there is considerable overlap among males and
females. Following Hyrtl’s Law, a sectioning point of 50% yields a
frequency rate of 61% in males and 55.6% in females. This indicates
that out of the 92 males and 36 females included in this sample, 61%
of males and 55.6% of females were correctly identified using the
sternal index. Therefore, 52 individuals, or 40.6%, of this sample was
incorrectly identified utilizing this law.
Alternatively, the sectioning point derived by averaging the
means of the male and female sternal index is 51.25%. This
produces a frequency rate for females of 52.78%, which indicates
that out of the 36 females included in the sample, 52.78% were
correctly identified as females using the sternal index. The
frequency rate for males is 67.39%, which indicates that out of
the 92 males included in this sample, 67.39% were correctly
identified as males using the sternal index. This means 47
individuals, or 36.72%, of this sample was incorrectly identified.
This information can also be found in Table 3.
4. Discussion
The more options a forensic anthropologist has to employ in
estimating the sex of skeletal remains, the better. Even though
there are valid and reliable methods currently in use, such as the
Phenice technique [1], an additional technique may help in cases
where those methods do not apply due to missing or damaged
elements because of trauma and/or taphonomic changes. This is
not to say the more methods employed, the more accurate the
results. For instance, studies have shown that the pelvis alone can
provide a 95% accuracy rate when assessing sex using the Phenice
technique, and a 96% accuracy rate when assessing sex using the
ventral arc [1,2]. While the pelvis produces a high accuracy rate, it
may be missing or unable to be used in some forensic contexts due
to trauma or taphonomy. For that reason, discovering whether or
not the sternum may be a reliable element from which to estimate
sex is important.
Overall, there was general concurrence between the previous
studies and the present study as to which measurement or
methods prove most and least reliable for sex estimation.
Manubrium length, sternebra 1 width, sternebra 3 width and
the sternal index were found to contain either too much overlap
between sexes, or not enough difference between the mean values
of the sample to prove useful. On the other hand, mesosternum
length and total sternal length prove useful, with the discriminant
function analysis providing the most reliable indicator of sex
(Tables 2 and 3).
reliable tool for forensic anthropologists and other professionals to
utilize in the United States. The measurements taken in this study
Male are well defined, and therefore individuals with less experience
92 may utilize these methods with reliable results. With the DFA
48.81% providing an overall cross-validated classification rate of 84.12%,
61% and a classification rate of 81.50% for TL, forensic anthropologists
67.39%
may now use the sternum for sex estimation on the current
population in the United States, when elements such as the pelvis
are not recovered or too damaged to utilize. More importantly, the
classification rates, frequency rates and other statistical analyses
presented in this study allow the user to assess how well this
technique performs, thus addressing the Daubert Ruling [38,39].
Currently, there is an issue in the field of forensic anthropology
over the legal admissibility of certain methods utilized by
professionals. Through the efforts of organizations such as the
Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology, or SWGANTH,
many other methods are taking on the form observed in this study,
such as utilizing metric data and statistical analysis, in order to
generate techniques that conform to the current scientific
standards, or ‘‘best practices’’ expected of any and all scientists
and practitioners who develop and apply the technique [38].
The present research confirms that the sternum exhibits sexual
dimorphism in an American sample. With the data collected for
this research, a recent sample from the United States was able to be
compared to various populations around the world such as Europe
[8,10,14,16], India [12,17,18,21,23], East Africa [8], Canada [19],
and other populations in the United States. Not only do the data
vary spatially, but temporally as well.
Utilizing all of the studies, the lowest measurements for male
sterna were observed in the East African population, followed by
Indian, European, and the United States, with the highest values for
male sterna reported in Canada. The lowest values for female
sterna were observed in the Indian populations, followed by East
Africa, the United States, and Europe, with the highest values for
females were reported in Canada. Therefore, the general trend
indicates that sterna from East African and Indian populations are,
on average, smaller than sterna from European, United States, and
Canadian populations.
