Linux System Admin Interview Questions

Linux System Admin Interview Questions & Answers
Linux System Admin Interview Questions & Answers part 1
1. Every command in Linux is a
answer : executable program
2. How long can a filename in Linux be?

Correct answer: 255 characters
3. What is the shortcut to the login directory?

Correct answer: cd + enter key
4. The hierarchy of a series of directories branching in a user system starts from

Correct answer: /home
5. Saving open files, flush the system cache and other necessary system maintenance
are allowed by.
Correct answer: logging off the system
6. Which directory contains configuration files that stores system and application
setting?
Correct answer: /etc
7. Which command is used to find data files, programs, directories that match the
search argument?
Correct answer: locate
8. Applications written to provide a GUI shell for Unix and Linux are called
Correct answer: x windows
9. The advantage of using NFS rather than Samba for file sharing in Linux is
Correct answer: compatibility with Windows file sharing
10. Which framework is provided for the programs to interchange information about
Linux OS?
Correct answer: Resource Definition Framework
11. To implement new application on IBM z/10. Which of the following options
need to be considered if it to be implemented in Linux?
Correct answer: Red Hat Linux does not support all the devices supported by IBM
z/OS
12. Which of the following has greater market share of Linux SW/HW environment?
Correct answer: Linux on z10
13. Which of the following commands can be run to remove all the rules in an
iptables table?
Correct answer: iptables -F
14. Which of the following is the BEST way to set up SSH(Secure Shell) for
communicating between Systems without needing passwords?
Correct answer: Use ssh-keygen for generating public-private keys.
15. How much usable space is available, when a Linux system is configured with a
RAID 5 array that consists of six 20 GB hard disk drives?
Correct answer: 100Gb
Formula: S*(N-1)
here S=size
N=number of HDD. remember it is only for RAID5
16. Which of the following commands can be used to check for file corruption?
Correct answer: md5sum
17. Which of the following allows to secure remote command line access?
Correct answer: SSH(Secure Shell)
18. Which of the following supports for creating a Linux VPN (Virtual Private
Network)?
Correct answer: 3DES
19. Which of the following commands delete the files from the /tmp directory,
issued by non-root user?
Correct answer: su -c "rm -rf /tmp/*"
20. Which configuration does cardmgr read at Linux system startup?

Correct answer: PCMCIA cards
21. When a computer system is reported problems with inodes and blocks, which of
the following is the problem and its solution to rectify it?
Correct answer: The file system has become corrupt and needs to be repaired.
22. Which Linux command will successfully mounts a USB drive?

Correct answer: mount /dev/sda1 /mnt/usb
23. ___________ is a common tool for determining services and ports running on a
remote Linux.
Correct answer: nmap
24. For supporting new diskless client workstations, which of the following services
needs to be installed on a server?
Correct answer: PXE (Preboot eXecution Environment) and tftpd
25. Which of the following will kill the process 1010 by an administrator(logged in as
a standard user)? The process 1010 was started by the root user.
Correct answer: su -c "kill 1010"
26. Which of the following Linux commands could be used to find what processor
was detected on boot, when a laptop system is slow/
Correct answer: POST
27. How to accomplish the LILO boot configuration updation for supporting a newly
installed IDE hard drive?
Correct answer: Edit lilo.conf and run "lilo -v -v"
-----------------------------------------------------
1. Which of the following below are true functionalities of Kernel?

answer: Allocates time and memory to programs
2. Which of the following below are true functionalities of shell?

Answer: Authenticates user Interprets commands
3. Which command is used to find what is in your home directory?

Correct answer: % ls
4. cd home to get back to your home-directory?

answer: False
5. Which command is used to clear the screen?

Correct Answer: Clear
6. The head command writes the first _____________ lines of a file to the screen.
answer: ten
7. What is used to search files for specified words or patterns?

answer: grep
8. > symbol is used to redirect the output of a command

answer: True
9. Pipe symbol is represented by

answer: |
10. Which character is used to match exactly one character?

answer: ?
11. Which command is used to see the online manual?
answer: man
12. A process is identified by a unique

answer: pid
13. A process can run only in the background

Answer: True
14. Which command reduces the size of a file?

answer: gzip
15. Find command can search for?

nswer: Files
16. How can we find the current value for shell variables?
answer: Set command
17. What is the difference between PATH and path?

answer: PATH and path specify directories to search for commands and programs
Both variables always represent the same directory list

Altering either automatically causes the other to be changed
18. What is the default number of shell commands saved in the history list of .cshrc
file?
Correct answer: 200
19. What is the difference between linux file system and windows file system?
answer: Under Windows, the various partitions are detected at boot and assigned a
drive letter whereas Under Linux, unless you mount a partition or a device, the
system does not know of the existence of that partition or device.
20. What is the content of /etc directory?

answer: it contains all configuration file
21. /temp is a type of filesystem directory

answer: False
22. The basic function of ______________ is to search files for lines (or other units of
text) that contain a
answer: awk
23. Which of the following below is/are true for Date command?
answer: It can work w/o arguments
------------------------------------------
1. Echo is used to Display message on screen. Which of the following options below
should be used with echo to not output the trailing newline?
answer: -n
2. mount –r is used to mount a file in read only mode
answer: True
3. Which command is most useful when you want not only to send some data down
a pipe, but also to save a copy?
Answer: tee
4. There is no difference between who and whoami command?
Correct answer: False
5. When trying to compare two files using cmp, if the files differ; what is the output?
answer: tells the first byte and line number where they differ
6. Cal is used to display calendar. If no arguments are supplied, what is displayed?
answer: The current month is displayed
7. Which of the following command is used to test a network connection?
answer: ping
8. Ping will only report damaged packets.
answer: False
9. Which of the following are valid functions of Red Hat Package Manager?
Answer: Used to verify software packages.search engine to search for software’s
10. What is the Non interactive mode of nslookup used for?
answer: Fetch information about the specified host or domain
11. Nettop is used to find network usage

Answer: True
12. In _____________ state of a process, the process will be terminated and the
information will still be available in the process table.
Answer: Zombie
13. Which system call is used to bias the existing property of process?
answer: bias()
14. LD_LIBRARY_PATH is a type of
answer: Environmental variable
15. What is the major difference between UNIX and LINUX?
answer: Linux is an open source and free software
16. What is the use of a pipe?
Answer: Several functions can be combined in a single statement.Stream input to

output.
17. By default, the shell uses the _______________ library
answer: readline
18. The kernel cannot be updated.
answer: False
19. Which of the following below are types of shell?
answer: sh, shell
20. The ______________ file contains all the information of users on your system
Answer: /etc/passwd
21. Which directory is used to write messages when kernel is loading? answer:
/var/log/messages
22. Which command is used to report on the status of the quotas that have set
including the amount of allocated space and amount of used space?
answer: repquota -a
23. Linux Supports Virtualized File Systems Like RAID.
answer: True
24. When Linux is installed, which account is created by default?
answer: Root
25. Using CHMOD if we want to give ALL permissions to a user, which mode is
used?
answer: 777
26. Why do we use pgrep command?
answer: To search through the cur
--------------------------------------------------------------
1. What is the default UID when we are creating first user.(useradd)?
A: The first user created by root will always have a UID 500.
User ID=uid. The uid of root is 0.
UID from 1 to 499 is reserved for system services such as tha user apache,nagios,etc.
2. How many users are created by default.

A: Maximum users=60,000 by default.This could be increased.
3. Fields in password and shadow file.

A: Passwd file
Root:x:0:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash
(username: encrypted form of password: uid: gid: personal info: home dir:shell)
4. When user is created which are the files it is updated.

A: /etc/passwd – contains various pieces of information for each user account
/etc/shadow – contains the encrypted password information for user’s accounts and
optional the password aging information.
/etc/gshadow – group shadow file (contains the encrypted password for group)
/home –All users data is stored here.
/etc/login.defs---Shadow password suite configuration.
5. What is the owner of /tmp (is sticky bit applied on it)

A: drwxrwxrwt 11 root 20480 Apr 21 23:27 tmp (yes).
6. How to check which kernel module is installed?

A: modinfo-c
Also you can lok for the modules at:
Code:
/lib/modules
#rpm –qa | grep ^kernel
#uname –r
#uname –rsv
7. What are modules,advantages and disadvantages of modules.

A: Modules are non-linked drivers.
Use of modules
Allow third party commercial development of drivers
Minimise kernel size
Allow smaller generic kernels
What is a Module
Contains device specific system routines
Fills in non-boot gaps in the kernel
Can be loaded and removed dynamically
Modules In Linux
Modules are compiled per Linux release
Multiple modules live in
/lib/modules//
Hence only the active version modules will load
Accept parameters.
15. How to check which disk is fault in hardware Raid level

A: # watch cat/proc/mdstat - Check RAID status
#mdadm /dev/md1 –fail/add/remove /dev/sda6 - For RAID partition fail,add &
remove
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
top - memory and CPU utilization of various processes.

lsof - List open file descriptors
file – shows what type a file is
ps – shows processes and their id’s, children and parent id’s
netstat – shows ports and connections status, e.g. netstat –a to show all
connections.
ipcs – show shared memory info
nice, renice – change the run priority for a process
sudo – run a process as the root or other privileged user
who –r – shows current run-level of machine
kill - everyone knows the basics of kill, interupts a process with a signal you specify.
kill -l to list the signals, kill –3 for instance is stack trace, kill –9 really kills the process
dead.
Generic troubleshooting tips
1) Use tail –f to watch log file in real time, advantage is simple you can spot error or
warning message in real time.
tail –f /path/to/log/file
Example(s):
# tail –f /var/log/maillog
2) Use telnet command to see if you get response or not. Sometime you will also see
some informative message:
telnet ip port
Example(s):
# telnet localhost 53
# telnet localhost 25
3) Make sure you can see PID of your service.
pidof service-name
cat /var/run/service.pid
Example(s):
# pidof sshd
# cat /var/run/sshd.pid
4) You need to make sure that your DNS server or third party DNS server (ISP) is
accessible. This is an important step, as many network services depend upon DNS;
especially sendmail/postfix or Squid etc for example. Run dig or nslookup. No
timeout should occurred.
# dig your-domain.com
# nslookup gw.isp.com
# more /etc/resolv.conf
5) For networking troubleshooting, make sure your ip address configuration is right,
gateway, routine, hostname etc all configured. Here is list of tools on RedHat Linux
to verify or modify information:
Hostname verification or setup tools
hostname : To get hostname of server.
hostname –s : To get FQDN hostname of server
more /etc/sysconfig/network : To setup hostname and networking can enabled or
disabled.
dnsdomainname : List or setup domainname.
more /etc/hosts :Make sure at least localhost entry do exist.
Ethernet configuration tools
ifconfig : To see running network card information.
ifconfig eth0 up|down : To enable|disable network interface
service network reload|restart|stop|start : To reload (after changed made in ip config
file)|restart|stop|start network interface with all properties.
route|netstat –rn : To print routing table
ping ip-address : To see if host is alive or dead
more /etc/modules.conf : To see your network card configuration alias for eth0 exists
or not.
lsmod : To list loaded modules (read as drivers), here you need to see that eth0
module is loaded or not, if not loaded then use insmod to insert (load) driver.
dhclient : Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Client, run this if your Ethernet card
is not getting ip from DHCP box on startup; this command does by default shows
useful information.
To see if service blocked because of access control
iptables –n –L : To list all iptable rules; useful to see if firewall blocks service or not.
service iptables stop|start : To start|stop iptables
more /etc/xinetd.conf
OR
more /etc/xinetd.conf/SERVICENAME = To list configuration of xinetd server. Again
useful to see if firewall xinetd based security blocks service or not (xinetd includes
host-based and time-based access control)
more /etc/hosts.allow : To see list of hosts allowed to access service.
more /etc/hosts.deny : To see list of hosts NOT allowed to access service. NOTE
first TCP wrappers (hosts.allow|hosts.deny) checked and then xinetd-based access
control checked.
more /etc/path/to/application.conf : See your application configuration file for access
control. For example smb.conf and many other applications/services got own access
control list in application. You need to check that as well.
1. Command Not Found Error: This is by far the most common error we encounter—
within our own servers, even—and we hear a lot about it from other users, as well. In
essence, this error is returned when you’ve created a digital boo-boo. If you’ve not
spelled a command correctly in the terminal, it won’t run. To correct this, check the
exact syntax of the command again. Likewise, if you haven’t installed the application
you’re trying to reach, it won’t happen: Same thing goes if you’re trying to access a
script in the wrong directory. More than likely, if you get this error, what’s at the core
of your problem is a classic ID10T problem.
2. Permission Denied: We’ll be upfront about this—we hate this error message more
than any other. This is because, more often than not, the issue involves chmod
settings, in which a file’s permissions have accidentally been set to 0, making them
un-editable even for the root user. To correct this, simply run the appropriate chmod
command to fix the file in question. If the error persists, next ensure you are in fact
the root user, or have entered the necessary root command.
3. No Route To Host: If you achieve this error message, then you’ve more or less
lost the tubing to your server. We’re talking about SSH, but it’s possible for this error
to occur in other communication areas, as well. In essence, you’ve lost connection
with your server, and your system now has no idea where to pipe your shell
commands. To correct the issue, try running traceroute with your fingers crossed and
your eyes open.
You do not have adequate permissions to execute the command
4. The easiest way to verify your permissions is to view who you are logged on to
the server as, then look at the output of ls –l:
# id
u
uid=5008(cormany) gid=330(atc) groups=110(sales),201(sshd)
#
# ls -l foo
-
-rwxrw-r-- 1 cormany atc 75 Jun 10 18:46 foo
According to the above example, you are logged in as user cormany, and the shell
script's owner is cormany with permissionsrwx (or Read, Write, and Execute). This
does not appear to be the issue, so let's move on to the next possible cause.
You do not have adequate permissions to the shell you defined inside the script to
tell the script how it and the commands inside it should be interpreted
Let's take a look inside the script:
# cat foo
#
#!/bin/ksh.new
e
echo "This is a just a test"
e
exit 0
It looks like the script is to be interpreted as a Korn shell script, according to the first
line. By looking at the permissions of the shell used, you can verify that you can
actually use it:
# ls –l /bin/ksh.new
-
-r-xr-x--- 5 bin bin 289072 May 27 19:03 /bin/ksh.new
As root, correct the file permissions to the shell you attempted to use, and try again:
Switch users to root:
# su -
r
root's Password:
Confirm that you are root and not the original user:
# id
u
uid=0(root) gid=0(system) groups=2(bin),3(sys),7(security),8(cron),10(audit),11(lp)
Change the permissions of the file in question:

# chmod 555 /bin/ksh.new
Confirm the permission change on the file:
# ls -l /bin/ksh.new
-
-r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 289072 Jun 10 18:45 /bin/ksh.new
Exit su, then return to the original user:

# exit
#
# id
u
uid=5008(cormany) gid=330(atc) groups=110(sales),201(sshd)
Attempt to execute the script again:

# ./foo
T
This is a just a test
5. ksh: bar: not found.

You have written another script and named it bar in the ~cormany/scripts directory.
The script works perfectly when executing it providing the full path or from the
present working directory (~cormany/scripts), but for some reason, it will not work
when you're working from another directory and just typing the script name:
# pwd
/
/home/cormany/scripts
#
# /home/cormany/scripts/bar
T
This is another test
#
# ./bar
T
#
# cd
#
# pwd
/
/home/cormany
#
# bar
ksh: bar: not found.
Everything worked perfectly except for when you change directories and try to
execute the script. There are typically three reasons for such an error message:
You do not have permissions to the file you are trying to execute.
The file simply does not exist or is not in the directory you think it should be in.
The file exists and is in the expected location, and you have sufficient permissions to
the file.
6.You do not have permissions to the file you are trying to execute
You know that this is not issue, as you were able to execute the script by providing
the fully qualified path as well as from the commands directory. A simple check on
the file permissions should help you discover the cause of the problem:
# ls -la ~cormany/scripts
t
total 56
d
drwxr-xr-x 2 cormany atc 512 Jun 12 08:30 .
d
drwxr-xr-x 6 cormany atc 512 Jun 10 08:21 ..
-
-rwxr-xr-x 1 cormany atc 42 Sep 06 16:20 amdc
-
-rw-rw-rw- 1 cormany atc 154 Jan 27 23:23 atc
-
-rwxr-xr-x 1 cormany atc 206 Aug 04 20:57 atc.2
-
-rwxr-xr-x 1 cormany atc 48 Jun 12 08:21 bar
-
-rwxr-xr-x 1 cormany atc 87 Feb 22 16:11 pac
Executing on a command such as ~cormany/scripts/atc would fail, as the file only

has Read and Write permission for user, group, and other. Simply adjusting the
permissions to include Execute would resolve this problem.
If there is another command in a different directory that will not execute—for
example, ~cormany/scripts.old/cujo—check the permissions of that file, also:
# ls -l ~cormany/other_scripts/cujo
l
ls: 0653-345 /home/cormany/other_scripts/cujo: Permission denied.
At first glance, you do not even have Read permission. Let's dive into the target
directory and see what is going on:
# cd ~cormany/scripts.old/cujo
k
ksh: /home/cormany/other_scripts: Permission denied.
#
# ls -l ~cormany/scripts.old/cujo
l
ls: /home/cormany/scripts.old: The file access permissions do
not allow the specified action.

t
total 0
What just happened here? This is yet another form of permission error. The
permissions problem may not always be on the file itself but a directory in the path to
the file to be executed:
# ls -ld ~cormany/scripts.old
d
d--------- 2 cormany atc 512 Jan 22 08:42 /home/cormany/scripts.old
Fixing the permissions on the directory path should resolve your execution issues as
long as the file in question also has adequate permissions:
# chmod 755 ~cormany/other_scripts
#
# cd ~cormany/other_scripts
#
# ls –l cujo
-
-rwxr-xr-x 1 cormany atc 48 Jan 26 08:21 cujo
Now, back to the original problem with ~cormany/scripts/bar.
7.The file simply does not exist or is not in the directory you think it should be in
Again, using the command ls to perform a quick spot check should show whether the
file is there:
# ls -l ~cormany/scripts/bar
-
-rwxr-xr-x 1 cormany atc 48 Oct 05 08:21 /home/cormany/scripts/bar
If the file did not exist in the directory you originally thought, you would receive the
following message:
# ls -l ~cormany/scripts/bar
l
ls: 0653-341 The file /home/cormany/scripts/bar does not exist.
If you think the file is somewhere in user cormany’s home directory, you could
(provided you had ample permissions) search for the file with the find command:
# find ~cormany -name "bar" -ls
1
16409 1 -rwxr-xr-x 1 cormany atc 48 Sep 06 08:06 /home/cormany/atc/bar
5
590040 1 -rwxr-xr-x 1 cormany atc 48 Sep 09 08:42 /home/cormany/test/bar
The file exists and is in the expected location, and you have sufficient permissions to
the file
The previous methods of execution have been either supplying the fully qualified
path to the command in question or sitting directly in the files directory and entering
the present working directory to execute (that is, using ./). Now that you are not in
the commands directory and are not entering the full path, let's check the value of
the PATH environment variable:
# echo ${PATH}
/
/usr/bin:/etc:/usr/sbin:/usr/ucb:/bin:/usr/bin/X11:/sbin:/usr/
java5/jre/bin:/usr/java5/bin:/usr/ushare/bin:/usr/local/bin
Aha! The directory /home/cormany/scripts is not in your path. Again, there are two
things you could do to fix this problem:
Add ~cormany/scripts to your PATH. Although this change may be easy to make,
please keep in mind that every time you add a directory to your PATH variable, you
are requesting that the shell search through yet another directory for a command. If
you add 10 directories over time, that adds 10 more directories for the shell to search
until it returns results that it could not find a file. If you still want to continue, simply
perform the following commands:
# export PATH=${PATH}:/home/cormany/scripts
#
# echo $PATH
/
/usr/bin:/etc:/usr/sbin:/usr/ucb:/bin:/usr/bin/X11:/sbin:/usr/
java5/jre/bin:/usr/java5/bin:/usr/ushare/bin:/usr/local/bin:/
home/cormany/scripts
Note: It is rarely wise to add the path to the beginning of the user's PATH variable.
Doing so could result in the execution of unwanted commands. If you feel you must
place a path at the beginning, proceed with caution.
Move (or copy) the script in question to a directory already in your PATH variable.
This can be a good solution if multiple users could benefit from the script. If this is
the case, users typically place their files in /usr/local/bin.
8.ls: 0653-341 The file . does not exist.

You are working in a directory named ~cormany/scripts. All of a sudden, none of the
scripts in the directory can be found, and you get a strange message that the present
working directory no longer exists:
# ls -l
t
total 40
-
-
-
-
-
#
# ./bar
T
#
# pwd
/
#
# ./bar
ksh: ./bar: not found.
#
# ls -l
ls: 0653-341 The file . does not exist.
When something like this happens, it means the directory you were once working in
has been destroyed via the command rm. Simply creating a new directory with the
same name will not correct this problem, as the file descriptor is different.
More times than not, the person afflicted with this error is the same person who
caused it in another window (at least, in my case). To safeguard against such
accidents, rename the directory via the mv command. By renaming the directory, the
users in the original directory can continue to work in a different directory name, as
the file descriptor remains the same:
# ls -l
t
total 40
-
-
-
-
-
#
# ./bar
T
#
# pwd
/
Similarly, in another session, someone renames the directory you are working in to
~cormany/scripts.20090601. Thankfully, by just moving and renaming the directory,
your work continues without issue:
# ./bar
T
#
# pwd
/
/home/cormany/scripts.20090601
9. ./foo: /usr/bin/ls: 0403-027 The parameter list is too long.
A program has been running for months on your IBM® AIX® computer without issue.
But while the program is running, it creates a file every few minutes in the same
directory for logging. The file names begin with f. and e.. The directory is becoming
full, and the ls command is slowing down drastically on response time. That is
understandable, because the directory has so many files in it.
A few more months go by, and the AIX program continues to run consistently and
without problem. There are now 100,000 files that begin with f. and another 100,000
files that begin with e. Now, when you attempt to clean up the log directory of only
the files that begin with f., you receive the following message:
# rm ~cormany/logs/f.*
k
ksh: /usr/bin/rm: 0403-027 The parameter list is too long.
I guess you waited too long before cleaning up the files. No time like the present,
however.
When executing a command like delete, all arguments are validated and expanded
before execution. The example provided is looking for ~cormany/logs/f.*, which
expands to become 100,000 arguments to the command rm. In other words, instead
ofrm ~cormany/logs/f.*, what is actually being executed is rm ~cormany/logs/f.1
~cormany/logs/f.2 ~cormany/logs/f.3 … ~cormany/logs/f.100000.
AIX, like other UNIX and Linux operating systems, has a set size for the number of
command-line arguments and environment variables that can be used. To view the
set size in AIX, use the command getconf. Per the man page for getconf, you should
look at ARG_MAX:
# man getconf
…
ARG_MAX
Maximum length, in bytes, of the arguments for one of the exec
…
#
# getconf ARG_MAX
1
1048576
This value tells you that you have 1,048,576 bytes you can use for environment
variables and command-line arguments to execute. It looks like you exceeded that.
To resolve this issue, two options are available:
Increase the amount via smitty chgsys and change ARG/ENV list size in 4K byte
blocks or via chdev. I do not recommend changing a system-wide parameter every
time you run into this type of error out of convenience: This should be the last resort.
Rather than using the command rm with 100,000 arguments, which will fail
miserably, the command find does a much better job of removing the files:
# find ~cormany/logs –name “f.*” –exec rm {} \;
The find command searches the directory for any files beginning with f. rather than
placing the burden on the shell's command line. The find command then executes rm
on each file found, thus removing every file beginning with f.
Conclusion
After reading this article, you should have a better understanding of those common
errors you may have come across and how to resolve the problem quickly. The
errors may look simple, but when being introduced to UNIX, it is essential that you
understand the basic errors before moving ahead. Good luck on your
troubleshooting!
FIND AND LOCATE FILE IN LINUX
find / -name tomcat.sh -type f
locate tomcat.sh
locate -i springframework
iocate/slocate
Misplaced your css file?
locate style.css | less
Not sure if it was Style.css or style.css? The ‘-i‘ flag will search case insensitive.
locate -i style.css
Locate all hidden files
locate /.
If you pass the ‘-r‘ flag to locate you can search using regular expressions.
find
find [starting point] [search criteria] [action]
So the basic usage would be:
find . -name “*.jpg”
Explination: find is the command, the dot ‘.‘ means start from the current directory,
and the -name “*.jpg” tells find to search for files with .jpg in the name. The * is a wild
card.
Find all css files in the ‘/var/www‘ directory.
find /var/www -name “*.css” -print
Find all files that are writable. This is handy when securing directories down.
find . -writable
Find Files by Size
Find all ‘.txt‘ files that are less than 100kb in size.
find . -name *.txt -size -100k -ls
Find Files over a GB in size
find ~/Movies -size +1024M
Find all files that are over 40kb in size.
find . -size +40k -ls
Find Files by Time
Find all files in ‘/etc‘ that have changed in the last 24 hours.
find /etc -mtime -1
Find Files by Owner
find . -user mark
The power comes when you want to apply an action with the search. This command
will find all css files and then remove them.
find . -name “*.css”-exec rm -rf {} \;
It is worth noting that find is recursive so be very careful when using the ‘-exec‘ flag.
You could accidentally delete all css files in your computer if you are in the wrong
directory. It is always a good idea to run find by itself before adding the -exec flag.
which
This command is useful for finding out “which” binary the system would execute if
you were to type the command out. Since some programs have multiple versions
installed the whichcommand comes in handy to tell you which version it is using and
where it is located.
which perl
/usr/bin/perl
whereis
The whereis command does the same thing as which but it will also return the path
to source and corresponding man page.
whereis perl
perl: /usr/bin/perl /usr/share/man/man1/perl.1perl.gz
PROXY SERVER
Proxy Server
------------
- Web Content Caching
- Web Filtering
- Authentication
- Bandwidth limiting
Squid
-----
the configuration file: / etc / squid / squid.conf
log file: - / var / log / squid / access.log
Name of service: squid
Configuring the Proxy just flame

-------------------------------
# Vim / etc / squid / squid.conf
Direct write: / INSERT \ YOUR
Written below it:
# Acl all src 0.0.0.0 / 0
acl lan src 192.168.1.0/24
http_access allow lan
http_access deny all
visible_hostname localhost
----------------------------
# Service squid restart
Configuring the Client

---------------------
1. Open Mozilla Firefox -> Edit -> Preferences -> Advanced -> Network -> Settings
2. Ip_server IP Port 3128
Proxy for Filtering

---------------------
acl -> state
http_access -> permissions / rules -> the allow / deny
Structure acl:
acl
Http_access structure:
http_access ...
Example ACL
----------
1. ACL based on client IP address / source IP (src)
acl lan src 192.168.10.0/24 -> network
bozz acl src 192.168.10.123/32 -> 1 host
acl src leadership 192.168.10.200-192.168.10.250 -> IP Range
2. ACL based on destination domain (dstdomain)

acl weboke dstdomain. detik.com. facebook.com
acl porn dstdomain "/ etc / squid / porn.txt"
The contents of / etc / squid / porn.txt:
. Playboy.com
. Porn.com
. Xxx.com
3. ACL based on IP destination (dst)

go acl dst 202.67.15.202
4. ACL based on the words in the URL (url_regex)

noword url_regex acl-i sex adult porn
acl fl_unduh url_regex iso .*. .*. mp3 $ $
5. ACL based on time (time)

acl jam_kerja MTWHF time 8:00 to 17:00
M -> Monday left <right< p=""></right<>
T -> Thursday
W -> Thursday
H -> Thursday
F -> Friday
A -> Saturday
S -> Sunday
Sample http_access
------------------
http_access allow bozz |
http_access deny porn |
http_access deny fl_unduh |
http_access allow lan jam_kerja |
http_access deny all \ | /
Refresh squid configuration