Analysis of the previous studies revealed certain discrepancies
in the data for average total length. For instance, in the European
populations, attention is brought onto Mall et al. [16] because they
report values that are over 10 mm greater than the other two
studies [8,14], which are very similar in value. For the United States
populations, Dwight [6] analyzed a very small sample size, which
may produce results that are not representative of the population
at large. Moreover, due to secular trends, the sample Dwight [6]
utilized is no longer applicable in the current population of the
United States [40]. The average total lengths were seriated again
excluding those obtained from Mall et al. [16] and Dwight [6]. The
only difference between the first comparison and the adjusted
comparison are that the highest values for females were reported
in the United States populations, followed by the European
populations. Even with the excluded data, however, the general
trend still holds that sterna from East African and Indian
290.e6 R. Bongiovanni, M.K. Spradley / Forensic Science International 219 (2012) 290.e1–290.e7

Table 4
Data from previous and present research including average measurements (mm) and average sternal index values.

Study ML BL S1W S3W Total length Sternal index (%)

Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

Europe
Ashley [8] 47.90 52.20 90.80 104.70 24.50 26.40 30.50 33.70 138.70 156.90
Mall et al. [16] 150.00 166.00
Teige [14] 43.90 47.70 88.50 103.40 23.20 27.10 30.90 34.70 133.70 153.40 54.30 46.20
East Africa
Ashley [8] 44.20 45.90 82.90 96.50 21.50 24.00 26.80 30.90 127.10 142.60
India
Dahiphale et al. [17] 43.78 48.46 70.19 94.43 24.44 27.17 28.24 31.95 113.87 142.20 63.01 52.0
Gautam et al. [18] 48.00 53.00 76.00 95.00 124.00 149.00
Hunnargi et al. [23] 44.88 51.99 72.38 89.17 63.31 59.21
Hunnargi et al. [21] 44.88 51.99 72.38 89.17 117.25 141.16
Jit et al. [12] 48.42 51.73 78.60 95.35 24.32 27.45 29.19 32.58 127.02 147.08 61.80 55.53
Narayan and Varma [9] 58.98 54.76
Canada
Torwalt and Hoppa [19] 48.79 54.43 93.55 109.41 142.34 163.84
United States
Dwight [6] 46.70 51.80 89.50 105.80 136.20 157.70
Dwight [7] 49.40 53.70 91.90 110.4 141.30 164.10
McCormick et al. [15] 50.30 55.60 138.30 161.60
Stewart and McCormick [13] 137.60 159.60
Present study 48.24 51.84 89.38 104.80 24.29 27.35 30.15 34.47 136.75 154.97 53.68 48.41

populations are, on average, smaller than sterna from European,
United States, and Canadian populations.
Other interesting observations due to inter-study comparisons
were discovered between the North Indian and western Indian
populations [9,12,17,18,21,23]. On average, female sterna in North
India are greater than those observed in western India. The male
sterna in North India, however, fall within range of the western
India populations. In addition, the current study consistently
reported the lowest values for sterna measurements when
compared to the other populations in the United States.
Previous research on the sternum in the United States does not
provide the best methods for sex estimation due to shortcomings
in materials and methods. As stated above, not only is Dwight’s [6]
sample very small, but it is also out-dated. Stewart and McCormick
[13] and McCormick et al. [15] both focused on costal cartilage
ossification patterns in conjunction with sternal measurements
observed in chest plate roentgenograms. This may not prove useful
to forensic anthropologists when presented with a skeletonized
sternum that is no longer articulated with the rest of the thorax.
The present study makes up for these shortcomings and provides
the most reliable methods for use by forensic anthropologists on a
recent population from the United States by utilizing a sample
representing the U.S. population today, as well as generating
sectioning points with error rates and a classification function
achieving high accuracy rates.
4.1. Future areas of research
Lastly, future research in the United States should more
accurately exemplify the modern day heterogeneity of the
population. This research has focused on American Blacks and
American Whites due to a limited sample of other population
groups in the skeletal collection. Obtaining data on additional
population groups from other collections would increase the
usefulness of the sternum as an indicator of sex in the forensic
context (Table 4).