-------------------------
# Squid-k reconfigure
Create the cache directory

--------------------
# Service squid stop
Change in:
cache_dir ufs / var / spool / squid 100 16 256

example conversion:
cache_dir ufs / cache 2000 16 256
# Mkdir / cache
# Chown squid.squid / cache-R
# Squid-z -> create cache_dir
# Service squid start
Transparent Proxy
-----------------
Gateway and Proxy servers on one computer.
Edit in part:
http_port 8080 transparent
---------------------------
# Service squid restart
# Iptables-t nat-A PREROUTING-i eth0-p tcp - dport 80-j REDIRECT - to-port 8080
-I eth0 -> device to the LAN
-P tcp - dport 80 -> packet with TCP protocol port 80 will go to the proxy
- To-port 8080 -> port proxy (squid)
LINUX EL5 CONFIGURATIONS
###LinuxCBT EL-5 Edition###
Focuses on: RedHat Enterprise v5x
Successor to LinuxCBT EL-4 Edition, which succeeds LinuxCBT Classic Edition
Features:
1. 2.6x kernel (2.6.18)
a. 'uname -a' returns OS/Kernel information
Note: 'uname -a' returns the following useful info:
1. OS - Linux
2. Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN)
3. Kernel version - 2.6.18...
a. 2.6 = major version
b. .18 = minor version
c. anything else after the minor version indicates that the kernel was patched by the distributor
4. Date and time that the kernel was compiled
2. Supports multiple versions:

a. Basic - Red Hat Enterprise Linux Server
a1. supports 2 physical (Socket) CPUs
a2. Up to 4 virtual guests
b. Advanced Platform
b1. supports unlimited physical CPUs
b2. supports unlimited virtual guests
Note: Virtualization limits pertain to the virtualization technology included with Red Hat Enterprise
Linux. NOT third-party software (VMWare)
3. Supports the following platforms:

a. Intel 32/64-bits
b. AMD 32/64-bits
c. IBM - POWER and z-series, S/390
Note: Memory limitation is based on hardware
Note: Common uses of the various versions of RHEL

1. RHEL Basic Version
a. File & Print
b. Web server
c. Infrastructure server (DHCP, DNS, Proxy, etc.)
2. RHEL Advanced Version

a. Application server (Apache Tomcat, JBOSS, Weblogic, WebSphere, etc.)
b. Database server (MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, Ingres, etc.)
c. Clustering
###Kickstart Configurator###
Features:
1. Hands-free, automated installation
2. Scripted installation
3. Script can be used on multiple systems
Note: 'system-config-kickstart' is NOT installed by default
Steps:
1. Open previously created 'anaconda-ks.cfg' file and modify
2. Define partitions accordingly
3. Confirm settings
4. Publish the 'ks.cfg' file to HTTP server
5. Install server using the following at the main menu:
'linux ks=http://192.168.75.100/ks.cfg'
Note: The following can be used to boot a kickstart installation:

1. boot.iso CD-ROM
2. First CD-ROM of the RH5 installation set
3. The DVD-ROM of the RH5 installation set
4. USB Pen/Stick - diskboot.img (use dd)
###FTP INSTALLATION###
Steps:
1. Create FTP user account on FTP server
a. 'useradd -s /bin/false -d /srv/wwwlinuxcbt.com linuxinstall'
b. 'passwd linuxinstall'
2. Confirm FTP connectivity as the user 'linuxinstall'
3. Reboot server with 'boot.iso' CD and type 'linux askmethod'
###BASIC LINUX COMMANDS###
1. tty - reveals the current terminal

2. whoami - reveals the currently logged-in user
3. which - reveals where in the search path a program is located
4. echo - prints to the screen
a. echo $PATH - dumps the current path to STDOUT
b. echo $PWD - dumps ths contents of the $PWD variable
c. echo $OLDPWD - dumps the most recently visited directory
5. set - prints and optionally sets shell variables

6. clear - clears the screen or terminal
7. reset - resets the screen buffer
8. history - reveals your command history
a. !690 - executes the 690th command in our history
b. command history is maintained on a per-user basis via:
~/.bash_history
~ = users's $HOME directory in the BASH shell
9. pwd - prints the working directory
10. cd - changes directory to desired directory
a. 'cd ' with no options changes to the $HOME directory
b. 'cd ~' changes to the $HOME directory
c. 'cd /' changes to the root of the file system
d. 'cd Desktop/' changes us to the relative directory 'Desktop'
e. 'cd ..' changes us one-level up in the directory tree
f. 'cd ../..' changes us two-levels up in the directory tree
11. Arrow keys (up and down) navigates through your command history
12. BASH supports tab completion:
a. type unique characters in the command and press 'Tab' key
13. You can copy and paste in GNOME terminal windows using:
a. left button to block
b. right button to paste OR Ctrl-Shift-v to paste
14. ls - lists files and directories

a. ls / - lists the contents of the '/' mount point
b. ls -l - lists the contents of a directory in long format:
Includes: permissions, links, ownership, size, date, name
c. ls -ld /etc - lists properties of the directory '/etc', NOT the contents of '/etc'
d. ls -ltr - sorts chronologically from older to newer (bottom)
e. ls --help - returns possible usage information
f. ls -a - reveals hidden files. e.g. '.bash_history'
Note: files/directories prefixed with '.' are hidden. e.g. '.bash_history'
15. cat - catenates files

a. cat 123.txt - dumps the contents of '123.txt' to STDOUT
b. cat 123.txt 456.txt dumps both files to STDOUT
c. cat 123.txt 456.txt > 123456.txt - creates new catenated file
16. mkdir - creates a new directory

a. mkdir testRH5 - creates a 'testRH5' directory
17. cp - copies files

a. cp 123.txt testRH5/
By default, 'cp' does NOT preserve the original modification time
b. cp -v 456.txt testRH5/
18. mv - moves files

a. mv 123456.txt testRH5/ - moves the file, preserving timestamp
19. rm - removes files/directories

a. rm 123.txt
b. rm -rf 456.txt - removes recursively and enforces
20. touch - creates blank file/updates timestamp

a. touch test.txt - will create a zero-byte file, if it doesn't exist
b. touch 123456.txt - will update the timestamp
c. touch -t 200801091530 123456.txt - changes timestamp
21. stat - reveals statistics of files

a. stat 123456.txt - reveals full attributes of the file
22. find - finds files using search patterns

a. find / -name 'fstab'
Note: 'find' can search for fields returned by the 'stat' command
23. alias - returns/sets aliases for commands

a. alias - dumps current aliases
b. alias copy='cp -v'
###Linux Redirection & Pipes###

Features:
1. Ability to control input and output
Input redirection '<':

1. cat < 123.txt
Note: Use input redirection when program does NOT default to file as input
Output redirection '>':

1. cat 123.txt > onetwothree.txt
Note: Default nature is to:
1. Clobber the target file
2. Populate with information from input stream
Append redirection '>>':

1. cat 123.txt >> numbers.txt - creates 'numbers.txt' if it doesn't exist, or appends if it does
2. cat 456.txt >> numbers.txt
Pipes '|':
Features: Connects the output stream of one command to the input stream of a subsequent
command
1. cat 123.txt | sort

2. cat 456.txt 123.txt | sort
3. cat 456.txt 123.txt | sort | grep 3
###Command Chaining###
Features:
1. Permits the execution of multiple commands in sequence
2. Also permits execution based on the success or failure of a previous command
1. cat 123.txt ; ls -l - this runs first command, then second command without regards for exit
status of the first command
2. cat 123.txt && ls -l - this runs second command, if first command is successful
3. cat 1234.txt && ls -l
4. cat 123.txt || ls -l - this runs second command, if first command fails
24. more|less - paginators, which display text one-page @ a time
1. more /etc/fstab
2. less 1thousand.txt
25. seq - echoes a sequence of numbers

a. seq 1000 > 1thousand.txt - creates a file with numbers 1-1000
26. su - switches users

a. su - with no options attempts to log in as 'root'
27. head - displays opening lines of text files

a. head /var/log/messages
28. tail - displays the closing lines of text files

a. tail /var/log/messages
29. wc - counts words and optionally lines of text files

a. wc -l /var/log/messages
b. wc -l 123.txt
30. file - determines file type

a. file /var/log/messages
###Tar, Gzip, Bzip2, Zip###

Features:
1. Compression utilities (gzip, bzip2, zip)
2. File rollers (the ability to represent many files as one)
Gzip:
Includes:
1. gzip - compresses/decompresses files
2. gunzip - decompresses gzip files
Tasks:
1. compress '1million.txt' file using gzip
a. gzip -c 1million.txt > 1million.txt.gz
Note: gzip auto-dumps to STDOUT, by default
b. gzip -l 1million.txt.gz - returns status information

c. gunzip 1million.txt.gz - dumps to file, and removes compressed version
d. gzip -d 1million.txt.gz
e. zcat 1million.txt.gz - dumps the contents to STDOUT
f. less 1million.txt.gzip - dumps the contents of gzip files to STDOUT
Bzip2:
1. bzip2 -c 1million.txt > 1million.txt.bz2

Note: Bzip2 tends to outperform gzip on larger files
2. bunzip2 1million.txt.bz2
3. bzip2 -d 1million.txt.bz2
4. bzcat 1million.txt.bz2 - dumps contents to STDOUT
5. less 1million.txt.bz2 - also dumps the contents to STDOUT
Zip & unzip:

1. zip filename.zip path/ - general usage
2. zip 1million.txt.zip 1million.txt
Note: zip differs slight from gzip and bzip2 in that the destination file (resultant zip file) is
specified before the source
3. unzip 1million.txt.zip
Tar & Gzip/Bzip2:
1. tar -cvf filename.tar path/ - creates a non-compressed archive

2. tar -cvf 1million.txt.tar 1million.txt
Note: tar, requires a small overhead for itself in each file
3. tar -czvf 1million.txt.tar.gz 1million.txt - creates, tar/gzip document

4. tar -cjvf 1million.txt.tar.bz2 1million.txt - creates, tar/bzip2 document
5. tar -tzvf
6. tar -cjvf 1million.txt.tar.bz2 1million.txt testRH5/- creates, tar/bzip2 document for the text file
and 'testRH5' directory tree
###GREP###
Features:
1. The ability to parse lines based on text and/or RegExes
2. Post-processor
3. Searches case-sensitively, by default
4. Searches for the text anywhere on the line
1. grep 'linux' grep1.txt

2. grep -i 'linux' grep1.txt - case-insensitive search
3. grep '^linux' grep1.txt - uses '^' anchor to anchor searches at the beginning of lines
4. grep -i '^linux' grep1.txt
5. grep -i 'linux$' grep1.txt - uses '$' anchor to anchor searches at the end of lines
Note: Anchors are RegEx characters (meta-characters). They're used to match at the beginning
and end of lines
6. grep '[0-9]' grep1.txt - returns lines containing at least 1 number

7. grep '[a-z]' grep1.txt
8. rpm -qa | grep grep - searches the package database for programs named 'grep'
9. rpm -qa | grep -i xorg | wc -l - returns the number of pacakges with 'xorg' in their names
10. grep sshd messages

11. grep -v sshd messages - performs and inverted search (all but 'sshd' entries will be returned)
12. grep -v sshd messages | grep -v gconfd
13. grep -C 2 sshd messages - returns 2 lines, above and below matching line
Note: Most, if not all, Linux programs log linearly, which means one line after another, from the
earliest to the current
Note: Use single or double quotes to specify RegExes

Also, execute 'grep' using 'egrep' when RegExes are being used
###Awk###
Features:
1. Field/Column processor
2. Supports egrep-compatible (POSIX) RegExes
3. Can return full lines like grep
4. Awk runs 3 steps:
a. BEGIN - optional
b. Body, where the main action(s) take place
c. END - optional
5. Multiple body actions can be executed by separating them using semicolons. e.g. '{ print $1;
print $2 }'
6. Awk, auto-loops through input stream, regardless of the source of the stream. e.g. STDIN,
Pipe, File
Usage:
1. awk '/optional_match/ { action }' file_name | Pipe
2. awk '{ print $1 }' grep1.txt
Note: Use single quotes with awk, to avoid shell interpolation of awk's variables
3. awk '{ print $1,$2 }' grep1.txt
Note: Default input and output field separators is whitespace
4. awk '/linux/ { print } ' grep1.txt - this will print ALL lines containing 'linux'
5. awk '{ if ($2 ~ /Linux/) print}' grep1.txt
6. awk '{ if ($2 ~ /8/) print }' /var/log/messages - this will print the entire line for log items for the
8th
7. awk '{ print $3 }' /var/log/messages | awk -F: '{ print $1}'
###Sed - Stream Editor###

Features:
1. Faciliates automated text editing
2. Supports RegExes (POSIX)
3. Like Awk, supports scripting using '-F' option
4. Supports input via: STDIN, pipe, file
Usage:
1. sed [options] 'instruction[s]' file[s]
2. sed -n '1p' grep1.txt - prints the first line of the file
3. sed -n '1,5p' grep1.txt - prints the first 5 lines of the file
4. sed -n '$p' grep1.txt - prints the last line of the file
5. sed -n '1,3!p' grep1.txt - prints ALL but lines 1-3
6. sed -n '/linux/p' grep1.txt - prints lines with 'linux'
7. sed -e '/^$/d' grep1.txt - deletes blank lines from the document
8. sed -e '/^$/d' grep1.txt > sed1.txt - deletes blank lines from the document 'grep1.txt' and
creates 'sed1.txt'
9. sed -ne 's/search/replace/p' sed1.txt

10. sed -ne 's/linux/unix/p' sed1.txt
11. sed -i.bak -e 's/3/4' sed1.txt - this backs up the original file and creates a new 'sed1.txt' with
the modifications indicated in the command
Note: Generally, to create new files, use output redirection, instead of allowing sed to write to
STDOUT
Note: Sed applies each instruction to each line
###Perl###
Features:
1. Parses text
2. Executes programs
3. CGI - Web forms, etc.
4. Supports RegExes (Perl and POSIX)
5. etc.
Task:
1. Print 'Hello World' to STDOUT
a. perl -c helloworld.pl - checks the syntax of the script
b. perl helloworld.pl - executes the script
c. chmod +x helloworld.pl && ./helloworld.pl
2. Parse RegExes from the command line
###System Utilities###
Features:
1. Process listing
2. Free/available memory
3. Disk utilization
1. ps - process status/listing
a. ps -ef or ps -aux
2. top - combines, ps, uptime, free and updates regulary
3. uptime - returns useful system utilization information:

a. current time
b. uptime - days, hours and minutes
c. connected users
d. load averaged - 1,5,15 minute values
4. free - returns memory utilization

a. RAM
b. SWAP
free -m - for human readable format
5. df - returns disk partition/mount point information

a. df - returns info. using kilobytes
b. df -h - returns info. using megabytes/human readable (gigs/teray/etc.)
6. vmstat - reports on: processes, memory, paging, block I/O, traps, CPU activity
a. vmstat
b. vmstat -p /dev/hda1 - returns partitions stats for /dev/hda1 (/boot)
7. gnome-system-monitor - GUI, combining most system utilities

8. ls -ltr /proc
a. cat /proc/cpuinfo
9. kill PID - kills the process with a given PID