5. Conclusion
According to research conducted on recent donated skeletal
remains from the United States, the sternum proves to be an
accurate indicator of sex. DFA achieved the highest classification
rate, 84.12%. No difference between population groups was
observed in this sample, therefore, American Black and American
White individuals were analyzed together for differences between
sexes. While population differences did not exist between
American Blacks and American Whites, considerable differences
were observed between the populations of previous studies. A
general trend was that sterna from East African and Indian
populations are, on average, smaller than sterna from European,
United States, and Canadian populations. Furthermore, as would
be expected in sexually dimorphic populations, female sterna are
generally shorter than male sterna.
The present study was in agreement with previous studies that,
while the mean values of sternal index conform to Hyrtl’s Law, the
range of values largely overlap, and prove unreliable for sex
estimation. Other measurements that did not show significant
differences between male and female values were manubrium
length, sternebra 1 width, and sternebra 3 width. Through the use
of metrics of the sternum, the sex of the individual is able to be
estimated using corresponding accuracy rates. Utilizing metrics
yield an objective estimation of sex, unlike the subjective method
of visual assessment. In addition, metrics allow less experienced
individuals to utilize this research and provide accurate estima-
tions of sex, without relying on years of experience for confidence
or familiarity with methods involving visual assessment. The most
reliable indices of the sternum are total sternal length and
discriminant function analysis, with accuracy rates of 81.5% and
84.12% respectively. This study was successful in generating a
reliable classification function for use by forensic anthropologists.
References
[1] T.W. Phenice, A newly developed visual method of sexing the Os pubis, American
Journal of Physical Anthropology 30 (2) (1969) 297–301.
[2] L. Sutherland, J. Suchey, Use of the ventral arc in pubic sex determination, Journal
of Forensic Sciences 36 (2) (1991) 501–511.
[3] W.D. Haglund, M.H. Sorg, Advances in Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory, and
Archaeological Perspective, CRC Press, New York, 2002.
[4] P.L. Walker, Greater sciatic notch morphology: sex, age, and population differ-
ences, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 127 (2005) 385–391.
[5] M.K. Spradley, R.L. Jantz, Skull vs. postcranial elements in sex determination, in:
55th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forencis Sciences, Chicago,
Illinois, 2003.
 R. Bongiovanni, M.K. Spradley / Forensic Science International 219 (2012) 290.e1–290.e7
[6] T. Dwight, The sternum as an index of sex and age, Journal of Anatomy and
Physiology 15 (1881) 327–330.
[7] T. Dwight, The sternum as an index of sex, height, and age, Journal of Anatomy 24
(1890) 527–535.
[8] G.T. Ashley, The human sternum: the influence of sex and age on its measure-
ments, Journal of Forensic Medicine 3 (1) (1956) 27–43.
[9] D. Narayan, H.C. Varma, Sternal index in U.P. Indian males and females, Journal of
the Anatomical Society of India 7 (1958) 71–72.
[10] P. Rother, H. Hunger, et al., Sex differences in the human sternum, Gegenbaurs
morphologisches Jahrbuch 121 (1) (1975) 29–37.
[11] M. Dokladal, Sex differences in the human sternum and thin practical importance
for the estimation of the sex of the human skeleton, Scripta Medica 51 (8) (1978)
451–468.
[12] I. Jit, V. Jhingan, et al., Sexing the human sternum, American Journal of Physical
Anthropology 53 (2) (1980) 217–224.
[13] J.H. Stewart, W.F. McCormick, The gender predictive value of sterna length,
American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 4 (3) (1983) 217–220.
[14] K. Teige, Morphometric studies of X-rays of the sternum, Zeitschrift fur Rechtsme-
dizin. Journal of Legal Medicine 90 (3) (1983) 199–204.
[15] W.F. McCormick, J.H. Stewart, et al., Sex determination from chest plate roent-
genograms, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68 (1985) 173–195.
[16] G. Mall, G. Sprinzl, et al., Clinical morphology of the sternum, Biomedical
Technology (Berlin) 36 (1991) 288–289.
[17] V.P. Dahiphale, B.H. Baheete, et al., Sexing the human sternum in marathwada
region, Journal of the Anatomical Society of India 51 (2) (2002) 162–167.
[18] R.S Gautam, G.V. Shah, et al., The human sternum – as an index of age & sex,
Journal of the Anatomical Society of India 52 (1) (2003) 20–23.
[19] C.R.M.M. Torwalt, R.D. Hoppa, A test of sex determination from measurements of
chest radiographs, Journal of Forensic Sciences 50 (4) (2005) 785–790.
[20] R. Selthofer, N. Vasilije, et al., Morphometric analysis of the sternum, Collegium
Antropologicum 30 (1) (2006) 43–47.
[21] S.A. Hunnargi, R.G. Menezes, et al., Sexual dimorphism of the human sternum in a
Maharashtrian population of India: a morphometric analysis, Legal Medicine
(Tokyo) 10 (1) (2008) 6–10.
[22] P. Mahakkanukrauh, Thai Sternum and Sexing, 2008.
[23] S.A. Hunnargi, R.G. Menezes, et al., Sternal index: is it a reliable indicator of sex in
the Maharashtrian population of India? Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine 16
(2) (2009) 56–58.
[24] W.M. Krogman, M.Y. Iscan, The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine, Charles C.
Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1986.
290.e7
[25] M.Y. Iscan, Forensic anthropology of sex and body size, Forensic Science Interna-
tional 147 (2) (2005) 107–112.
[26] P.L. Walker, Sexing skulls using discriminant function analysis of visually
assessed traits, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 136 (2008) 39–50.
[27] L.W. Konigsberg, B.F.B. Algee-Hewitt, et al., Estimation and evidence in forensic
anthropology: sex and race, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139 (1)
(2009) 77–90.
[28] SWGANTH. (2010). Sex Assessment. Retrieved November 17th, 2010, from http://
swganth.startlogic.com/Sex%20Rev0.pdf.
[29] W. Krause, Ueber das weibliche sternum, Monthly International Journal of
Anatomy and Histology 14 (S) (1897) 21–26.
[30] J. Hyrtl, Handbuch der Topographischen Anatomie, K.K. Hofbuchhandler, Wien,
Wilhelm Braumuller, 1857.
[31] J. Hyrtl, Handbuch der topographischen anatomic percentage, Vienna: Wilhelm
Braumuller 1 (S) (1893) 348.
[32] M. Strauch, Anatom. Untersuchungen uber das Brustbein des Menschen, etc.,
Inaugural Dissertation (1881).
[33] F. Petermoller, Uber den sogen, geschleschstypus des menschlichen brustbeins,
Inaugural Dissertation in Medicine (1890).
[34] H. Bogusat, Anomalien und varietaten des brustbeins, Inaugural Dissertation in
Medicine (1902).
[35] W.M. Bass, Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual of the Human
Skeleton Columbia, Missouri Archaeological Society Special Publications, Mis-
souri, 1987.
[36] R. DiBennardo, The use and interpretation of common computer implementations
of discriminant function analysis, in: K.J. Reichs (Ed.), Forensic Osteology:
Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield,
IL, 1986, pp. 171–195.
[37] S. Institute, SAS/STAT User’s Guide, SAS Institute, Cary, NC, 1990.
[38] A.M. Christensen, C.M. Crowder, Evidentiary standards for forensic anthropology,
Journal of Forensic Sciences 54 (6) (2009) 1211–1216.
[39] T. Bohan, Strengthening forensic science: a way station on the journey to justice,
Journal of Forensic Sciences 55 (1) (2010) 5–7.
[40] L.M. Jantz, R. Jantz, Secular changes in long bone length and proportion in the United
States, 1800–1970, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 110 (1999) 57–67.
[41] J.H. Schwartz., Skeleton Keys: An Introduction to Human Skeletal Morphology,
Development, and Analysis. Oxford University Press. 2007.
[42] J. Wenzel. 1788, cited by Ashley, G.T. (1956): A comparison of human and
anthropoid mesosterna. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3: 449-461.