10. runlevel - returns runlevel information using 2 fields:
a. represents previous runlevel
b. represents current runlevel
###User/Group Management###
Features:
1. The ability to control users and groups
Primary tools:
1. useradd - used to add users and modify group membership
2. system-config-users
Task:
1. Create a user named 'student1' using 'useradd'
Note: Default user settings derive from: /etc/login.defs

a. useradd student1
b. set password for user 'student1': passwd student1
Default User Accounts DB: /etc/passwd

student1:x:501:501::/home/student1:/bin/bash
username:shadow_reference:uid:gid:Description(GECOS):$HOME:$SHELL
Note: /etc/passwd is a world-readable file
Note: /etc/shadow now stores passwords in encrypted form
Note: /etc/shadow is NOT world-readable
Fields in /etc/shadow:
student1:$1$XSFMv2ru$lfTACjN.XxaxbHA0EkB4U0:13891:0:99999:7:::
1. username:
2. encrypted_password:
3. Days_since_Unix_epoch_password_was_changed (01/01/1970)
4. Days before password may be changed
5. Days after which the password MUST be changed
6. Days before password is to expire that user is warned
7. Days after password expires, that account is disabled
8. Days since Unix epoch, that account is disabled
9. Reserved field (currently unused)
2. Modify user 'student1' to have password expire after 45 days

a. usermod
Groups:
1. groupadd - adds new group
2. groups - lists groups on the system: /etc/group
/etc/group - maintains group membership information
Task: Create a 'sales' group and add 'linuxcbt' and 'student1' as members
1. groupadd sales
2. usermod -G sales linuxcbt
3. usermod -G sales student1
Note: 2 types of groups exist:

1. Primary - used by default for a user's permissions
2. Supplemental - used to determine effective permissions
Note: use 'id' to determine the group information of user

Note: Create a new shell session to realize new group membership information
userdel/groupdel are used to delete users and groups, respectively
###File Types - Permissions - Symlinks###

Features:
1. The ability to restrict/control access to files
Note: 10 bits represent permissions for files (including directories)
Note: use 'ls -l' to examine permissions or GUI application like 'Nautilus'
-rwxrwxr-x 1 linuxcbt linuxcbt 681 Jan 13 11:31 regextest.pl

1st bit = file type. '-' = file, 'd' = directory
2nd - 4th bits = owner's permissions
r = read = 4
w = write = 2
x = execute = 1
- = none = 0
5th - 7th bits = group owner's permissions

r = read = 4
w = write = 2
x = execute = 1
- = none = 0
8th - 10th bits = everyone (world)

r = read = 4
w = write = 2
x = execute = 1
- = none = 0
Task:
1. Manipulate file permissions using 'chmod'
a. chmod -x regextest.pl
-rw-rw-r-- 1 linuxcbt linuxcbt 681 Jan 13 11:31 regextest.pl

rw = 6 or 4+2 for owner
rw = 6 or 4+2 for group owner
r = 4 for everyone else (world)
Octal notation: 664 for file 'regexetest.pl'
chmod 664 regextest.pl - removes execution for ALL users

chmod 775 regextest.pl - enables execution for ALL users
2. Ensure that 'regextest.pl' is rw by owner and noone else

a. chmod 600 regextest.pl
Note: File will now be rw by owner (linuxcbt) and 'root'
3. Ensure that 'regextest.pl' is r by owner and noone else

a. chmod 400 regextest.pl && ls -l regextest.pl
Note: chmod supports string values, which represent octal values

chmod +/- x file
chmod +/- w file
chmod +/- r file
chmod +/- u+x file - updates owner's execute permissions on the file
chmod +/- o+x file - updates other's execute permissions on the file
chmod +/- g+x file - updates group's execute permissions on the file
chmod a+rwx = chmod 777

chown - permits changing of ownership of files
a. chown root regextest.pl - changes ownership to 'root'
b. chown linuxcbt:sales regextest.pl - changes owner and group to 'linuxcbt:sales'
Task:
Update 'regextest.pl' so that owner and group owner may modify the file
a. chmod 660 regextest.pl
SETUID:
Features:
1. ability to execute file as owner
chmod 4760 regextest.pl - this will ensure that the perl script always executes as the user
'linuxcbt'
-rwsrw---- 1 linuxcbt sales 787 Jan 13 16:08 regextest.pl
's' in the execute position means that the program will execute as that user
SETGID:
Features:
1. Ability to enforce permissions to a directory structure
mkdir /sales
chmod 2775 /sales
Create a file in the '/sales' directory as 'linuxcbt'

seq 1000000 > linuxcbt.1million.txt
chgrp:
Permits updating of group permissions
Sticky Bit:
Features:
1. Ability to ensure that users cannot delete others' files in a directory
drwxrwxrwt 23 root root 4096 Jan 13 15:05 /tmp/
/tmp - users cannot delete other user's files in '/tmp'
chmod 3777 /sales - ensures that /sales will not lose files from incorrect users
Task:
1. Set '/sales' using sticky bit and test
a. chmod 3777 /sales && ls -ld /sales OR chmod 777 /sales && chmod +t /sales
###Symlinks###
Features:
1. Provides shortcuts to files (including directories)
2. Provides hard links to inode (file system) locations
Soft Links:
1. ln -s source_file target
a. ln -s ./regextest.pl lastscript.pl
Note: Soft links may span multiple file systems/hard drives

Note: Symlink count is NOT increased when using soft links
2. ln -s /home/linuxcbt/testRH5/regextest.pl . - this will symlink (soft) to the /boot file system
Note: With soft links, if you change the name or location of the source file, you will break ALL of
the symlinks (soft)
Hard Links:
Features:
1. The ability to reference the same inode/hard drive location from multiple places within the
same file system
a. ln source target
ln regextest.pl ./testhardregextest.pl - creates a hard link
###Quotas###
Features:
1. Limits disk usage (blocks or inodes)
2. Tied to file systems (set on a per file system basis)
3. Can be configured for users and groups
Steps to enable quota support:

1. Enable quota support per file system in: /etc/fstab
a. defaults,usrquota,grpquota
2. Remount the file system(s)
a. mount -o remount /
b. use 'mount' to confirm that 'usrquota,grpquota' support are enabled
3. Create quota database files and generate disk usage table
a. quotacheck -mcug / - this creates /aquota.user & /aquota.group
b. quotacheck -mavug
4. Assign quota policies
a. edquota username - set blocks/inodes soft_limits hard_limit
edquota student1 - sets quotas for user 'student1'
export EDITOR=nano - to have edquota default to 'nano' editor
5. Check quotas
a. quota username
quota student1
Note: place 'quotacheck -avug' in /etc/cron.*(hourly,daily)
6. Report on usage
a. repquota -a - this reports on usage
Note: The blocks are measured in 1K increments. i.e. 20000 blocks is roughly 20MB
###Basic Provisioning of Partitions and File Systems###

Features:
1. Ability to provision extra storage on-the-fly
Steps:
1. Identify available storage
a. 'fdisk -l' - returns connected storage
2. Create partitions on desired hard drive:

a. 'fdisk /dev/sdb' - interacts with /dev/sdb drive
b. 'n' - to add a new partition
c. 'p' - primary
d. '1' - start cylinder
e. '+4096M' - to indicate 4 Gigabytes
f. 'w' - to write the changes to the disk
Note: use 'partprobe partition (/dev/sdb1)' to force a write to a hard drive's partition table on a
running system
Note: 'fdisk' creates raw partitions
3. Overlay (format) the raw partition with a file system

a. mke2fs -j /dev/sdb1 - this will write inodes to partition
4. Mount the file system in the Linux file system hierarchy:
a. mkdir /home1 && mount /dev/sdb1 /home1
b. mount OR df -h - either will reveal that /dev/sdb1 is mounted
Note: lost+found directory is created for each distinct file system
5. Configure '/home1' to auto-mount when the system boots

a. nano /etc/fstab and copy and modify the '/home' entry
###Swap Partitions & Files###

Features:
1. Extra, virtual RAM for the OS
Steps:
1. Identify current swap space
a. swapon -s - enumerates partitions and/or files, which constitute swap storage
b. free -m
2. Select target drive and provision swap partition

a. fdisk /dev/sdb
b. n
c. 2
d. 500
e. +512 (cylinder 562) - 63 cylinders are required for 512MB
f. t - change type
g. 82 - Linux Swap/Solaris
h. w - committ changes to disk
3. Create the swap file system on the raw partition: /dev/sdb2
a. mkswap /dev/sdb2
4. Enable swapping - publish the swap space to the kernel

a. swapon /dev/sdb2 - this enables swapping on /dev/sdb2
5. update /etc/fstab

a. /dev/sdb2 swap swap defaults 0 0
swapoff /dev/sdb2 - disables swapping on /dev/sdb2
Task:
1. Improve system performance by distributing swapping to /dev/sdb2
a. swapon /dev/sdb2
b. swapoff /dev/sda6
c. disable /dev/sda6 via /etc/fstab
###Create Swap based on File###

Features:
1. The ability to provision swap space based on a file, similar to pagefile.sys in Windows NT,
etc., if you have no available disk space to partition.
2. Doesn't waste partitions
Task:
1. Create 512MB swap file
a. dd if=/dev/zero of=/home1/swapfile1 bs=1024 count=524288
b. mkswap /home1/swapfile1 - overlays swap file system
c. swapon /home1/swapfile1 - makes swap space avaialable to the kernel
2. Ensure that when the system reboots, the swapfile is made avialable to the kernel
a. nano /etc/fstab - /home1/swapfile1 swap swap defaults 0 0
3. Create 2GB swap file

a. dd if=/dev/zero of=/home1/swapfile2 count=2G
###Logical Volume Management (LVM)###

Features:
1. Ability to create volume sets and stripe sets
2. LVM masks the underlying physical technology (ATA,ATAPI,IDE,SCSI,SATA,PATA,etc.)
3. LVM represents storage using a hierarchy:
a. Volume groups
a1. Physical volumes (/dev/sda2, /dev/sdb2, etc.)
b. Logical Volumes
b1. File systems
3. LVM physical volumes can be of various sizes
4. Ability to resize volumes on the fly
Note: Volume groups join: physical volumes (PVs) and Logical Volumes (LVs)
6 Steps to setup LVM:

1. Create LVM partitions via fdisk or parted
a. fdisk /dev/sda, /dev/sdb, /dev/sdc
b. n
c. p
d. +10G
e. t - change to type '8e' (LVM)
f. w
g. partprobe /dev/sda
2. Create Physical Volumes using 'pvcreate'

a. pvcreate /dev/sda3 /dev/sdb3 /dev/sdc3
3. Create Volume Groups using 'vgcreate'

a. vgcreate volgroup001 /dev/sda3 /dev/sdb3 /dev/sdc3
Note: Volume groups can be segmented into multiple logical volumes
4. Create one or more Logical Volumes

a. lvcreate -L 10GB -n logvolvar1 volgroup001
b. lvcreate -L 10GB -n logvolusr1 volgroup001
5. Create File system on logical volume(s)

a. mke2fs -j /dev/volgroup001/logvolvar1
b. mke2fs -j /dev/volgroup001/logvolusr1
6. Mount logical volume

a. mkdir /var1
b. mount /dev/volgroup001/logvolvar1 /var1
c. mkdir /usr1
d. mount /dev/volgroup001/logvolusr1 /usr1
Note: Be certain to update: /etc/fstab so that volumes are mounted when the system reboots
3-tiers of LVM display commands include:

a. pvdisplay - physical volumes - represent raw LVM partitions
b. vgdisplay - volume groups - aggregate physical volumes
c. lvdisplay - logical volumes - file systems - mount here
Rename of Logical Volume:

1. lvrename volume_group_name old new - used to rename volumes
Task: Rename 'logvolvar1' to 'logvolopt1'

a. lvrename volgroup001 logvolvar1 logvolopt1
Note: LVM is updated immediately, even while volume is mounted
However, you must remount the logical volume to see the changes
b. umount /var1 && mount /dev/mapper/volgroup001-logvolopt1 /opt1
c. Update /etc/fstab
Remove Logical Volume:

Task: Remove 'logvolusr1' from the logical volume pool
a. umount /usr1
b. lvremove /dev/mapper/volgroup001-logvolusr1
c. use 'lvdisplay' to confirm removal
Resize Logical Volume:

Task: Grow (resize) 'logvolopt1' to 20GB
a. lvresize -L 20GB /dev/volgroup001/logvolopt1
b. lvdisplay - to confirm new size of logical volume
c. df -h - will still reveal the current size
d. Resize the file system to update the INODE table on the logical volume to account for the new
storage in 'logvolopt1'
'resize2fs -f -p /dev/volgroup001/logvolopt1'
Note: You may resize file systems online if the following are met:
1. 2.6x kernel series
2. MUST be formatted with ext3
Task: Shrink (resize) 'logvolopt1' to 15GB

a. lvresize -L 15GB /dev/volgroup001/logvolopt1
b. lvdisplay
c. df -h
d. resize2fs -f -p /dev/volgroup001/logvolopt1
Note: online shrinking is not supported
e. df -h
Note: Check disk utilization prior to shrinking to reduce the risk of losing data
LVM GUI Utility:

system-config-lvm
###RAID###
Features:
1. The ability to increase availability and reliability of data
Tasks:
1. Create a RAID-1 Device (/dev/md0..n)
a. fdisk /dev/sdb - to create usable raw partitions
b. partprobe /dev/sdb - to force a kernel update of the partition layout of the disk: /dev/sdb
b. mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=1 --raid-devices=2 /dev/sdb5 /dev/sdb6
c. cat /proc/mdstat - lists active RAID (md) information
d. mke2fs -j /dev/md0 - overlays a file system on the RAID device
e. mount /dev/md0 /raid1
f. update: /etc/fstab
Note: use 'mdadm --query /dev/md0' to get information about a RAID device
Note: You may create RAID volumes/devices on a single or on multiple disks

Ideally, your RAID volumes should span multiple physical disks to improve:
a. reliability
b. performance
c. availability
2. Remove the RAID-1 device

a. umount /dev/md0
b. mdadm --manage --stop /dev/md0
3. Create a RAID-5 Volume

a. fdisk /dev/sdb - to create a partition number 7
b. partprobe /dev/sdb - to update the kernel's view of the partition table
c. mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=5 --raid-devices=3 /dev/sdb5 /dev/sdb6 /dev/sdb7
d. watch cat /proc/mdstat - refreshes every 2 seconds
e. Overlay a file system: mke2fs -j /dev/md0
f. mount /dev/md0 /raid5
g. Test I/O to RAID-5 device
h. Update: /etc/fstab
###RPM###
Features:
1. Provides package management
a. Query
b. Install
c. Uninstall
d. Upgrade
e. Verify
2. Auto-verifies packages using GPG, MD5, SHA1SUMs
3. Automatically reports on unresolved dependencies
'rpm'
Query:
1. rpm -qa - dumps all installed packages
2. rpm -qa | wc -l - this dumps all packages and provides a count
3. rpm -qa | grep -i nano
4. rpm -qi nano - dumps info. about the 'nano' package as it's recorded in the local RPM
database
5. rpm -qf /usr/bin/nano - dumps package membership info. for the 'nano' file
6. rpm -qpi http://192.168.75.100/RH5/i386/Server/dhcp-3.0.5-7.el5.i386.rpm - dumps info.
about the uninstalled 'dhcp' package, which resides on the repository
7. rpm -ql package_name - returns all included files
Verify:
1. rpm -Va - verifies ALL packages on the system, returning info. only if there are discrepancies
from the original installation
2. rpm -Vf /usr/bin/nano
Task: Change '/usr/bin/nano' then verify
SM5....T /usr/bin/nano
S(file size), M(mode or permissions), 5(MD5), T(mod time)

3. rpm -Vp nano
Install (Does NOT overwrite previous package):

Note: Use this method to install a new version of the kernel
1. rpm -ivh *.rpm
2. rpm -ivh http://192.168.75.100/RH5/i386/Server/dhcp-3.0.5-7.el5.i386.rpm
Upgrade (Installs or overwrites existing package):

1. rpm -Uvh *.rpm
2. rpm -Uvh http://192.168.75.100/RH5/i386/Server/dhcp-3.0.5-7.el5.i386.rpm
Freshen (Updates an existing package):

Note: Will NOT install the package, if it doesn't exist locally
1. rpm -Fvh *.rpm - freshens the current version of a package
Removal:
1. rpm -ev *.rpm - removes a pacakge
Note: removal process considers dependencies and will complain if the removal will break 1 or
more packages. To get around this, use '--nodeps' option with 'rpm -ev --nodeps *.rpm'
2. rpm -ev gftp

Package Management GUI:
1. Add/Remove Software
2. system-config-packages
###YUM Configuration###
Features:
1. The ability to centralize packages (updates)
Installation & Setup:

1. Install 'createrepo*rpm'
2. Setup directory structure
a. /srv/www/linuxcbt.com/RH5/yum
3. Run 'createrepo /srv/www/linuxcbt.com/RH5/yum'
4. Publish the yum repository using HTTP
5. Configure yum client to use HTTP to fetch the RPMs

a. /etc/yum.conf
a1. ###Included as our first repository on the SUSE box###

[0001]
name=linuxcbtsuse1
baseurl=http://192.168.75.100/RH5/yum
Note: Ensure that about 3GBs are available for the yum respository
tar -cjvf yum_metadata.bz2 repodata
Yum Usage:
1. Search for packages
a. 'yum search gftp'
2. Install packages - Requires RedHat GPG Key for RPMs

rpm --import http://192.168.75.100/RH5/i386/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-release
a. 'yum -y install gftp'
b. 'yum -y install gftp dhcp' installs 2 packages
3. Remove Package

a. 'yum -y remove gftp'
###Cron - Scheduler###
Features:
1. Scheduler
2. Rules (Cron entries) are based on times:
a. minute (0-59)
b. hour (0-23)
c. day of the month (1-31)
d. month (1-12)
e. day of the week (Sun,Mon,Tue, etc. OR 0-7)
f. command to execute (shell, perl, php, etc.)
3. Wakes up every minute in search of programs to execute
4. Reads cron entries from multiple files
5. Maintains per-user and system-wide (/etc/crontab) schedules
/etc:
cron.d/
cron.deny - denies cron execution by user
cron.monthly/ - runs jobs monthly
cron.weekly/ - runs jobs weekly
cron.daily/ - runs jobs daily
cron.hourly/ - runs jobs hourly
crontab - contains system-wide schedules
Note: '*' wildcard in a time column means to run for all values
Per-user Crontabs:
Stored in: /var/spool/cron
Task:
1. Create a cron entry for the user 'student1'
a. su student1
b. crontab -e
c. create an entry, minus the name of the user
Note: 'crontab -l' - enumerates per-user cron entries
System-wide Crontab:
Stored in: /etc/crontab
Task:
1. Create a cron entry in: /etc/crontab
Note: 'crontab -l -u username' - enumerates per-user cron entries
###SysLogD###
Features:
1. Handles logging
2. Unix Domain Sockets (/dev/log)
3. Internet Sockets (UDP:514)
4. Ability to log to local and remote targets
Implented as 'sysklogd' package
Primary configuration file: /etc/syslog.conf
Standard syslog.conf file contains:

1. Rules
a.facilities -> applications/daemons/network device/etc.
b. levels -> Importance of message
Range: 0-7
7 = emergency (less information)
6 = alert
5 = critical
4 = error
3 = warning
2 = notice
1 = info
0 = debug (more information)
2. Targets
a. file - /var/log/messages
b. tty - /dev/console
c. remote hosts - @IP_ADDR_of_REMOTE_HOST
'*' = catchall/wildcard to mean any facility or level

'.none' = exclusion rule
'man syslog.conf' to learn about the support facilities.levels
Task:
1. Enable UDP logging for remote Cisco gateway (192.168.75.1)
a. netstat -nul | grep 514 - reveals UDP:514 listener
b. nano /etc/sysconfig/syslog
b1. 'SYSLOGD_OPTIONS="-r"'
c. restart syslog and confirm UDP:514 listener
c1. confirm using 'netstat -nul | grep 514'
d. Configure the router using facility 'local0' and level 'info'
e. configure /etc/syslog.conf to accept 'local0.info'
f. restart or reload 'syslog'
###Log Rotation###
Features:
1. Rotation of logs based on criteria
a. size
b. age (daily, weekly, monthly)
2. Compression
3. Maintain logs for a defined period
/etc/logrotate.conf - primary (global) config file for all logs

-can be overriden by context-sensitive files. i.e. apache
run 'man logrotate'
/etc/logrotate.d - directory for logs to be rotated

-httpd - used to rotate Apache logs
/var/log/httpd/*log {
missingok
notifempty
sharedscripts
postrotate
/bin/kill -HUP `cat /var/run/httpd.pid 2>/dev/null` 2> /dev/null || true
endscript
}
Task: Setup rotation rule for Cisco log

1. Create entry in: /etc/logrotate.d based on /etc/logrotate.d/syslog
2. Modified the entry to rotate based on new criteria

3. Rotated using: 'logrotate /etc/logrotate.conf'
Note: Force using: 'logrotatate -f /etc/logrotate.conf'
###Commong Network Utilities###

Features:
1. Useful for basic troubleshooting
PING:
Features:
1. ability to communicate with hosts using ICMP
a. PING sends ICMP echo-requests
b. PING expects to receive ICMP echo-replies
Task: PING some hosts and evaluate the output

1. ping localhost (127.0.0.1)
2. ping -c 3 localhost - sends 3 ICMP echo-requests
Note: 'ping localhost' performs name resolution using /etc/hosts
/etc/hosts stores static name-to-IP mappings
Note: 127.0.0.0/8 is fully-reserved to the loopback adapter of ALL IPv4 hosts
3. ping -c 3 192.168.75.199
4. ping -c 3 -i 3 192.168.75.199 - delays PINGs to 3 seconds apart
Note: PING defaults to a standard 1-second interval

Note: Firewall(s) may block ICMP traffic, causing PING to fail
TELNET:
Features:
1. Great for basic TCP port diagnosis
Task:
1. Connect to TCP ports on various hosts
a. telnet 192.168.75.100 22
b. telnet www.linuxcbt.com 80
NETSTAT:
Features:
1. Provides network connection information from /proc/net/*
Task:
1. Return useful information for various protocols
a. netstat
b. netstat -a - returns all protocols/sockets
c. netstat -ntlp - returns all TCP LISTENERS without name resolution
d. netstat -nulp - returns all UDP lISTENERS without name resolution
Note: netstat uses /etc/services to translate ports to names

Note: 0.0.0.0:514 - this means that Syslog will accept traffic to any of the defined IP
addresses/interfaces on the system
e. netstat -ntp - returns established connections (sockets)

f. netstat -rn - returns the routing table
ARP:
Features:
1. Resolves layer-2 (OSI model) MAC addresses to layer-3 IP addresses
Task:
1. Examine MAC addresses using: ifconfig and arp
a. ifconfig - returns our local MAC addresses
Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:02:B3:98:41:08
b. arp -a - returns MAC to IP mappings
Note: When 2 TCP/IP hosts communicate, ARP is performed to translate the IP address (v6/v4)
to a MAC address.
Note: If a one or more routers separate the communicating hosts, then the MAC address of the
default router's (gateway's) interface is stored by each client
###IPv4 Configuration & Network Settings###
Network Support:
1. Boot system into a multi-user mode
2. /etc/modprobe.conf - contains alias and reference to module(s) to be loaded in order to
provide networking
3. Linux decides if the interface is DHCP or static by viewing the contents of:
a. /etc/sysconfig/network - networking=yes|no, IPv6_Support, Default Gateway, etc.
b. /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 - contains ifup, ifdown, and ifcfg-* scripts
c. /etc/init.d/network - main service
service network status - checks networking
system-config-network-* - network interface configuration
Note: Either update your net configuration manually from the shell, or using the 'system-config-
network*' tools to avoid losing settings
/etc/resolv.conf - DNS configuration file
/etc/hosts - static list of hosts
IPv4 Aliases:
1. ifconfig eth0:1 192.168.75.11
2. ifconfig eth0:2 10.168.76.11
Note: To ensure that aliases persist do the following:

1. cp /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 ./ifcfg-eth0:1
2. Modify ifcfg-eth0:1 to reflect aliased IP
Note: Aliases do NOT work with DHCP interfaces
ifconfig eth0:2 del 10.168.76.11 - removes the virtual interface
IPv6 Config:
Features:
1. Auto-configured by default gateway (router)
2. fe80:: - link-local address (loopback/local subnet address)
3. 2002:: - 6to4 address, that can be configured based on IPv4 embedded address, using HEX
notation
ping6 -I eth0 fe80::

traceroute6 - used to trace routes on IPv6 networks
###Kernel Upgrade###
Features:
1. Provision of updated/patched kernel
Task:
1. Update the kernel
a. use 'uname -a' to reveal current version
b. use 'rpm -qa | grep -i kernel' - to reveal installed version
c. cat /etc/grub.conf -> /boot/grub/grub.conf - "" ""
2. Proper installation method is as follows:

a. 'rpm -ivh kernel*rpm' - install a separate version
Note: Install the following kernel packages if necessary:

a. kernel-devel* - if module compilation is necessary
b. kernel-headers* - if recompilation is necessary
Install:
a. rpm -ivh kernel-2.6.18-53.el5.i686.rpm
Note: This will update GRUB (/boot/grub/grub.conf)
Note: Will also place the new kernel in the /boot file system
Examine traces in:

a. /boot
b. /boot/grub/grub.conf
3. Remove traces of former kernel using 'rpm -e [--nodeps]'
a. kernel-2.6.18-8.el5 - removes older version
b. kernel-headers-2.6.18-8.el5 - force remove ignoring dependencies 'rpm -e --nodeps kernel-
headers-2.6.18-8.el5'
c. kernel-devel-2.6.18-8.el5
4. Install new 'kernel-headers' and 'kernel-devel' packages using YUM:

a. yum -y install kernel-headers
b. yum -y install kernel-devel
5. Confirm that the 3 'kernel-*' packages are installed:

a. rpm -qa | grep kernel
Note: Removal of older kernel-* packages cleans up:

a. /boot
b. /boot/grub/grub.conf (menu.lst)
###Runlevel Service Management Tools###

Features:
1. The ability to indicate desired runlevels for services
2. Services are located in: /etc/init.d
/usr/sbin/ntsysv:
Usage:
1. ntsysv - manages services in the current run-level
2. ntsysv 35 - manages services for run-levels 3 & 5
Note: ntsysv nor chkconfig starts|stops services
Chkconfig Usage:
1. chkconfig --list ntpd - returns run-level environment for 'ntpd'
Note: items listed as 'off' have K (kill) scripts
Note: items listed as 'on' have S (start) scripts
2. chkconfig --level 3 ntpd off - creates a K(kill) script in run-level 3
3. chkconfig --level 35 ntpd off

4. chkconfig ntpd on - enables 'ntpd' in levels 2-5
5. chkconfig ntpd off - disables 'ntpd' in levels 0-6
Note: Use 'chkconfig' from the shell or a script

Note: Use 'ntsysv' from the shell in interactive mode
Note: When controlling services using 'chkconfig', reference the name of the service as it's
specified in: /etc/init.d
system-config-services - GUI tool to manage services

###Network Time Protocol (NTP) Implementation###
Features:
1. The ability to synch your system's clock
2. Also can be used to synch other clocks
3. Implemented as: 'ntp-4.2...rpm' package
4. Is hierarchial, using strata levels to denote time accuracy
/etc/ntp.conf - primary configuration
NTP Strata:
Features:
1. The ability to denote clock accuracy based on on stratum
2. With Stratum level 1 being the most accurate, as an NTP server at this level is connected to
an external time service (GPS, Radio, etc.)
Use: www.ntp.org - to located public NTP clocks at various strata
Task:
1. Synch against internal NTP server
a. /etc/ntp.conf
a1. server 192.168.75.100
b. service ntpd start - this starts the 'ntpd' service
c. chkconfig ntpd on
d. ntpq -np - this queries the running 'ntpd' server
Note: NTP synchronization is hierarchical. Thus, if we synch against a stratum 3 clock, we

become a stratum 4 clock
2. Prove that 'linuxcbtserv4' is indeed a stratum 4 clock

a. /etc/ntp.conf - of 'linuxcbtserv1'
a1. server 192.168.75.199
Note: Ideally, you should supply your: /etc/ntp.conf file with at least 3 clocks for:
1. Accuracy
2. Redundancy
###Trivial File Transfer Protocol Daemon (TFTPD)###

Features:
1. Fast, connectionless (UDP), file transfers
2. Often used to move files to and fro networked systems (VOIP Phones, PXE configurations,
Router/Firewall/Switch configurations, etc.)
Note: Implemented as 2 components:

a. Client - tftp-*rpm
b. Server - tftp-server*
Tasks:
1. Install TFTP client
a. yum -y install tftp
2. Install TFTP server
a. yum -y install tftp-server
Note: this also install 'xinetd' dependency
3. Configure and start 'tftp' via 'xinetd'

a. /etc/xinetd.d/tftp - modify this file prior to starting 'TFTPD'
b. service xinetd start - to start XINETD
Note: TFTPD listens to UDP:69, by default
Note: use 'netstat -nulp | grep 69' to check if 'xinetd' is listening
4. Copy Cisco Router configuration to TFTP server

a. copy running-config tftp://192.168.75.199
b. setsebool -P tftpd_disable_trans=1 - disables SELinux for TFTPD
c. 'service xinetd restart' - restart XINETD
d. 'chmod 666 linuxcbtrouter1.config' - to permit TFTPD to write
5. Use 'tftp' client to download 'linuxcbtrouter1.config' file

a. tftp 192.168.75.199 -c get linuxcbtrouter1.config
b. tftp - enters interactive mode
Note: tftp client operates in both non-interactive and interactive modes
###Very Secure File Transfer Protocol Daemon (VSFTPD)###

Features:
1. FTPD
2. Chroot jail
3. anonymous and local-user auth
4. Rate-limiting
Tasks:
1. Install 'vsftpd'
a. yum -y install vsftpd
2. Start the server

a. service vsftpd start
b. netstat -ntlp | grep 21
3. Configure service to start when system boots into multi-user runlevel
a. chkconfig vsftpd on
b. chkconfig --list vsftpd
4. Connect to the FTPD service:

a. Use web browser, which defaults to anonymous
b. Use standard FTP client, as anonymous
c. setsebool -P ftp_home_dir=1 - permits users access to their home directory
d. service vsftpd restart - for changes to take effect
5. Chroot jail local users & disable 'anonymous' access

a. chroot_local_user=YES - this jails users
b. service vsftpd restart - for changes to take effect
c. test connectivity as 'anonymous' and 'non-anonymous' users
6. Enable IPv6 listener:

a. listen_ipv6=YES - DO NOT USE WITH 'listen=YES(IPv4)'
7. Restrict 'non-anonymous' user's transfer rate

a. local_max_rate=1000 - restricts connections to 1000/bps (1K/s)
###LFTP###
Features:
1. Sophisticated FTP client
2. Provides connectivity:
a. FTP
b. HTTP/HTTPS
c. SFTP(SSHv2)
3. Interactive and non-interactive client
4. Supports scripting
5. Reads system-wide (/etc/lftp.conf) and per-user config files (~/.lftprc)
6. Behaves like the BASH shell
a. Command history
b. Permits execution of background jobs. Use CTRL-Z to background.
c. Tab completion
7. Supports mirroring (forward and reverse) of content
8. Supports FTP retransmit/reconnect from where you left off
9. Supports bookmarks of sites
10. Supports escape to shell using '!command' e.g. '!bash'
11. Supports the execution of BASH programs '!command' e.g. '!ps -ef'
Usage:
1. lftp - enters interactive mode
a. 'set -a' - reveals all variables
2. lftp linuxcbt@192.168.75.199
3. mget -c - continues downloads
4. mput -c - continues uploads
5. lftp -u linuxcbt,abc123 sftp://192.168.75.199 - Connects to SFTP server
6. mirror -v mirror/ - mirrors a remote directory named 'mirror' to the local system
7. mirror -Rv mirror/ - Reverse mirror (puts) - items to remote server
###Telnet Server###
Features:
1. Shell interface on remote system
2. Binds to TCP:23
Caveat:
1. Clear-text based application (credentials are transmitted in the clear)
2. By default, 'root' is NOT permitted access via telnet-server - /etc/securetty
Requirements:
1. xinetd - installed automatically via yum
Install Telnet Server:

1. yum -y install telnet-server
2. nano /etc/xinetd.d/telnet - change 'disable = yes' to 'disable = no'
3. service xinetd restart - effects changes
Tasks:
1. Connect to both systems from either system using 'telnet' client
a. telnet 192.168.75.199 - This will allocate a free pseudo-terminal, if the user authenticates
successfully
Note: By default, telnet-server reads and dislplays the contents of: /etc/issue
Note: TCP|UDP ports are 16-bit based: 2**16, OR, 0-65535
Note: ptys are assigned sequentially, by default
2. Enable 'root' login via telnet

a. mv /etc/securetty /etc/securetty.disabled
Note: Wherever/whenever possible opt for SSH in place of Telnet Server
###Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Daemon###

Features:
1. Provides automatic configuration of IPv4 clients
a. IPv4 address
b. Subnet mask
c. Default gateway
d. DNS Servers
e. NTP Servers
f. WINS Servers
2. Leases the addreses and related information based on predefined values:
a. 1 day
b. 1 week
c. 1 month
3. DHCP uses UDP protocol and layer-2 information to request/assign addresses
4. DHCP Process - DORA

a. Discovery - client broadcasts on the local subnet for a DHCP server
b. Offer - returned by the DHCP server
c. Request - formal address request by client
d. Acknowledgement/Acceptance - Acknowledgement occurrs
Note: DHCPD records leases in: /var/lib/dhcpd/dhcpd.leases
Tasks:
1. Install DHCP server
a. yum -y install dhcp
2. Configure: /etc/dhcpd.conf - primary config file
3. Set service up to start when system boots

a. chkconfig dhcpd on - 2345
4. Disable service on 192.168.75.100 box

a. rcdhcpd stop
5. Start service on localhost:

a. service dhcpd start
6. Setup DHCP reservation

a. Requires the MAC address of the client (00:0C:29:B5:16:92)
b. Requires the 'fixed-address' - IPv4 address to map to the MAC address
c. Optional 'option-*' are supported between host { } block
d. service dhcpd restart - restart to effect changes
###BIND DNS###
Features:
1. Name-to-IP address mapping
2. Name resolution for DNS clients
3. Caching-only server (Default)
4. Primary DNS server
5. Slave server
6. Replication of DNS database information between servers
7. Dynamic DNS updates
8. Provides numerous client tools: nslookup, dig, host
Tasks:
1. Installation of BIND on the remote system: linuxcbtserv4
a. yum -y install bind
2. Setup service to auto-start at boot

a. chkconfig --level 35 named on - enables the service in runlevels: 3,5
3. Configure a default, caching-only, named.conf file

a. rpm -ql bind - to see samples
b. cp /usr/share/doc/bind*/sample/* to /etc/ and /var/named
c. Modify /etc/named.conf - disable DDNS_KeyGen sections
d. Start the server - service named start

4. Query the server
a. dig @localhost www.linuxcbt.com
a1. Returns: question, answer, authoritative DNS servers, query time
b. nslookup www.linuxcbt.com OR nslookup - server 127.0.0.1 - www.linuxcbt.com
Note: The server has cached: www.linuxcbt.com, evidenced by the decrementing TTL values for
the various records associated with the zone
c. host www.linuxcbt.com - also performs a lookup
Note: /etc/resolv.conf controls the DNS servers that are consulted by lookup tools such as: Web
browser, GFTP, LFTP, nslookup, dig, host, etc.
d. dig linuxcbt.com MX - queries the domain for mail exchangers
Note: DNS is organized into an inverted tree, with '.' representing the root of the DNS tree. e.g.
dig mail1.linuxgenius.com.
- . = root
- .com = top level
- .linuxgenius = second level
-mail = third level
Note: A trailing '.' in a DNS query is implied, and may optionally be indicated if desired in any
standard Internet application (web browser, FTP client, wget, nslookup, dig, host, etc.)
Primary & Secondary Zones:

Features:
1. Ability to service zones
2. Authoritative support for a zone
Tasks:
1. Create internal zone named 'linuxcbt.internal'
a. modify /etc/named.conf to include the new zone
zone "linuxcbt.internal" {
type master;
#allow-update { key ddns_key; };
file "linuxcbt.internal.db";
};
b. create the corresponding zone file

c. restart named
d. test resolution of DNS primary zone
Note: Install 'caching-nameserver*' for Caching-only DNS server
2. Create a slave (Secondary) server

a. yum -y install bind
b. copy sample files from primary server to secondary server
c. modify /etc/named.conf and set 'linuxcbt.internal' zone to slave
d. start named service - 'service named start'
e. chkconfig --level 35 named on
f. Update: /var/named/linuxcbt.internal.db to reflect new name server
3. Create a primary zone on the "secondary" server

a. create a zone for: linuxcbt.external - in /etc/named.conf
b. copy/create 'linuxcbt.external.db' zone file
c. setup 'linuxcbtserv4' to be a slave for the zone: linuxcbt.external

4. Start 'named' as a caching-only DNS server (Default)

a. service named start
b. 'dig @192.168.75.199 www.linuxcbt.com' - forces a caching-only lookup query
Forward IPv6 Records:

Implemented primarily as AAAA records:
linuxcbtserv1 IN AAAA 2002:4687:db25:3:202:b3ff:fe98:4108

linuxcbtserv4 IN AAAA 2002:4687:db25:3:20c:29ff:feb5:1692
linuxcbtmedia1 IN AAAA 2002:4687:db25:3:20a:5eff:fe1b:4aad
linuxcbtrouter1 IN AAAA 2002:4687:DB25:3:21A:2FFF:FEE3:F240
Test IPv6 resolution using:

1. ping6 linuxcbtrouter1.linuxcbt.internal
2. dig @192.168.75.10 linuxcbtrouter1.linuxcbt.internal
Reverse Zones:
Features:
1. The ability to resolve a name, given an IPv4 or IPv6 address
Tasks:
1. Define an IPv4 reverse zone for the local subnet:
a. Define zone name: '75.168.192.in-addr.arpa' - /etc/named.conf
b. Update: /etc/named.conf
c. Create zone file in: /var/named
d. Update configuration
e. Restart named
f. test using 'dig -x 192.168.75.1'
Note: Reverse zones are built from the prefix in IPv4 subnets
IPv6 Reverse Zone:

Requirements:
1. /etc/named.conf entry
zone "3.0.0.0.5.2.b.d.7.8.6.4.2.0.0.2.ip6.arpa" {
type master;
file "3.0.0.0.5.2.b.d.7.8.6.4.2.0.0.2.ip6.arpa.reverse";
};
Note: IPv6 reverse zone names are in nibble format, with ALL zeros expanded for the network
prefix portion of the address, which is usually 64-bits in length
2. /var/named/zone_file
a. Include entries using the last 64-bits or IPv6 host part
d.a.a.4.b.1.e.f.f.f.e.5.a.0.2.0 IN PTR linuxcbtmedia1.linuxcbt.internal.
Note: When creating reverse IPv6 entries for hosts, do the following:
a. reverse the 64-bit portion of the address that corresponds to the host, expanding all zeros
b. Create PTR record based on the reverse, nibble-format of the address
Test using dig:

a. dig -x 2002:4687:db25:3:20a:5eff:fe1b:4aad
###Network File System (NFS)###

Features:
1. Transparent access to remote file systems
2. Installed by default
3. Uses RPC for communications
Tasks:
1. Export a directory on the server using: /etc/exports
a. /path_to_directory IP_ADDR(rw)
b. /nfs1 192.168.75.10(rw)
c. mkdir /nfs1
d. start NFS server - 'service nfs start'
e. Confirm export(s) - 'exportfs -v'
Note: NFS matches remote user's UID to local /etc/passwd to determine ACLs
2. Export /nfs2

a. Create entry in /etc/exports
b. Update current exports using: exportfs -a
3. Mount both exports on a remote system

a. mount -t nfs 192.168.75.199:/nfs1 /nfs1
b. mount -t nfs 192.168.75.199:/nfs2 /nfs2
4. Allow local 'root' user the ability to write to /nfs1 export
a. /etc/exports: (rw,no_root_squash)
5. Setup mount points so that they're available upon reboot

a. /etc/fstab
b. Unmount and confirm that NFS mount points will be available when the client system
changes runlevels (reboots, starts, etc.) - 'mount -a'
showmount -a 192.168.75.199 - shows mounts on this system (connected NFS clients)

6. Attempt to mount /nfs1 & /nfs2 from an unauthorized system
a. Fails because client's IP does not match server's /etc/exports
b. Update server's /etc/exports to allow additional hosts/subnet/etc.
c. exportfs -a - to update the export table
###AutoFS###
Features:
1. Automatically mounts file systems (NFS, local, SMBFS, etc.) upon I/O request
Requirements:
1. autofs-*rpm must be installed
/etc/auto.master - primary configuration file

- also contains mount points and their mappings
/etc/sysconfig/autofs - default startup directives
Note: AutoFS must be running in order to auto-mount directories
Task:
1. Create an automount for /shares, which will mount /nfs1 & /nfs2
a. update /etc/auto.master - '/shares /etc/auto.shares'
b. cp /etc/auto.misc /etc/auto.shares
c. update the rules in /etc/auto.shares
d. Create AutoFS tree: /shares/
e. Restart the autofs service
f. Unmount: /nfs1 & /nfs2 if necessary
Note: Do NOT auto-mount directories that are already mounted
g. Test access to AutoFS controlled directory
g1. 'ls -l /shares/nfs1'
Note: syntax for auto-mount files is as follows:

[]
nfs1 -fstype=nfs 192.168.75.199:/nfs1
###Samba ###
Features:
1. Provides Windows features (file & print) on Linux | Unix
/etc/samba/smb.conf - primary config file
Clients:
1. findsmb - finds SMB hosts on the network
2. smbtree - equivalent to Network Neighborhood/My Network Places (prints workgroups, hosts,
and shares)
3. smbget - similar to 'wget', in that, it will download files from the remote share
a. smbget -u dean smb://linuxcbtwin1/mtemp/20070524_SAN_Allocations.ods
4. smbclient - interactive (FTP-like_ utility to connect to shares - permits uploads/downloads

from shares
a. smbclient -U dean //linuxcbtwin1/mtemp
b. mget file* - downloads file(s)
c. mput file* - uploads file(s)
5. smbtar - backs-up smb shares to a TAR archive

a. smbtar -s linuxcbtwin1 -x mtemp -u dean -t backup1.tar
Samba Server:
/etc/samba/smb.conf - primary config file
SWAT manages /etc/samba/smb.conf
Samba Server Modes:

1. User
a. One Samba-defined user is required per Linux user
b. Authentication of users is handled by Samba server
2. Server/Domain (PDC/BDC)
a. Authentication is handled by the Windows NT/2K/2K3/2K8 server
b. Still requires a local Samba-defined user accounts database
3. ADS - Active Directory
a. Authentication is handled by Active Directory
b. When used with Winbind, locally-defined Samba users are NOT required
Note: Ultimately, users must authenticate to the local Linux file system
Task:
1. Install SWAT
a. yum -y install samba-swat
b. nano /etc/xinetd.d/swat - set 'disable = no'
c. service xinetd restart
d. netstat -ntl | grep 901
/etc/samba/smbpasswd maps Windows users to /etc/passwd
2. Install rdesktop and connect to Windows XP to test connectivity to Samba

a. yum -y install rdesktop
Winbind:
Features:
1. Windows AD integration
2. Avoids having to define users in 2 places: Windows, Linux
3. Uses Kerberos for authentication
Requirements:
1. krb5-* packages
2. Properly configured Kerberos environment:
a. /etc/krb5.conf
[libdefaults]
default_realm = AD2.LINUXCBT.INTERNAL
[realms]
AD2.LINUXCBT.INTERNAL = {
kdc = linuxcbtwin3.ad2.linuxcbt.internal
admin_server = linuxcbtwin3
}
[domain_realm]
.linuxcbtwin3.ad2.linuxbt.internal = AD2.LINUXCBT.INTERNAL
Steps:
1. Update: /etc/krb5.conf
2. Update Samba configuration to use ADS authentication
3. Update Samba server's DNS to point to ADS server
a. /etc/resolv.conf
b. /etc/hosts - including a pointer to the ADS server (linuxcbtwin3)
4. Join AD domain:

a. 'net ads join -U administrator'
5. Confirm AD membership using: 'Active Directory Users & Computers' Tool
6. Setup Winbind to authenticate using ADS:

a. /etc/pam.d/system-auth - account & auth settings
auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_winbind.so - place before 'pam_unix.so'
account sufficient /lib/security/pam_winbind.so
b. /etc/nsswitch.conf
passwd: files winbind
group: files winbind
c. Configure 'idmap' 'uid & gid' mappings - 10000 - 20000

Use SWAT to update idmap settings for 'uid & gid'
Note: If you want ADS users to be able to logon to your Samba-Winbind Linux box using SSH,
Telnet, mingetty, etc., change the 'Template Shell' directive to a valid shell. i.e. /bin/bash
d. Create 'Template homedir' %D (Domain) directory beneath '/home'

mkdir /home/LINUXGENIUS
7. Test Winbind Integration using: wbinfo

a. wbinfo -u - this enumerates users in AD
b. wbinfo -g - this enumerates groups in AD
c. ssh into LINUXCBTSERV1 (Winbind) as ADS user
Task1:
1. Authenticate using ADS, as 'administrator' from Windows box
2. Create a user named 'linuxcbt' in AD
3. Create shared directory on the Samba box, and provide access (Share it)
###Apache Web Server###
Features:
1. WWW Web Server
2. Modular
Tasks:
1. Install Apache 2.2x
a. httpd*rpm
/etc/httpd - top-level configuration container on RH5

/etc/httpd/conf - primary configuration directory
/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf - primary Apache configuration file
/etc/httpd/conf.d - drop-in configuration directory, read by Apache upon startup
2. Explorer: /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf
a. HTTPD runs as: apache:apache

b. Apache maintains, always, a 'main' server, which is independent of Virtual Hosts. This server
is a catch-all for traffic that doesn't match any of the defined virtual hosts.
c. directive governs file system access.

Note: The primary Apache process runs as 'root', and has access to the full file system.
However, directive restricts the web-user's view of the file system.
d. Test access to '.ht*' files from web root
e. ErrorLog logs/error_log - default error log file for ALL hosts

f. logs/access_log - default log file for default server
Note: Every directory, outside of the 'DocumentRoot' should have at least one: directive defined.
3. Start Apache and continue to explore

a. service httpd start
root 31324 1 0 10:17 ? 00:00:00 /usr/sbin/httpd
apache 31326 31324 0 10:17 ? 00:00:00 /usr/sbin/httpd
Note: Parent Apache runs as 'root' and can see the entire file system
Note: However, children processes run as 'apache' and can only see files/directories that
'apache:apache' can see
4. Create an Alias for content outside of the web root (/var/www/html)
a. Alias /testalias1 /var/www/testalias1

AllowOverride Non
order allow,deny
allow from all

5. Ensure that Apache will start when the system boots
a. chkconfig --level 35 httpd on && chkconfig --list httpd
Virtual Hosts Configuration:

Features:
1. Ability to share/serve content based on 1 or more IP addresses
2. Supports 2 modes of Virtual Hosts:
a. IP Based - one site per IP address
b. Host header names - multiple sites per IP address
Tasks:
1. Create IP Based Virtual Hosts
a. ifconfig eth0:1 192.168.75.210
b. Configure the Virtual Host:
ServerAdmin webmaster@linuxcbtserv4.linuxcbt.internal
ServerName site1.linuxcbt.internal
DocumentRoot /var/www/site1
Order allow,deny
Allow from all
CustomLog logs/site1.linuxcbt.internal.access.log combined

ErrorLog logs/site1.linuxcbt.internal.error.log
c. Create: /var/www/site1 and content

d. Update: /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf with VHost information
2. Create Name-based Virtual Hosts using the primary IP address

a. /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf:
NameVirtualHost 192.168.75.199:80
ServerAdmin webmaster@linuxcbtserv4.linuxcbt.internal
ServerName site3.linuxcbt.internal
DocumentRoot /var/www/site3
Order allow,deny
Allow from all
CustomLog logs/site3.linuxcbt.internal.access.log combined

ErrorLog logs/site3.linuxcbt.internal.error.log
###Apache with SSL Support###
Features:
1. Secure/Encrypted communications
Requirements:
1. httpd
2. openssl
3. mod_ssl
4. crypto-utils (genkey) - used to generate certificates/private keys/CSRs
a. also used to create a self-signed certificate
Tasks:
1. Install the requirements
a. mod_ssl - module for Apache, which provides SSL support
yum -y install mod_ssl
/etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf - includes key SSL directives
b. crypto-utils - provies /usr/bin/genkey
2. Generate SSL usage keys using: genkey

a. genkey site1.linuxcbt.internal - creates text-gui interface
3. Update /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf to reference the new keys (public/private)
4. Restart the HTTPD server

a. service httpd restart
b. httpd -S
5. Test HTTPS connectivity

a. https://192.168.75.199
Note: For mutliple SSL sites, copy the: /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf file to distinct files, that match
your distinct IP-based VHosts
###MySQL###
Features:
1. DBMS Engine
2. Compabtible with various front-ends:
a. Perl
b. PHP
c. ODBC
d. GUI Management
Tasks:
1. Install MySQL Client & Server
a. yum -y install mysql
/etc/my.cnf - primary config file

/usr/bin/mysql - primary client used to interact with the server
/usr/bin/mysqladmin - primary admin utility to return useful info, and perform admin tasks from
the shell
b. yum -y install mysql-server
/usr/libexec/mysqld - DBMS engine
2. Start MySQL server and modify perms for 'root'

a. service mysqld start
b. chkconfig --level 35 mysqld on
c. mysqladmin -u root password abc123
3. Install 'mysql' client on a remote system and test connectivity

a. yum -y install mysql
b. mysql -u root -p
Note: mysql command-line options ALWAYS override global (/etc/my.cnf), and/or local
(~/.my.cnf) configuration directives
Note: MySQL Users consist of the following:

a. username i.e. 'root'
b. host i.e. 'localhost'
A sample username is: 'root@localhost'
4. Secure 'anonymous' account

a. DELETE FROM mysql.user WHERE user = '';
b. flush privileges;
5. Create Database 'addressbook'

create database AddressBook;
use AddressBook;
create table contacts (`first_name` char(20), `last_name` char(20),
`bus_phone1` char(20), `email` char(30), PRIMARY KEY (`email`));
6. Insert Data into 'contacts' table using INSERT
INSERT INTO contacts (first_name,last_name,bus_phone1,email) VALUES

('Kay','Mohammed','888.573.4943','kay@LinuxCBT.com');
7. Delete record from 'contacts' table

DELETE FROM contacts WHERE email = 'kay1@LinuxCBT.com';
8. Update a record in the 'contacts' table

UPDATE contacts SET email='kay2@LinuxCBT.com' WHERE first_name='Kay';
###Postfix MTA###
Features:
1. Message Transfer Agent (MTA)
2. Modular (SpamAssAssin)
3. Drop-in replacement for Sendmail, as it provides a 'sendmail' binary
Note: Use 'system-switch-mail*' package to switch between Postfix and Sendmail
Tasks:
1. Install Postfix
a. yum -y install postfix
/etc/postfix - primary configuration directory

/etc/postfix/main.cf - primary configuration file
/etc/postfix/transport - contains routing rules for domains
/etc/postfix/virtual - contains virtual user mappings
2. Install 'system-switch-mail' package

a. yum -y install system-switch-mail
3. Switch default MTA from Sendmail, to Postfix

a. system-switch-mail
Note: The default Postfix configuration binds to 127.0.0.1:25
4. Test local mail delivery

a. Use 'mutt' to test local delivery
4. Configure Postfix to receive messages from remote systems

a. set: inet_interfaces=all
b. set mydestinations = linuxcbt.internal
c. service postfix restart
d. Confirm directives using: 'postconf'
e. Attempt to send message from LINUXCBTSERV1 -> LINUXCBTSERV4
f. If it fails, configure MTA on LINUXCBTSERV1 to listen to routable IP
f1. update /etc/mail/sendmail.mc
f2. make all -C /etc/mail
f3. service sendmail restart
Note: Ensure that 'sendmail-cf*' package is installed, in order to updated .mc files to .cf files
###Mail Retrieval using POP3/IMAP###
Features:
1. Mail retrieval using standard protocols
2. Common package: dovecot
3. Supports both: mbox (/var/spool/mail/usernam) & Maildir formats
4. Supports SSL: POP3S & IMAPS
Tasks:
1. Install dovecot
/etc/dovecot.conf - primary config file
/etc/pki/dovecot/dovecot-openssl.cnf - SSL config
Note: Default configuration binds to:
a. POP3 - downloads messages to client
b. POP3S
c. IMAP - leaves messages on server
d. IMAPS
E-mail flow: mutt -> sendmail -> Postfix queue -> remote system -> POP3|IMAP
2. Configure mail client to download messages using POP3
###Squirrelmail (Web mail) Integration with Apache/Postfix/Dovecot###

Features:
1. Web mail application
2. Modular
3. Implemented with PHP
Tasks:
1. Install Squirrelmail with support via Apache
a.Download from squirrelmail.org - *.bz2
b. Confirm the MD5SUM
c. Copy the *.bz2 file to the Apache server
d. yum -y install php php-imap - installs PHP support for Apache/IMAP
e. mkdir /var/www/mail
f. Extract Squirrelmail to: /var/www/mail
g. Optionally, create symlink named 'mail' to point to Squirremail version
h. Create the Apache Virtual Host
ServerAdmin webmaster@mail.linuxcbt.internal
ServerName mail.linuxcbt.internal
DocumentRoot /var/www/mail
Options FollowSymLinks
Order allow,deny
Allow from all
CustomLog logs/mail.linuxcbt.internal.access.log combined

ErrorLog logs/mail.linuxcbt.internal.error.log
i. Restart Apache
j. Configure SquirrelMail defaults: /var/www/mail/mail/config/conf.pl
k. Create 'attach' and 'data' directories for SquirrelMail: /var/local/squirrelmail/{data,attach}
l. Update permissions so SquirrelMail may write to 'data' and 'attach' directories: chown -R
apache.apache /var/local/squirrelmail
k. Setup DNS
l. Attempt to access SquirrelMail
http://mail.linuxcbt.internal/mail
http://mail.linuxcbt.internal/mail/src/configtest.php
Note: If SELinux is enabled, use 'setsebool...' to allow httpd to connect to IMAP and SMTP ports.
Consult: /var/log/messages
###Squid Proxy Server###

Features:
1. Caching server
2. Filters access to the Net
3. Efficient bandwidth usage
4. Supports a wide criteria of ACLs (dstdomain, src_IP, Time of day, etc.)
Tasks:
1. Install Squid Proxy server
a. yum -y install squid
/etc/squid - primary configuration container

/etc/squid/squid.conf - primary configuration file
/usr/sbin/squidclient - used to test Squid Proxy server
/var/log/squid - primary log directory
/var/spool/squid - cache directory containter
2. Start Squid, and ensure that it starts when the system reboots
a. service squid start
b. chkconfig --level 35 squid on
Note: Ensure that ample/fast disk storage is available for: /var/spool/squid

Note: Squid defaults to TCP:3128
3. Configure Firefox browser to use Squid Proxy server
4. Configure Squid to allow LAN access through, to resources

a. nano /etc/squid/squid.conf
b. acl lan_users src 192.168.75.0/24
c. http_access allow lan_users
5. Deny 192.168.75.10, but allow ALL other users from the local subnet
a.
acl_lan_bad_users src 192.168.75.10
http_access deny acl_lan_bad_users

###SELinux Intro###
Features:
1. Restricts access by subjects (users and/or processes) to objects (files)
2. Provides Mandatory Access Controls (MACs)
3. MACs extend Discretionary Access Controls (DACs(Standard Linux Permissions))
4. Stores MAC permissions in extended attributes of file systems
5. SELinux provides a way to separate: users, processes (subjects), and objects, via labeling,
and monitors/controls their interaction
6. SELinux is integrated into the Linux kernel
7. Implements sandboxes for subjects and objects
8. Default RH5 implementation creates sandboxes (domains) for 'targeted' daemons and one
sandbox (unconfined_t) for everything else
9. SELinux is implemented/enabled by RH5, by default
10. Operates in the following modes:
a. Permissive - permission is always granted, but denials are logged in: /var/log/messages
b. Enforcing - strictly enforces 'targeted' policy rules
c. Disabled - Only DACs are applied
11. Operating modes can be applied upon startup or while the system is running
SELinux Config files & Tools:

1. sestatus - displays current SELinux status, including:
a. policy name 'targeted'
b. policy version '21'
c. Operating mode: 'enforcing|permissive|disabled'
2. /etc/sysconfig/selinux - primary startup|config file for SELinux

3. /etc/selinux/targeted - top-level container for the 'targeted' policy
4. setenforce = 0(permissive) 1(enforcing)
5. '-Z' can be applied to the following tools to obtain SELinux context info:
a. mv, cp, ls, ps, id
6. chcon -R -t type file - applies SELinux label to file/directory
Tasks:
1. Disable SELinux upon boot-up on LINUXCBTSERV4
a. nano /etc/grub.conf
a1. Update 'kernel' line to reflect: selinux=0
Note: If files(objects) lose their SELinux context, there are multiple ways to relabel them:
1. 'touch /.autorelabel && reboot' - init will relable the system according to the 'targeted' policy
2. 'fixfiles' - use to relabel objects (files) while the system is running
Note: List of daemons protected by the 'targeted' SELinux policy:

1. apache(httpd)
2. dchpd
3. ntpd
4. named
5. syslogd
6. squid
7. snmpd
8. portmap
9. nscd
10. winbind
Note: The 'targeted' policy assigns ALL other subjects and objects to the 'unconfined_t' domain
Note: The default SELinux 'targeted' policy, using MACs, binds subject domains: i.e. 'httpd_t' to
object types: i.e. 'httpd_config_t'
Note: SELinux MACs compound Linux DACs

###OpenPGP|GNU Privacy Guard (GPG)###
Features:
1. Confidentiality - Data (Files or e-mail) are encrypted
2. Integrity - Digital signatures
3. Compression
4. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
a. Public key - used to encrypt data to a recipient
b. Private key - used to decrypt data from a sender
5. GPG is OpenPGP compliant
Usage:
1. gpg --list-keys - this enumerates keys in ~/
2. gpg --gen-key - generates a PKI keypair for the current user
3. gpg --encrypt -r LinuxCBT --armor sample.txt - encrypts sample.txt using our 'LinuxCBT's'
public key
4. gpg --decrypt sample.txt.asc

5. gpg --decrypt sample.txt.gpg
6. gpg --export -a - dumps public key to STDOUT
7. gpg --import - waits on STDIN for user to paste a key for import
8. gpg --decrypt -o sample.txt sample.txt.gpg
###OpenSSHv2###
Features:
1. Provides data encryption services based on PKI - Confidentiality
2. Primarily used to protect the transport layer
3. Encrypted shell sessions, file transfers
4. Password-less logins
5. Port forwarding - Pseudo-VPN
SSH Clients:
/etc/ssh/ssh_config - shared system-wide config file for SSH clients
1. scp - secure, non-interactive, copy program

a. scp sample.txt linuxcbt@linuxcbtmedia1:
b. scp linuxcbt@linuxcbtmedia1:testRH5/sample.txt sample2.txt
2. sftp - secure, interactive, FTP-like, copy program

a. sftp linuxcbt@linuxcbtmedia1
3. ssh - shell-based client

a. ssh linuxcbt@linuxcbtmedia1
a. ssh linuxcbt@linuxcbtmedia1 "uptime"
4. ssh-copy-id - permits easy propagation of SSH pub/priv keypair
a. ssh-copy-id -i ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub root@192.168.75.10
5. ssh-keygen - used to generage SSH pub/priv keypair

Note: Use '-v' with SSH clients to enable verbosity
a. ssh-keygen -t rsa
Task:
1. Setup Password-less logins using SSH
###IPTables###
Features:
1. Firewall for Linux
2. Interface to Netfilter, which is loaded by the kernel
3. Operates primarily @ layers 3 & 4 of the OSI model
4. Modular
5. Provides Network Address Translation (NAT)
6. IPTables can also access other layers (2, 5-7), with modules
1. grep -i config_netfilter /boot/config*
Note: Save rules in: /etc/sysconfig/iptables so that when IPTables is restarted, the rules will be
applied OR, update /etc/sysconfig/iptables-config to save the rules automatically
/sbin/iptables - primary ACL modifier utility

/sbin/iptables-restore - restores rules to current IPTables instance
/sbin/iptables-save - saves rules to STDOUT, by default, or to a file
IPTables includes 3 default tables, which you cannot remove:

1. NAT
2. Mangle
3. Filter (Default) - filters inbound/outbound traffic
Note: Each table, includes chains, which include Access Control Entries (ACEs)
Usage:
1. iptables -L
Note: The Filter table includes 3 chains:

1. INPUT - applies to traffic destined to a service that our system is bound to
2. FORWARD - applies to traffic being routed through the system
3. OUTPUT - applies to traffic sourced from our system, heading outbound
Tasks:
1. Filter inbound traffic to remote RH5 system to SSH
a. iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT
b. iptables -A INPUT -j DROP
2. Filter outbound traffic to ANY remote SSH port
a. iptables -A OUTPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j DROP
3. Flush ALL rules from OUTPUT chain of the Filter table
a. iptables -F OUTPUT
4. Save rules to file, then flush rules

a. iptables-save > iptables.rules.1
5. Reinstate flushed rules

a. iptables-restore iptables.rules.1
###IPv6 IPTables###
Features:
1. Firewall for IPv6
/etc/rc.d/init.d/ip6tables - run-script
/etc/sysconfig/ip6tables-config - system-wide config file
/sbin/ip6tables - primary tool for administering IP6Tables

/sbin/ip6tables-restore
/sbin/ip6tables-save
2. Maintains 3 default tables:

a. Filter - matches IPTables(IPv4)
b. Mangle - matches IPTables(IPv4)
c. Raw
Usage:
1. ip6tables -L
Note: IPv6 firewall rules are administered independently of IPv4 rules
Tasks:
1. Filter inbound traffic to remote RH5 system to SSH
a. ip6tables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT
b. ip6tables -A INPUT -j DROP
2. Filter outbound traffic to ANY remote SSH port

a. ip6tables -A OUTPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j DROP
3. Flush ALL rules from OUTPUT chain of the Filter table
a. ip6tables -F OUTPUT
4. Save rules to file, then flush rules

a. ip6tables-save > ip6tables.rules.1
5. Reinstate flushed rules

a. ip6tables-restore ip6tables.rules.1
###NMap###
Features:
1. Port/Reconnaissance Scanner
2. Hosts & device detection
3. Service detection
4. OS Fingerprinting
5. Multi-target scanning
6. Produces various reports
Tasks:
1. Download and install the latest version of NMap - nmap.org
a. wget http://download.insecure.org/nmap/dist/nmap-4.53-1.i386.rpm
b. rpm -Uvh nmap-4.53-1.i386.rpm
/usr/bin/nmap - primary binary

Note: Executing 'nmap' as non-privileged user, causes it to operate in TCP-Connect mode,
instead of the stealthy TCP-SYN mode
/usr/share/nmap - top-level container for key NMap files

/usr/share/nmap/nmap-os-db - OS Fingerprinting DB
/usr/share/nmap/nmap-mac-prefixes - Maps MAC prefixes to companies
/usr/share/nmap/nmap-services - resolves service names to port numbers
Usage:
1. Scan the localhost for open ports
a. nmap -v localhost
2. Service detection scan - attempts to resolve services to names & versions
a. nmap -v -sV 192.168.75.199
3. OS Fingerprinting scan

a. nmap -v -O 192.168.75.199
4. Reporting
a. nmap -v -oN filename.txt 192.168.75.1 - normal output
b. nmap -v -oX filename.xml 192.168.75.1 - XML output
5. OS Fingerprinting & Service detection

a. nmap -v -A 192.168.75.1
6. Scan the entire network using '-A' and XML output
a. nmap -v -A -oX 192.168.75.0.scan.xml 192.168.75.0/24
###Nessus###
Features:
1. Vulnerability Scanner
2. Port Scanner
3. Host | Device detection
4. Can be used to scan NETBIOS (Windows|Samba) servers
5. Profiles (Scan Policies) for target scans, with specific exploits to query
6. Reporting
7. Client/Server enabled; multiple clients may use the central Nessus server
8. Client support for Windows, Linux, etc.
9. Runs as a service, awaiting inbound PenTest requests
10. Penetration testing tool
11. Nessus can be automated
12. Supports plug-ins for vulnerability signatures
13. Supports parallel scanning of targets
Tasks:
1. Download Nessus from nessus.org and install
2. Register nessus using 'nessus-fetch', with provided code
a. /opt/nessus/bin/nessus-fetch --register A65E-5116-4D76-FCD5-FF2A
3. Install Nessus Client and Explore the interface
a. rpm -Uvh NessusClient*
4. Perform a PenTest of the localhost

5. Perform a PenTest of the local network
6. Evaluate results
Note: Nessus will auto-update its plug-ins after registration, every 12-hours
###Snort NIDS###
Features:
1. Network Intrusion Detection System (NIDS)
2. Packet Sniffer
3. Packet Logger - logs using TCPDump format
Tasks:
1. Download and install Snort NIDS
a. snort.org
b. Confirm MD5SUM: 'md5sum snort-2.8.0.2.tar.gz' Compare to snort-2.8.0.2.tar.gz.md5
c. Import GPG key used to sign the current release of Snort
d. gpg --verify snort-2.8.0.2.tar.gz.sig snort-2.8.0.2.tar.gz
Requirements:
1. gcc - C compiler
2. make - creates binaries
3. libpcre - Provides access to Perl Compatible RegExes
4. mysql-devel* - provides access to MySQL
5. libpcap* - provides the TCPDump, packet capture library
e. Extract and install (compile) Snort NIDS

e1. tar -xzvf snort-2.8.0.2.tar.gz - creates top-level directory
e2. ./configure --with-mysql --enable-dynamicplugin - checks for prerequisites, including: mysql-
devel, libpcre, gcc, make, etc.
e3. make - creates binaries
e4. su (as 'root') and execute 'make install' - places binaries in /usr/local/ accessible location
Usage - Packet Sniffer:
1. snort -v -i eth0 - reveals layers 3 & 4 of the OSI model
2. snort -vde -i eth0 - reveals layers 2-7
3. snort -vde -i eth0 tcp port 23
Usage - Packet Logger:

1. snort -v -i eth0 -l ./ tcp port 23 - logs binary file in current directory with Unix Epoch suffix
2. snort -b -i eth0 - attempts to log in: /var/log/snort
3. snort -b -L test.snort.log -i eth0 - creates: /var/log/snort/test.snort.log.UnixEpochDate
Note: Snort drops less packets when run in binary logging mode than in verbose, dump-to-
screen, mode
###Snort NIDS Setup###

1. Setup MySQL DB environment
a. create database snort;
b. grant insert,select on root.* to snort@localhost;
c. set password for snort@localhost=password('abc123');
d. grant create,insert,select,delete,update on snort.* to snort@localhost;
e. grant create,insert,select,delete,update on snort.* to snort;
2. Import MySQL DB schema

a. mysql -u root -p < /home/linuxcbt/temp/Snort/snort-2.8.0.2/schemas/create_mysql snort
3. Setup Snort NIDS /etc/snort environment

a. mkdir /etc/snort && cp -v /home/linuxcbt/temp/Snort/snort-2.8.0.2/etc/* /etc/snort
Note: Snort's primary configuration file for NIDS mode: /etc/snort/snort.conf
4. Download the latest Snort rules file and extract to: /etc/snort/rules
Note: Snort rules are available as follows:

1. Registered users: with delay
2. Subscriber: no delay - NOT FREE
3. Unregistered users: release version (very old) of rules
4. Various third-party sites: i.e. Bleeding Snort, etc.
a. cd /etc/snort && tar -xzvf snortrules*
5. Configure: /etc/snort/snort.conf to use MySQL and rules

a. MySQL - output
b. Rules - path to the rules
6. Start Snort in NIDS mode

a. snort -i eth0 -c /etc/snort/snort.conf -D
7. Setup BASE web analysis application

a. wget http://easynews.dl.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/adodb/adodb480.tgz
b. tar -xzvf adodb480.tgz
Note: adodb480.tgz - provides DB-connectivity for BASE to MySQL
c. Download BASE from http://base.secureideas.net

d. Configure: base_conf.php file
d1. $BASE_urlpath = '/base';
d2. $Dblib_path = "/var/www/html/adodb";
d3. $Dbtype = 'mysql';
d4. alert_dbname = 'snort';
d5. alert_host = 'localhost';
d6. alert_password = 'abc123';
Note: Ensure that your Apache instance has PHP support

Note: Ensure that 'php-mysql*' package is installed
8. Connect to BASE via web browser
Note: Consider protecting '/base' application using HTDIGEST or basic auth

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Linux System Admin Interview Questions

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Linux System Admin Interview Questions & Answers

Linux System Admin Interview Questions & Answers part 1

1. Every command in Linux is a

answer : executable program

2. How long can a filename in Linux be?

3. What is the shortcut to the login directory?

4. The hierarchy of a series of directories branching in a user system starts from

N=number of HDD. remember it is only for RAID5

20. Which configuration does cardmgr read at Linux system startup?

22. Which Linux command will successfully mounts a USB drive?

Linux System Admin Interview Questions & Answers part 2

1. Which of the following below are true functionalities of Kernel?

2. Which of the following below are true functionalities of shell?

3. Which command is used to find what is in your home directory?

4. cd home to get back to your home-directory?

5. Which command is used to clear the screen?

7. What is used to search files for specified words or patterns?

8. > symbol is used to redirect the output of a command

9. Pipe symbol is represented by

10. Which character is used to match exactly one character?

12. A process is identified by a unique

13. A process can run only in the background

14. Which command reduces the size of a file?

15. Find command can search for?

17. What is the difference between PATH and path?

Both variables always represent the same directory list

20. What is the content of /etc directory?

21. /temp is a type of filesystem directory

Linux System Admin Interview Questions & Answers part 3

2. mount –r is used to mount a file in read only mode

4. There is no difference between who and whoami command?

Correct answer: False

6. Cal is used to display calendar. If no arguments are supplied, what is displayed?

answer: The current month is displayed

7. Which of the following command is used to test a network connection?

8. Ping will only report damaged packets.

Answer: Used to verify software packages.search engine to search for software’s

10. What is the Non interactive mode of nslookup used for?

answer: Fetch information about the specified host or domain

11. Nettop is used to find network usage

14. LD_LIBRARY_PATH is a type of

answer: Environmental variable

15. What is the major difference between UNIX and LINUX?

answer: Linux is an open source and free software

16. What is the use of a pipe?

Answer: Several functions can be combined in a single statement.Stream input to

17. By default, the shell uses the _______________ library

18. The kernel cannot be updated.

19. Which of the following below are types of shell?

answer: sh, shell

24. When Linux is installed, which account is created by default?

26. Why do we use pgrep command?

answer: To search through the cur

Linux System Admin Interview Questions & Answers part 4

2. How many users are created by default.

3. Fields in password and shadow file.

4. When user is created which are the files it is updated.

5. What is the owner of /tmp (is sticky bit applied on it)

6. How to check which kernel module is installed?

7. What are modules,advantages and disadvantages of modules.

15. How to check which disk is fault in hardware Raid level

top - memory and CPU utilization of various processes.

Change the permissions of the file in question:

Exit su, then return to the original user: