REE167507 DOI: 10.
2118/167507-PA Date: 30-April-14 Stage: Page: 141
Formation-Resistivity Theory: How Archie
Equations, Shaly-Reservoir Models,
Conductive Rock-Matrix Model, and
Dual-Triple-Porosity Models Are Related
Philip C. Iheanacho, SPE, Smart Drilling Services Limited
Summary
The estimation of hydrocarbon pore volume (HCPV) from resis-
tivity logs can be quite troublesome in some complex heterogene-
ous reservoirs. Most water-saturation/formation-resistivity models
that work well for some reservoirs give unreliable results for
others. No single model works for all types of reservoir scenarios.
This paper presents the theory of formation resistivity in po-
rous media. The paper develops the theory from the parallel-resis-
tivity model and then extends it for the series-resistivity model.
When applied for clean sand, the theory derives Archie equa-
tions from the first principle. The derivations show that both po-
rosity exponent and saturation exponent are of the same origin
and should have the same name. A better name for both parame-
ters should be the tortuosity exponent of a component with respect
to its fraction in a control volume. It is also advantageous to treat
as a single parameter rather than two separate parameters.
In addition, this theory derives new shaly-sand models for esti-
mating HCPV. These new shaly-sand models can be used for dif-
ferent types of shale distribution by adjusting the value of a single
parameter in the models. The formation-resistivity theory is also
used to derive formation-resistivity models for conductive rock-ma-
trix reservoirs and dual-triple-porosity reservoirs. A new equation
for calculating the composite-porosity exponent is also developed.
Field data are used to validate this work. The theory, when
applied for each scenario, derives formation-resistivity models for
estimating the reliable HCPV of different reservoir scenarios and
types. Moreover, the strength of this theory is its ability to gener-
ate models that closely resemble models that have proved to work
well for the reservoir cases for which they were developed.
Although this work does not test the theory for the cases of tight-
sand, shale-gas, and other unconventional reservoirs because of
the unavailability of such data, the author is of the opinion that
the theory can easily be extended for such reservoirs if the neces-
sary data are available.
Introduction
In 1942, Archie developed, empirically, two equations that are
combined to estimate water saturation. For simple reservoirs that
are considered homogeneous and clean (i.e., not shaly), these
equations work well in the estimation of water saturation. As the
complexity of the reservoir increases to a shaly, laminated reser-
voir and then to a dual- and triple-porosity reservoir, these Archie
equations are modified and, sometimes, new equations are devel-
oped for the analysis of these more-complex reservoirs.
Some of the equations that were developed are the Waxman-
Smits equation (Waxman and Smits 1968) and other dual-water
models (Clavier et al. 1984) for the analysis of shaly formations,
the Aguilera and Aguilera (2003) dual-porosity model for the
analysis of fractured carbonates, and Aguilera and Aguilera
Copyright V
C 2014 Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper (SPE 167507) was accepted for presentation at the Nigeria Annual International
Conference and Exhibition, Lagos, Nigeria, 29 July–2 August 2013, and revised for
publication. Original manuscript received for review 12 June 2013. Revised manuscript
received for review 2 October 2013. Paper peer approved 5 February 2014.
May 2014 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
ID: jaganm Time: 15:42 I Path: S:/3B2/REE#/Vol00000/140014/APPFile/SA-REE#140014
Total Pages: 11
(2004) and Berg (2006) for the analysis of triple-porosity carbon-
ate reservoirs. Space would not permit me to mention all the differ-
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ent models that have been developed for the analysis of different
reservoir types. Some were found to be adequate, whereas others
are abandoned because they are found to be unreliable.
The large number of models that are present in the literature
shows that there is still a missing link between the theoretical
explanations and practical observations, as observed during well
log analysis and core analysis.
Wyllie and Rose (1950) were among the first authors to con-
sider the theoretical aspects of Archie’s equations. They derived
the equations that relate the formation-factor-to-tortuosity ratio
and resistivity-index-to-tortuosity ratio. Owen (1952) used two
synthetic porous bodies and tried to show that the constriction
concept, rather than the tortuosity concept, is largely responsible
for the observed high resistivity of porous bodies. He incorrectly
assumed that the tortuosity of the first synthetic body is unity and
calculated an incorrect value of tortuosity in the second synthetic
body. Moreover, the porosities of each synthetic body were not
kept constant when analyzing them for the effect of constriction
because a change in porosity affects the resistivity. Actually,
when current moves through a constriction into the pore body, it
diffuses and then converges as it moves from the pore body into
another constriction (Winsauer et al. 1952). The result is an
increase in tortuosity and thereby an increase in resistivity. There-
fore, the tortuosity concept is the microscopic description of the
constriction concept. In addition, other authors in the past (Wyllie
and Rose 1950; Herrick 1988) have tried to show the relationship
between tortuosity and cementation/saturation exponents, and their
works are useful in the understanding of the tortuosity concept.
This work develops the formation-resistivity theory that could
be used to develop formation-resistivity models for any reservoir
scenarios/types because no previous theory has been able to unify
different models used for different reservoir scenarios. It effec-
tively links theoretical reasoning with empirical observation. It
also explains the similarity between the porosity exponent and the
saturation exponent, and it shows that they are the same parameter
expressed in different forms. The theory also shows a great potential
in visualizing flow through porous media when electrical tortuosity
is compared with hydraulic tortuosity. The strength of the forma-
tion-resistivity theory is its ability to derive and explain models that
were developed by previous authors, and were shown to work
adequately for the reservoir case for which they were developed.
Theoretical Background
The premise of this theory is that a porous medium can be mod-
eled as a simple electric circuit with resistors in parallel or in se-
ries, depending on the underlying scenario. This assumption has
worked well in most situations in which it has been applied. It is
assumed that the parallel-resistor model may not work well for
nonconnected (i.e., separate or nontouching) vugs. This paper
shows that this is not the case and that it is actually possible to
apply the parallel model for a nonconnected vug (which is com-
monly described by use of the series model) because nonconnected
vugs are quite analogous to an oil-wet (and, in general, nonconduct-
ing-fluid-wet) system with decreasing water saturation.
141
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Electric Current Path From the preceding equation, the formation-resistivity theory
L extended for series-resistivity measurements is
Xn Xn Xn fi mð fi Þ 1
Electric field Rt ¼ R V ¼ Vj ; . . . . . . . . ð3Þ
j¼1 j j j¼1 i¼1 R
Δll1 Δll2 Δll3 Δll4 Δll5 Δl... Δllnn–1 Δlln i j
–1
1
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5 θ.. θn-1 θn
Δlla1 Δlla2 Δ
Δlla3 Δlla4 Δlla5 . Δlla... Δllan–1 Δllan where j is each unit that makes up the series model, i is each com-
ponent in a unit, and V is a volume fraction of a unit with respect
to total volume.
In the following sections, both models (i.e., Eqs. 1 and 3) are
Fig. 1—A hypothetical pore structure of a reservoir core. used to derive various formation-resistivity models for different
reservoir scenarios.
A porous medium can be represented by a parallel bundle of
electrical/tortuous paths of matrix pore, fracture, vug, matrix, and Reservoir Case Scenarios
shale. For this system, Clean, Nonconducting Matrix (Archie Porosity and Saturation
Equation). For this case, the following details apply:
Vma þ Vsh þ /mp þ /f þ /v ¼ 1

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/ ¼ /mp þ /f þ /v ¼ /b ð1  /f  /v Þ þ /f þ /v ; Vsh ¼ 0; /f ¼ 0; /v ¼ 0; /mp ¼ /; i ¼ w; fi ¼ Sw /
where Vma ; Vsh ; /mp ; /f ; and /v are matrix-volume fraction, shale- and
volume fraction, matrix porosity, fracture porosity, and vug poros-
ity, respectively; /b is the porosity of the bulk matrix, free of sec- mð fi Þ ¼ mðSw /Þ and Rma  Rw :
ondary porosity. From the analysis of this system, the following
equation is derived (see Appendix A for the derivation): Applying the preceding details to Eq. 1 obtains

m m m mð/ Þ 1 ðSw /ÞmðSw /Þ

1 VmaðVma Þ ð/sh Vsh Þmð/sh Vsh Þ /mp mp
ð/ Þ
/f f /v ð/v Þ ¼
¼ þ þ þ þ : Rt Rw
Ro Rma Rwsh Rw Rw Rw m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð4Þ
1 Sw ðSw /Þ /mðSw /Þ
¼ :
From the preceding equation, a unique relationship is observed Rt Rw
among the parameters. Therefore, by inductive reasoning, the for- From the Archie saturation equation,
mation-resistivity theory for a porous medium (when parallel re-
sistivity measurements are used) can generally be expressed as 1 Sn /mð/Þ
¼ w : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð5Þ
1 Xn fi mð fi Þ Rt Rw
¼ i¼1 R
; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð1Þ
Rt i For water-wet rocks, mð/Þ  mðSw /Þ  n, with n being slightly
higher than mðSw /Þ , and mðSw /Þ being slightly higher than mð/Þ . For
where i is each component in the system, fi is the volume fraction
example, the values of mð/Þ , mðSw /Þ , and n taken from special-
of each component, and mð fi Þ is the tortuosity exponent of each
core-analysis-laboratory data of a water-wet reservoir core are
component i with respect to its fraction fi in a control volume.
1.99, 2.03, and 2.15, respectively.
The components could be formation water (w), clay-bound
For oil-wet rocks, mð/Þ < mðSw /Þ < n, with their differences
water (wsh) for the dual-water model or shale (sh) for the Wax-
that are appreciably large, and the values of mðSw /Þ and n are func-
man-Smits type models, and a conducting (e.g., pyrite) or noncon-
tions of water saturation.
ducting matrix (ma). The formation water in matrix pore, fracture,
Eq. 4 is similar to the Archie saturation equation and, in fact,
and vug are treated as separate components even though they con-
theoretically explains it. When water saturation is unity, mð/Þ ¼
tain the same component (i.e., formation water).
mðSw /Þ , and Eq. 4 becomes an Archie porosity equation.
For the hypothetical pore structure of a homogeneous reservoir
It can be seen that Eqs. 4 and 5 are transformations of one to
core (Fig. 1) that was analyzed, the following equation was math-
the other (i.e., Eq. 4 is another way of expressing Eq. 5 and vice
ematically derived for mð fi Þ (see Appendix B for the derivation):
versa). The saturation exponent n is an empirical value that is
used to make both Eqs. 4 and 5 identical, when mð/Þ (the value of
logðcos2 hsi Þ m at 100% water saturation) instead of mðSw /Þ (the value of m at
mð fi Þ ¼ 1 þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð2Þ
log fi connate water saturation) is used in zones in which the water satu-
ration is not 100%. The difference between the value of mð/Þ ,
where hs is the harmonic average-tortuosity angle of each compo-
mðSw /Þ , and n would depend on the water saturation and wettabil-
nent and hs is measured with respect to the electric-field direction
ity. For water-wet rocks, their values are very close. This would
or the resultant current direction.
not be the case for oil-wet rocks.
mð fi Þ has been called a porosity or cementation exponent. The
For oil-wet (i.e., nonconducting-fluid-wet) rocks, it was
current names for m now seem insufficient to express the true
shown, experimentally, that as the water saturation decreases to
meaning of m. A more-encompassing name for mð fi Þ would be the
a value in which the conducting fluid (i.e., the formation water)
tortuosity exponent of each component i with respect to its frac-
becomes isolated (i.e., nonconnected), the values of n and mðSw /Þ
tion fi . This designation is used for the rest of this paper.
rapidly increase. This is because the parallel resistor model of
In addition, some situations occur in which we might want to
the conducting fluid breaks down and becomes a combine-paral-
treat the porous medium as a system of resistors in series. Exam-
lel-series resistor model. This can be explained from Eq. 2 as a
ples of such systems are nonconnected-vug systems and laminated
sudden jump in the value of hs to an angle very close to 90 and,
reservoir systems when vertical (i.e., series) resistivity measure-
therefore, an increase in mðSw /Þ . In this case, the value of mðSw /Þ
ments are used.
is heavily reliant on water saturation. As the water saturation
The derivation of such a system is given in Appendix C. The
decreases in oil-wet systems, the degree of nonconnectivity of
equation for a laminar shale system with vertical resistivity meas-
the conducting fluid increases, thereby causing the tortuosity
urements is
exponent mð fi Þ to increase. This shows that the impact of series
Rwsd Vsd Rwsh Vsh connectivity is captured [by the sudden increase in mð fi Þ ] even
Rt ¼ Rsd Vsd þ Rsh Vsh ¼ þ :
ðSw /sd ÞmðSw /sd Þ ð/sh Þmð/sh Þ when the parallel resistor model is used in developing the equa-
tion. This concept can be extended to reservoirs with

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nonconnected vugs when described with the parallel resistor Shaly, Nonconducting Matrix (Waxman-Smits-Type Equations/
model. Note that the hs of the conducting fluid cannot just be Dual-Water Models). For this case, the following details apply:
assumed to be 90 when the conducting-fluid saturation is very
small. This would mean that there is absolutely no connectivity /f ¼ 0; /v ¼ 0; /mp ¼ /e ; i1 ¼ w; i2 ¼ wsh or sh;
between the conducting fluids, which is not the case. Neverthe-
f1 ¼ Swe /e ; f2 ¼ /sh Vsh or Vsh ; mð f1 Þ ¼ mðSwe /e Þ ; and
less, hs can have a value as high as 89.9999 , as the following
example shows. mð f2 Þ ¼ mð/sh Vsh Þ or mðVsh Þ ; Rma  Rw and Rma  Rwsh or Rsh :
Example 1. An oil-wet reservoir core that has a porosity of
0.18 and a water saturation of 0.1 is assumed to have a hs equal to Applying the preceding details to Eq. 1 obtains
89.999 . What is the value of mðSw /Þ ?
The solution from Eq. 2 is 1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ ð/sh Vsh Þmð/sh Vsh Þ
¼ þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð6Þ
Rt Rw Rwsh
logðcos2 hsw Þ
mðSw /Þ ¼1þ
logðSw /Þ and
mðV
ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ Vsh sh
Þ
logðcos2 89:9999 Þ 1
mðSw /Þ ¼ 1 þ ¼ þ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð7Þ
logð0:18  0:1Þ Rt Rw Rsh

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mðSw /Þ ¼ 7:60: Eqs. 6 and 7 could also be expressed as
mð/ mðVsh Þ
ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ /sh sh Vsh
Þ
1
This value is not out of the range observed in laboratory experi- ¼ þ :
Rt Rw Rwsh
ments on such reservoir cores.
Because Eqs. 4 and 5 are identical, it would be advantageous Eq. 6 is a dual-water model, and Eq. 7 is quite similar to the
to use Eq. 4, for both water-wet and oil-wet systems, because it Waxman-Smits equation in which the difference between them is
contains one less unknown parameter. By combining Eqs. 4 and 5 on the shale side of the equation. This equation represents shaly-
and evaluating n, the following equation is obtained for n: sand models better because it can be used effectively to explain
the different shale distributions.
logðcos2 hsw Þ  logðcos2 hs/ Þ Laminar-Shale Model. For a laminated shaly reservoir bed
n¼1þ : that is perpendicular to the logging-tool axis in which resistivity
logSw
is measured in the direction parallel to the bedding plane,
From the preceding equation, one can see that n is related to mðVsh Þ ¼ 1.
mð fi Þ . Actually, n  mðSw Þ . Eqs. 6 and 7, respectively, become
From the preceding equation, the general equation for mð fi Þ is mð/
ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ /sh sh Vsh
Þ
1
2 2 ¼ þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð8Þ
logðcos hsi Þ  logðcos hscv Þ Rt Rw Rwsh
mð fi Þ ¼ 1 þ ;
log fi
and
where fi is in respect to a control volume cv. 1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ Vsh
To explain the preceding equation, let us go back to the defini- ¼ þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð9Þ
tion of mð fi Þ : mð fi Þ is defined as the tortuosity exponent of a com- Rt Rw Rsh
ponent with respect to its volume fraction (in a control volume). where
If the component is formation water, its volume fraction, when
the total system volume is taken as the control volume, is Sw /, logðcos2 hs w Þ
mðSwe /e Þ ¼ 1 þ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ð10Þ
but its volume fraction is Sw when the pore space is taken as the logðSwe /e Þ
control volume. Thus, if we are evaluating the tortuosity exponent
of the formation water with respect to Sw [i.e., mðSw Þ mðSw Þ , not For the clean sand streak in the laminated reservoir,
mðSw /Þ ], there is a need to account for the fact that the pore system logðcos2 hs w Þ  log½cos2 hsð1Vsh Þ 
is not straight as the total system is (i.e., the pore system is tortu- mðSw /sd Þ ¼ 1 þ : . . . . . ð11Þ
ous). Subtracting the logarithm of the square of the cosine of the logðSw /sd Þ
harmonic average tortuosity angle of pore space (i.e., log cos2 hs / ) After combining Eqs. 10 and 11, the following equation is
from that of the formation water (i.e., log cos2 hs w ) is equivalent to obtained:
making the pore space straight before evaluating the harmonic av-
erage tortuosity angle of the formation water. Obviously, when ½mðSw /sd Þ  1logðSw /sd Þ þ log½cos2 hsð1Vsh Þ 
the control volume is straight (i.e., hs cv ¼ 0Þ, the general equation mðSwe /e Þ ¼ 1 þ :
logðSwe /e Þ
for mðfi Þ reduces to Eq. 2.
In addition, most clean, nonconducting-matrix, well-consoli- ð12Þ
dated, water-wet reservoirs that do not have vugs and fractures
have m [which actually represents mðSw /Þ ] values approximately /e
However, /sd ¼ ð1V sh Þ
and cos2 hsð1Vsh Þ ¼ ð1  Vsh Þ½mð1Vsh Þ 1 :
equal to 2. For the water-bearing zone of such reservoirs, fw Eq. 12 becomes
(which is the fraction of formation water with respect to total vol-
ume) is the same as the porosity. Substituting mðfi Þ with 2 and fi logðSwe /e Þ½mðSw /sd Þ 1  logð1  Vsh Þ½mðSw /sd Þ 1
with / in Eq. 2 and solving for porosity obtain
þ logð1  Vsh Þ½mð1Vsh Þ 1
mðSwe /e Þ ¼ 1 þ :
/ ¼ cos2 hs : logðSw /e Þ
ð13Þ
This shows that, for such reservoirs, porosity is only a function
of a harmonic-average tortuosity angle, which can be looked at as Expanding Eq. 13 obtains
a measure of the combined effects of the packing, sorting, and ce-
mentation of the grains. Different packing, sorting, and cementa- ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ ¼ ðSwe /e ÞmðSw /sd Þ ð1  Vsh Þ½mð1Vsh Þ mðSw /sd Þ  :
tion of grains would give different porosity values but an almost
constant value of m for such reservoirs. ð14Þ

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Replacing ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ in Eqs. 8 and 9 with its equivalent in Eqs. 22 and 23 can also be expressed as
Eq. 14 obtains, respectively,
mð/ mðVsh Þ
ðSwe /e ÞmðSw /sd Þ
Þ
1 /sh sh Vsh
1 ðSwe /e Þ mðSw /sd Þ mð/ Þ
/sh sh Vsh ¼ þ :
¼ þ . . . . . . . . ð15Þ Rt Rw ð1  Vsh Þ½mðSw /sd Þ mð1Vsh Þ  Rwsh
Rt Rw ð1  Vsh Þ½mðSw /sd Þ mð1Vsh Þ  Rwsh
Eq. 22 is a dual-water model, and Eq. 23 is comparable to the
and empirical Simandoux equation.
After making Swe the subject of the formula in Eqs. 22 and 23,
1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSw /sd Þ Vsh the following equations are obtained:
¼ þ : . . . . . . . . . . . ð16Þ
Rt Rw ð1  Vsh Þ½mðSw /sd Þ mð1Vsh Þ  Rsh
 
mðS /sd Þ Rw ð1  Vsh Þ½mðSw /sd Þ mð1Vsh Þ  1 ð/sh Vsh Þmð/sh Vsh Þ
Swe w ¼ mðSw /sd Þ 
Eq. 16 is the well-known laminar shale model (Tiab and /e Rt Rwsh
Donaldson 1996). For water-wet reservoirs, mðSw /sd Þ can be taken
to be equal to mð/sd Þ (i.e., the tortuosity exponent of the formation ð24Þ
water at 100% saturation in clean sand). The value of mð/sd Þ is
mostly assumed to be 2 for well-consolidated reservoir without and
 

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secondary porosity. Please note that for an unconsolidated reser-
mðS /sd Þ Rw ð1  Vsh Þ½mðSw /sd Þ mð1Vsh Þ  1 ðVsh ÞmðVsh Þ
voir mð/sd Þ would be less than 2 and for an oil-wet reservoir Swe w ¼ mðS / Þ  :
mðSw /sd Þ 6¼ mð/sd Þ but would depend on the water saturation and /e w sd Rt Rsh
would mostly be greater than 2. ð25Þ
Dispersed-Shale Model. For dispersed shale, Eqs. 6 and 7,
respectively, become Eqs. 24 and 25 can be used iteratively to evaluate water saturation
in any shaly reservoir independent of the shale distributions present
1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ ð/sh Vsh Þmð/sh Vsh Þ and over any range of water saturation by simply adjusting the values
¼ þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð17Þ of mðVsh Þ to match the average contribution of each shale model. The
Rt Rw Rwsh
following example is used to validate the total shale models.
and Example Core and Log Data. The core and log data were
taken from the work of Woodhouse and Warner (2004). They
1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ ðVsh ÞmðVsh Þ measured water saturation from properly preserved cores cut in
¼ þ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ð18Þ oil-based mud (OBM) for zones with no mobile water. The water
Rt Rw Rsh
saturation measured from the cores and adjusted to reservoir con-
By replacing ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ in Eqs. 17 and 18 with its equivalent dition is then used to calculate bulk volume hydrocarbon (BVH)
in Eq. 14 and knowing that for dispersed shale mðSw /sd Þ  (which was called HCPV, in their paper). They then compared the
mð/sh Vsh Þ  mðVsh Þ , one obtains the next equations: values of the water saturation and BVH from the core with that
predicted by well-known log-analysis models for shaly sand. It is
1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSw /sd Þ ð/ Vsh ÞmðSw /sd Þ assumed that the core-measured Sw and BVHs are representative
¼ þ sh . . . . ð19Þ
½m m
Rt Rw ð1  Vsh Þ ðSw /sd Þ ð1Vsh Þ  Rwsh of the true values in the zones with no mobile water. This paper
then compares the value of BVH from this core with that pre-
and dicted by Eq. 24. Sw and porosity measured from shaly core are
normally higher than Swe and effective porosity, respectively.
1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSw /sd Þ ðVsh ÞmðSw /sd Þ BVH evaluations from the “core,” “total,” and “effective” poros-
¼ þ : . . . . . . ð20Þ
Rt Rw ð1  Vsh Þ½mðSw /sd Þ mð1Vsh Þ  Rsh ity systems must all be the same, as this equation shows:

For water-wet reservoir, mðSw /sd Þ  mð/sd Þ .
Structural-Shale Model. For structural shale, mð/sh Vsh Þ 
mðVsh Þ > mðSwe /e Þ . The values of mð/sh Vsh Þ and mðVsh Þ depend on the
degree of the connectivity or nonconnectivity of the structural
shale. If the structural has a high degree of nonconnectivity, then,
mð/sh Vsh Þ  mðVsh Þ  2: This makes ð/sh Vsh Þmwsh negligible when
compared with ðSwe /e ÞmðSw /sd Þ .
Eqs. 6 and 7 become
1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSwe /e Þ
 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð21Þ
Rt Rw
This is the same as the Archie equation, as expected for struc-
tural shale with a high degree of nonconnectivity. If the structural
shale has a good degree of connectivity, its equation is the same
as Eq. 6 or 7 with mð/sh Vsh Þ  mðVsh Þ > 2.
Total Shale Models. On the basis of the three shale models
analyzed previously, the total shale models that can be used to an-
alyze shaly reservoir independent of shale distribution are
1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSw /sd Þ ð/sh Vsh Þmð/sh Vsh Þ
¼ þ
Rt Rw ð1  Vsh Þ½mðSw /sd Þ mð1Vsh Þ  Rwsh
and
1 ðSwe /e ÞmðSw /sd Þ ðVsh ÞmðVsh Þ
¼ þ : . . . . . . . . ð23Þ
½m m
Rt Rw ð1  Vsh Þ ðSw /sd Þ ð1Vsh Þ  Rsh
BVH ¼ /core ð1  Swcore Þ ¼ /t ð1  Swt Þ ¼ /e ð1  Swe Þ:
This is why the comparison is performed with BVH in this work.
Rw and Rwsh are 0.13 and 0.05 X m, respectively, at subsurface
condition (on the basis of water-zone data from other wells), and
mðSw /sd Þ is taken as 1.8. These are the same parametric values used
by Woodhouse and Warner (2004). The estimated value of mð/sh Vsh Þ
that gave the best match between core and predicted BVH is 2.1, as
shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Fig. 2 compares BVH predicted by Eq. 24
with that predicted by the Archie model with total porosity. Fig. 3
compares BVH predicted by Eq. 24 with that predicted by the well-
known dual-water model. Both figures show a very good prediction
of BVH by Eq. 24 and that the new model compares well with both
core measurement and the dual-water predictions, thus validating
the model. Another important application of this model is that, in
the absence of SCAL-measured mðSw /sd Þ , an accurate estimate of
BVH still can be obtained by varying the values of mðSw /sd Þ and
mð/sh Vsh Þ until continuous values of BVH are achieved. Therefore, it
can be used as a diagnostic tool to predict the true values of m and
to detect errors in estimated values of m.
. . . . ð22Þ
Clean (i.e., Nonshaly), Conducting Matrix. For this case, the
following details apply in Eq. 1:
Vsh ¼ 0; /f ¼ 0; /v ¼ 0; /mp ¼ /; i1 ¼ w; i2 ¼ ma;
f1 ¼ Sw /; f2 ¼ Vma ; mðf1 Þ ¼ mðSw /Þ ; and mðf2 Þ ¼ mðVma Þ :

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BVH, fraction of BV BVH, fraction of BV

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
6350 6350

6400 6400

6450
6450

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BVHCORE BVHCORE

Depth, ft
BVHMODEL
Depth, ft

BVHMODEL
6500
6500 BVHArchieT BVHDw

6550
6550

6600
6600

6650
6650
Fig. 3—BVH evaluations of a shaly-sandstone oil reservoir.
Fig. 2—BVH evaluations of a shaly-sandstone oil reservoir. BVH_CORE 5 BVH from the Dean-Stark OBM core; BVHMODEL 5
BVHCORE 5 BVH from the Dean-Stark OBM core; BVHMODEL 5 BVH estimated from Eq. 24; BVHDw 5 BVH from the dual-water
BVH predicted from Eq. 24; BVHArchieT 5 BVH from Archie model.
model with total porosity.
logðcos2 hswf Þ
where mð/f Þ ¼ 1 þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð29Þ
Applying the preceding details to Eq. 1 obtains log/f
1 ðSw /ÞmðSw /Þ Vma mðVma Þ logðcos2 hswmp Þ
¼ þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð26Þ mð/mp Þ ¼ 1 þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð30Þ
Rt Rw Rma log /mp
where Rma and Vma are the resistivity and the volume fraction of
and
the conducting matrix, respectively.
logðcos2 hswmp Þ
Dual-Porosity Model of Matrix Pore and Fracture. For this mð/b Þ ¼ 1 þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð31Þ
log /b
case, the following details apply in Eq. 1:
where /b is the porosity of bulk matrix without secondary
Vsh ¼ 0; /v ¼ 0; i1 ¼ wmp ; i2 ¼ wf ; f1 ¼ /mp ; f2 ¼ /f ; porosity.
mð f1 Þ ¼ mð/mp Þ ; mð f2 Þ ¼ mð/f Þ ; and Rma  Rw : Combining Eqs. 30 and 31 obtains the following equation:
Applying the preceding details into Eq. 1 obtains log /b
mð/mp Þ ¼ 1 þ ½mð/b Þ  1 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð32Þ
ð/ Þ m mð/ Þ log /mp
1 /mp mp /f f /mp
¼ þ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð27Þ Expanding Eq. 32 and knowing that ¼ ð1  /f Þ obtain
Ro Rw Rw /b
mð/ Þ mð/ Þ
Multiplying both sides of the equation by Rw and substituting /mp mp ¼ /b b ð1  /f Þ: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð33Þ
Rw
with /m give mð/ Þ
Ro Substituting /mp mp in Eq. 28 with its equivalent in Eq. 33
mð/ Þ mð/ Þ
/ m
¼ /mp mp þ /f f obtains
mð/ Þ mð/ Þ mð/b Þ mð/f Þ
log½/mp mp þ /f f  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð28Þ log½/b ð1  /f Þ þ /f 
m¼ ; m¼ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð34Þ
log / log /

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logðcos2 hs wmp Þ
Fracture mðSw mp /mp Þ ¼ 1 þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð38Þ
logðSw mp /mp Þ
α Electric field direction logðcos2 hs wmp Þ
and mðSw b /b Þ ¼ 1 þ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð39Þ
logðSw b /b Þ
Combining Eqs. 38 and 39 obtains the following equation:
Fig. 4—A nonhorizontal fracture with the partial tortuosity logðSw b /b Þ
mðSw mp /mp Þ ¼ 1 þ ½mðSw b /b Þ  1 : . . . . . . . ð40Þ
exponent 5 1. logðSw mp /mp Þ

Expanding Eq. 40 obtains

Eq. 34 is the same as the equation derived in Aguilera and
Aguilera (2003) but is more robust because it considered the tor- Sw mp /mp
tuosity exponent of the formation water in the fracture mð/f Þ , ðSw mp /mp ÞmðSw /mp Þ ¼ ðSw b /b ÞmðSw /b Þ : . . . . . . . . . ð41Þ
Sw b /b
which was assumed to be unity in Aguilera and Aguilera (2003).
The following example applies Eq. 34 to the example problem Replacing ðSw mp /mp ÞmðSw /mp Þ in Eq. 36 with its equivalent in Eq.
solved by Aguilera and Aguilera (2006) and obtains the same

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value of m.
Example 2. With an angle a of 50 between the resultant
direction of current flow and the fracture (Fig. 4), what is the
value of m for a dual-porosity system, if total porosity equals
0.05, fracture porosity is 0.01, the tortuosity exponent of only the
matrix [i.e., mð/b Þ ] is 2.0, and the partial tortuosity exponent mð/fp Þ
of the fractures (i.e., when a is not considered) is 1.0?
Solution: First calculate the true tortuosity exponent of the
fracture considering both meandering and a. From Eq. 27, the co-
sine of the partial harmonic average tortuosity angle is
 
mð/fp Þ  1
cos hsp ¼ /f 2 ¼ ð0:01Þ0 ¼ 1:0:
The cosine of the true harmonic/average tortuosity angle of the
fracture is
/mp
41, noting that ¼ ð1  /f Þ and Sw mp ¼ Sw b ; obtains
/b
Rw m
¼ ðSw b /b ÞmðSw /b Þ ð1  /f Þ þ ðSw f /f Þ: ðSw /f Þ . . . . . . . ð42Þ
Rt
The equation for the water saturation of a composite system of
matrix pore and fracture is
Sw / ¼ Sw b /b ð1  /f Þ þ Swf /f : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð43Þ
By making the right assumptions concerning matrix-pore satu-
ration or fracture saturation, the water saturation of the composite
system can be estimated by solving simultaneously Eqs. 41 and
42. For example, it can be rightly assumed, in the hydrocarbon
zone of a water-wet naturally fractured reservoir, that mud filtrate
has completely displaced oil from its fracture (i.e., Swf ¼ 1Þ. Eqs.
42 and 43 become, respectively,

cos hs ¼ cos hsp cos a ¼ 1:0  cos 50 ¼ 0:6428 Rw Rw mð/f Þ

¼ ðSw b /b Þmð/b Þ ð1  /f Þ þ / . . . . . . . . . . . ð44Þ
Rt Rmf f

logðcos2 hA Þwf logð0:64282 Þ and

mð/f Þ ¼ 1 þ ¼1þ ¼ 1:192
log /f log 0:01 Sw / ¼ Sw b /b ð1  /f Þ þ /f : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð45Þ

/mp /  /f 0:05  0:01 Solving Eqs. 44 and 45 simultaneously for water saturation of the
/b ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:040404: composite system obtains the following equation:
1  /f 1  /f 1  0:01
mð/ Þ 1
" mð/ Þ #m 1
Finally, calculate the value of m for the composite system with b
mð/ Þ Rw Rw /f f ð/b Þ
/f
Eq. 34: Sw ¼ ð1  /f Þ b mð/b Þ  mð/b Þ þ :
/ Rt Rmf / /
log½0:0404042:0 ð1  0:01Þ þ 0:011:192  ð46Þ
m¼ ¼ 1:722:
log 0:05
If mð/b Þ ¼ 2, Eq. 46 becomes
The value of m calculated for the composite system is then vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u " mð/ Þ #
entered into the Archie saturation equation to estimate water satu- u Rw Rw /f f /f
ration. This method would work well for a water-wet reservoir t
Sw ¼ ð1  /f Þ 2  þ : . . . . . . . . . ð47Þ
2 /
but would overestimate hydrocarbon saturation (i.e., underesti- / Rt Rmf /
mate connate water saturation) for the oil-wet reservoir because
the values of mð/b Þ and mð/f Þ would not be the same as mðSw b /b Þ
and mðSw f /f Þ , respectively, for oil-wet reservoirs. Dual-Porosity Model of Matrix Pore and Vug for
A more-rigorous way of calculating water saturation is to use Nonconducting Matrix With the Parallel-Resistivity Model. For
the formation-resistivity theory directly to estimate water satura- this case, the following details apply in Eq. 1:
tion. This is expressed as
Vsh ¼ 0; /f ¼ 0; i1 ¼ wmp ; i2 ¼ wv ; f1 ¼ /mp ; f2 ¼ /v ;
mðSw /f Þ
1 ðSw mp /mp ÞmðSw /mp Þ ðSwf /f Þ mð f1 Þ ¼ mð/mp Þ ; mð f2 Þ ¼ mð/v Þ ; and Rma  Rw :
¼ þ . . . . . . . . . . . . ð35Þ
Rt Rw Rw
Applying the preceding assumptions in Eq. 1 obtains equations
and similar to those obtained for the dual-porosity model of matrix
Rw pore and fracture with the fracture terms replaced with vug terms.
m
¼ ðSw mp /mp ÞmðSw /mp Þ þ ðSwf /f Þ; ðSw /f Þ . . . . . . . . . . . ð36Þ Two of such equations are given next.
Rt
logðcos2 hswf Þ mð/ Þ m
log½/mp mp þ /v ð/v Þ 
where mðSwf /f Þ ¼ 1 þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð37Þ m¼ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð48Þ
logðSwf /f Þ log /

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and If mð/b Þ ¼ 2, Eq. 56 becomes

mð/ Þ m sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
log½/b b ð1  /v Þ þ /v ð/v Þ  Rw
m¼ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð49Þ Sw ¼ ð1  /v Þ 2 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð57Þ
log / / Rt
The question of whether a parallel model can be used for reser-
voirs with nonconnected vugs has been dealt with in the analysis
of an oil-wet reservoir in the section of a clean, nonconducting Triple-Porosity Model of Matrix Pore, Fracture, and Vug
matrix. The nonconnected vug behaves similarly to the noncon- With the Parallel-Resistivity Model. For this case, the follow-
nected formation water, which occurs at a low water saturation in ing details apply in Eq. 1:
oil-wet rock. Just as the degree of nonconnectivity for the oil-wet
system is controlled by water saturation, the degree of the noncon- Vsh ¼ 0; i1 ¼ wmp ; i2 ¼ wf ; i3 ¼ wv ; f1 ¼ /mp ; f2 ¼ /f ; f3 ¼ /v ;
nectivity of the nonconnected vugs is controlled by the isolation mð f1 Þ ¼ mð/mp Þ ; mð f2 Þ ¼ mð/f Þ ; mð f3 Þ ¼ mð/v Þ ; and Rma  Rw :
of the vugs [i.e., the pore space (which could be matrix pore or
fracture) between the vugs]. This rationale is also supported by Applying the preceding details in Eq. 1 obtains
Towle (1962). When the matrix/fracture-pore spaces (i.e., /b or mð/ Þ mð/f Þ m
/f ) between the nonconnected vugs decrease, the degree of the log½/mp mp þ /f þ /v ð/v Þ 
m¼ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð58Þ

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nonconnectivity of the vugs increases, and therefore mð/v Þ log /
increases to a value well above 2 (i.e., nonconnected vugs in a
wackestone matrix). If the matrix/fracture-pore space between the and
vugs is large enough, the degree of nonconnectivity is low, and mð/b Þ mð/f Þ m
the vugs behave as connected vugs and have an mð/v Þ value log½/b ð1  /f  /v Þ þ /f þ /v ð/v Þ 
m¼ : . . . . . ð59Þ
between unity (i.e., when the vugs are connected by horizontal log /
fractures) and 2 (i.e., when the vugs are connected by a grainstone
matrix with good porosity). The preceding analysis shows that The value of mð/v Þ is also controlled by the degree of the con-
Eqs. 48 and 49 can be used for both connected and nonconnected nectivity or nonconnectivity of the vugs.
vugs, and it would not be necessary to differentiate them. With the direct method of estimating water saturation, as
With the direct method of estimating water saturation that is explained previously, the following are the derivations for the tri-
explained in the previous section of the dual-porosity system of ple-porosity system:
matrix and fracture pores, the following equations are derived for
mðSw /mp Þ m
the dual-porosity system of matrix pore and vug: 1 ðSw mp /mp Þ ðSw f /f Þ ðSw /f Þ ðSw v /v ÞmðSw /v Þ
¼ þ þ
mðSw /mp Þ Rt Rw Rw Rw
1 ðSw mp /mp Þ ðSw v /v ÞmðSw /v Þ
¼ þ . . . . . . . . . . . . ð50Þ ð60Þ
Rt Rw Rw
and and
Rw m
Rw
¼ ðSw mp /mp ÞmðSw /mp Þ þ ðSw v /v Þ:mðSw /v Þ . . . . . . . . . . . ð51Þ ¼ ðSw mp /mp ÞmðSw /mp Þ þ ðSw f /f Þ ðSw /f Þ þ ðSw v /v ÞmðSw /v Þ :
Rt Rt
ð61Þ
Substituting ðSw mp /mp ÞmðSw /mp Þ in Eq. 51 with its equivalent in Eq.
/mp Substituting ðSw mp /mp ÞmðSw /mp Þ in Eq. 61 with its equivalent in Eq.
41, noting that ¼ ð1  /v Þ and Sw mp ¼ Sw b ; obtains /mp
/b 41, noting that ¼ ð1  /f  /v Þ and Swmp ¼ Swb ; obtains
/b
Rw
¼ ðSw b /b ÞmðSw /b Þ ð1  /v Þ þ ðSw v /v Þ:mðSw /v Þ . . . . . . . ð52Þ Rw ðSw b /b ÞmðSw /b Þ m
Rt ¼ þ ðSw f /f Þ ðSw /f Þ þ ðSw v /v ÞmðSw /v Þ :
Rt ð1  /f  /v Þ1
The equation for water saturation of a composite system of
matrix pore and vug is ð62Þ

The equation for the water saturation of a composite system of

Sw / ¼ Sw b /b ð1  /v Þ þ Sw v /v : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð53Þ
matrix pore, vug, and fracture is
By making the right assumptions, which would depend on the
Sw / ¼ Sw b /b ð1  /f  /v Þ þ Sw f /f þ Sw v /v : . . . . . . . ð63Þ
wettability of the reservoir, concerning matrix-pore saturation or
vug saturation, the water saturation of the composite system can
By making the right assumptions concerning matrix-pore, frac-
be estimated by solving simultaneously Eqs. 52 and 53. For exam-
ture, and/or vug saturation, the water saturation of the composite
ple, it can be rightly assumed, in the hydrocarbon zone of a water-
system can be estimated by solving simultaneously Eqs. 62 and
wet naturally fractured reservoir, that the vugs contain only
63. As an example, it can be rightly assumed, in the hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon, whereas the connate water occupies the small pores
zone of a water-wet naturally fractured reservoir, that mud filtrate
of the matrix (i.e., Sw v ¼ 0). Eqs. 52 and 53 become, respectively,
has completely displaced oil from its fracture and that the vug
Rw contains only hydrocarbon; that is, Sw f ¼ 1 and Sw v ¼ 0 when the
¼ ðSw b /b Þmð/b Þ ð1  /v Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð54Þ resistivity measurements are taken. Eqs. 62 and 63 become,
Rt
respectively,
and Rw Rw mð/f Þ
¼ ðSw b /b Þmð/b Þ ð1  /f  /v Þ þ / . . . . . . . .ð64Þ
Sw / ¼ Sw b /b ð1  /v Þ: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð55Þ Rt Rmf f

and
Solving Eqs. 54 and 55 simultaneously for water saturation of the
composite system obtains the following equation: Sw / ¼ Sw b /b ð1  /f  /v Þ þ /f : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð65Þ
mð/ Þ 1   1
b
Rw
Sw ¼ ð1  /v Þ mð/b Þ mð/b Þ :mð/b Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ð56Þ Solving Eqs. 64 and 65 simultaneously for the water saturation of
/ Rt the composite system obtains the following equation:

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mð/ Þ 1
" mð/f Þ #m 1 la ; Lx ¼ tortuous-path length, ft
ð/b Þ
b
Rw Rw /f /f
Sw ¼ ð1  /f  /v Þ mð/ Þ
b  þ : m ¼ porosity exponent (also called tortuosity exponent in
/mð/b Þ Rt Rmf /mð/b Þ / this paper), dimensionless
n ¼ saturation exponent, dimensionless
ð66Þ
r ¼ formation resistance, X
If mð/b Þ ¼ 2, Eq. 66 becomes R ¼ formation resistivity, X m
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" ro ¼ formation resistance at 100% water saturation, X
u mð/ Þ #
u Rw R w /f f /f Ro ¼ formation resistivity at 100% water saturation, X m
t
Sw ¼ ð1  /f  /v Þ 2  þ : . . . . . ð67Þ Rt ¼ true formation resistivity, X m
2 /
/ Rt Rmf / S ¼ saturation, fraction
v ¼ volume fraction of each component with respect to a
Triple-Porosity Model of Matrix Pore, Fracture, and unit in a series model, dimensionless
V ¼ volume fraction of a unit with respect to total volume,
Nonconnected Vug With the Parallel-Series-Resistivity Model.
dimensionless
The triple-porosity model has always been modeled with the par-
Vma ¼ volume fraction of matrix with respect to total volume,
allel-resistivity model for matrix pore and fracture, which is then
dimensionless
merged with the nonconnected vug with a series resistivity model.
Vsh ¼ volume fraction of shale with respect to total volume,
Note that it would not be appropriate to use this approach for con-

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dimensionless
nected vug because the connected vug seems to be better repre-
/ ¼ porosity, fraction
sented as being in parallel rather than being in series to the
s ¼ electric tortuosity, dimensionless
fracture and matrix pore.
hs ¼ harmonic/average tortuosity angle, degrees
This paper also presents the derivation of the model for such a
triple-porosity system with the formation-resistivity theory for
parallel-resistivity models and then combining it with the series- Subscripts
resistivity models (i.e., Eqs. 1 and 3). The solution of the triple- b ¼ bulk matrix without vug or fracture
porosity model for this case (see Appendix D) is e ¼ effective
" # f ¼ fracture
ð1  /nc Þ2 i ¼ each component
log /nc þ mð/ Þ mð/ Þ
/b b ð1  /f  /nc Þ þ /f f j ¼ each unit
m¼ : . . . . ð68Þ ma ¼ matrix
log /
mp ¼ matrix pore
Eq. 68 is almost the same as the one derived in Al-Ghamdi nc ¼ nonconnected vug
et al. (2011) but is more rigorous because it considered the tortu- sd ¼ sand
osity exponent of the formation water in the fracture mð/f Þ . Eq. 68 sh ¼ shale
is consistent and applies equally to single- and dual-porosity res- v ¼ vug
ervoirs. Note that, with Eq. 68, connected vug porosity, which w ¼ water
would be separated from the nonconnected vug porosity, would wsh ¼ shale water or clay-bound water
be added to the fracture porosity. In addition, the nonconnected x ¼ any parameter
vug porosity would include other forms of nonconnected pores.
Acknowledgments
Conclusions The author wishes to thank the management of Smart Drilling
This paper develops the formation-resistivity theory, which is appli- Services Limited (SDS) for permission to publish this paper.
cable in the analysis of any reservoir type and scenarios. This is per- However, the views expressed in this paper remain the author’s
formed by considering and including all the components present in a and not those of SDS.
given reservoir scenario when developing the equation for that case. Special thanks go to the Almighty God and to my Lord and Sav-
The Archie saturation equation is theoretically explained by iour Jesus Christ for the wisdom and strength He gave for this
the formation-resistivity theory. This shows that the saturation work.
exponent and porosity exponent could be combined and treated as
a single exponent (i.e., the tortuosity exponent), thereby reducing References
the number of unknown parameters by one.
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f ¼ volume fraction of each component with respect to total Clavier, C., Coates, G., and Dumanoir, J. 1984. Theoretical and Experi-
volume, dimensionless mental Bases for the Dual-Water Model for Interpretation of Shaly
l; L ¼ length, ft Sands. SPE J. 24: 153–168. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/6859-PA.

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s2
Herrick, D.C. 1988. Conductivity Models, Pore Geometry, and Conduc- On the basis of ¼ /m , a general expression can be written as
tion Mechanisms. Paper D presented at the SPWLA 29th Annual Log- /
s2i
ging Symposium. ¼ fi mðfi Þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ðA-2Þ
Owen, J.E. 1952. The Resistivity of a Fluid-Filled Porous Body. Trans. fi
AIME. 195: 169–174.
where i represents each component in the porous medium and f is
Tiab, D. and Donaldson, E.C. 1996. Petrophysics: Theory and Practice of
a volume fraction of each component.
Measuring Reservoir Rock and Fluid Transport Properties, second
We can then express the results as
edition, 706. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing Co.
Towle, G. 1962. An Analysis of the Formation Resistivity Factor-Porosity s2ma mðVma Þ
¼ Vma ;
Relationship of Some Assumed Pore Geometries. Paper C presented at Vma
the SPWLA Symposium on Logging, Houston, Texas, 16–18 May.
swsh 2
Waxman, W.H. and Smits, L.J.M. 1968. Electrical Conductivities in Oil- ¼ ð/sh Vsh Þmð/sh Vsh Þ ;
Bearing Sands. SPE J. 8: 107–122. /sh Vsh
Winsauer, W.O., Shearin Jr., H.M., Masson, P.H. et al. 1952. Resistivity
of Brine-Saturated Sands in Relation to Pore Geometry. AAPG Bull.
and
36: 253–277. sx 2 m
Woodhouse, R. and Warner Jr., H.R. 2004. Improved Log Analysis in ¼ /x ð/x Þ :
/x

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Shaly Sandstones—Based on Sw and Hydrocarbon Pore Volume Rou-
tine Measurements of Preserved Cores Cut in Oil-Based Mud. Petro- Please note that one could also decide to use
physics 45 (3): 281–295.
s2
Wyllie, M.R.J. and Rose, W. 1950. Some Theoretical Considerations ¼ a/m :
Related to the Quantitative Evaluation of the Physical Characteristics /
of Reservoir Rock From Electric Log Data. J. Pet Tech 2: 105.
This only adds a new unknown parameter into the equation. The
author is of the opinion that this is really not necessary because a (if
Appendix A—Derivation of the Universal-Resistivity it is truly immanent in the equation) can be assumed to be unity and
Equation for the Parallel-Resistivity Model its influence can be easily incorporated into the value of m:
A porous medium can be represented by a parallel bundle of elec- Applying these equations into the resistivity equation gives
tric tortuous paths of matrix pore, fracture, vug, matrix, and shale: m mð/
VmaðVma Þ ð/sh Vsh Þmð/sh Vsh Þ /mp mp
Þ
1
¼ þ þ
Vma þ Vsh þ /mp þ /f þ /v ¼ 1; Ro Rma Rwsh Rmp
mð/f Þ mð/ Þ
/f /v f
where Vma ; Vsh ; /m ; /f ; and /v are matrix-volume fraction, þ þ :
Rf Rv
shale-volume fraction, matrix porosity, fracture porosity, and vug
porosity, respectively. From the preceding equation, a unique relationship is observed
For resistors in parallel, among the parameters. Therefore, the formation-resistivity theory
for a porous medium treated as a system of parallel resistors is
1 1 1 1 1 1
¼ þ þ þ þ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ðA-1Þ expressed as
ro rma rwsh rmp rf rv
1 Xn
fi mðfi Þ
where wsh is the water in shale (i.e., clay-bound water). ¼ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ðA-3Þ
Rt i¼1
Ri
Rx lx
But, rx ¼ :
Ax where i is each component of the porous medium and fi is the vol-
A Ama Awsh Amp Af Av ume fraction of each component.
[ ¼ þ þ þ þ ;
Ro L Rma Lma Rwsh Lwsh Rmp Lmp Rf Lf Rv Lv
      Appendix B—Derivation of the Equation of m for a
1 1 Ama L 1 Awsh L 1 Amp L
[ ¼ þ þ Homogeneous Reservoir Core
Ro Rma Lma A Rwsh Lwsh A Rmp Lmp A
    For a hypothetical pore structure of a homogeneous reservoir
1 Af L 1 Anc L core, it can be assumed that (see Fig. 1)
þ þ ;
R f Lf A Rnc Lnc A
Dla1 þ Dla2 þ Dla3 þ Dla… þ Dlan1 þ Dlan
and s¼ ;
Dl1 þ Dl2 þ Dl3 þ Dl… þ Dln1 þ Dln
     
1 1 Ama 1 Awsh 1 Amp Dla1 Dla2 Dla3 Dla… Dlan1 Dlan
[ ¼ þ þ Dl1 þ Dl2 þ Dl3 þ Dl… þ Dln1 þ Dln
Ro Rma sma A Rwsh swsh A Rmp smp A Dl1 Dl2 Dl3 Dl… Dln1 Dln
s¼ ;
    Dl1 þ Dl2 þ Dl3 þ Dl… þ Dln1 þ Dln
1 Af 1 Anc
þ þ ; Dl1 þ Dl2 þ Dl3 þ Dl… þ Dln1 þ Dln ¼ L;
Rf sf A Rnc snc A
Lx Dl1 1 Dl2 1 Dl3 1 Dl… 1
where sx ¼ : s¼ þ þ þ
L L cos h1 L cos h2 L cos h3 L cos h…
Lma Ama Lx Ax Lwsh Awsh
But Vma ¼ ; /x ¼ ; and /sh Vsh ¼ : Dln1 1 Dln 1
LA LA LA þ þ ;
Ama Vma A x /x Awsh /sh Vsh L cos hn1 L cos hn
[ ¼ ; ¼ ; ¼ ;
A sma A sx A swsh and
ðL
and 1X n
Dli 1 1 1
      s¼ ¼ dl ¼ :
1 1 Vma 1 /sh Vsh 1 /mp L i¼1 cos hi L cos h cos hs
[ ¼ þ þ 0
Ro Rma sma 2 Rwsh swsh 2 Rmp smp 2
    cos hs is the harmonic average of cos h, in which all h are the
1 /f 1 /v
þ þ : angles that the tangents along the tortuous path form with the
Rf sf 2 Rv sv 2 electric-field direction or resultant current direction.

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" m0 ð/mp Þ  m0 ð/ Þ #

Shale laminas Electric field 1 1 /mp /f f
¼ þ ;
Rðmpþf Þo Rw 1  /nc 1  /nc

where m0ð/mp Þ ¼ m /mp  and m0ð/f Þ ¼ m /f


1/nc 1/nc
Sand Sand Sand Sand " m0 ð/mp Þ  m0 ð/ Þ #
Rðmpþf Þo /mp /f f
¼ þ :1
Rw 1  /nc 1  /nc

Fig. C-1—Laminated reservoir sand. Also,

 
Rðmpþf Þo /mp þ /f m0 ð/ þ/ Þ
From Eq. A-2, ¼ : mp f
Rw 1  /nc
si 2
¼ fi mðfi Þ Therefore,
fi
  0  m0 ð/mp Þ   0
[ log si 2  log fi ¼ mðfi Þ log fi /mp þ /f m ð/mp þ/f Þ /mp /f

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m
¼ þ : ð/f Þ
1  /nc 1  /nc 1  /nc
½mðfi Þ  1log fi ¼ log si 2
log si 2 The use of the formation-resistivity theory for the series model
mðfi Þ ¼ 1 þ (i.e., Eq. C-3) to merge the preceding equation with nonconnected
lo fi
vug gives the following equations:
logðcos2 hsi Þ
[ mðfi Þ ¼ 1 þ : Rwðmpþf Þ Vðbþf Þ
log fi
Ro ¼
m0 þ Rwnc Vnc
/mp þ/f ð/mp þ/f Þ

1/nc
Appendix C—Derivation of the Universal-Resistivity
Equation for the Series-Resistivity Model Vnc ¼ /nc ; Vðbþf Þ ¼ 1  /nc
For resistors in series (Fig. C-1),
X X Rwnc ¼ Rwðmpþf Þ ¼ Rw
rt ¼ rsd þ rsh ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ðC-1Þ
Rw ð1  /nc Þ
Rt L X Rsd Lsd X Rsh Lsh Ro ¼
0
m0 þ Rw /nc
/mp mð/mp Þ / ð/f Þ
¼ þ ; þ 1/f
A Asd Ash 1/nc nc

and Ro ð1  /nc Þ
X  X  ¼
0
m0 þ /nc
Rt Lsd Lsh Rw /mp mð/mp Þ / ð/f Þ
¼ Rsd þ Rsh ; 1/nc þ 1/f
nc
A Asd L Ash L
but A ¼ Asd ¼ Ash , ð1  /nc Þ
/m ¼
0
m0 þ /nc
X  X  /mp mð/mp Þ / ð/f Þ
Lsd A Lsh A 1/nc þ 1/f
nc
Rt ¼ Rsd þ Rsh ;
LA LA " #
ð1/nc Þ
Rt ¼ Rsd Vsd þ Rsh Vsh ; log  m0  m0ð/ Þ þ /nc
/mp ð/mp Þ /f
1/nc þ 1/nc
f

and m¼
log /
Rwsd Vsd Rwsh Vsh " #
Rt ¼ þ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ðC-2Þ log /b
ðSw /sd Þmð/sd Þ ð/sh Þmð/sh Þ m0ð/mp Þ ¼ 1 þ ½mð/b Þ  1
log /mp  logð1  /nc Þ
From Eq. C-2, the formation-resistivity theory for the series-resis-
 m0ð/ Þ
tivity model is /mp mp 1  /f  /nc
" #1 [ ¼ ð/b Þmð/b Þ
1  /nc 1  /nc
Xn Xn X
n
fi mðfi Þ " #
Rt ¼ Rj Vj ¼ Vj ; . . . . . . . . . . . ðC-3Þ log /f
j¼1 j¼1 i¼1
Ri 0
mð/mp Þ ¼ 1 þ ½mð/f Þ  1
j
log /f  logð1  /nc Þ
where j is each unit that makes up the series model, i is each com-  m0ð/ Þ
ponent in a unit, and V is the volume fraction of a unit with /f f
mð/f Þ 1
[ ¼ ð/f Þ
respect to total volume. 1  /nc 1  /nc
" #
Appendix D—Derivation of the Equation for ð1  /nc Þ2
log mð/b Þ m þ /nc
Composite m for a Triple-Porosity System With ð/b Þ ð1  /f  /nc Þ þ ð/f Þ ð/f Þ
the Parallel Model for Matrix Pore and Fracture m¼ :
log /
Merged With Nonconnected Vug With the Series
Model
Philip C. Iheanacho is currently a drilling services engineer for
The use of the formation-resistivity theory for the parallel resistor Smart Drilling Services, where he works as a measurement-
model (i.e., Eq. A-3) to model matrix pore and fracture gives the while-drilling/logging-while-drilling and petroleum geome-
following equation: chanics professional. He holds a BEng degree in petroleum

150 May 2014 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

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 REE167507 DOI: 10.2118/167507-PA Date: 30-April-14 Stage: Page: 151 Total Pages: 11

engineering from Federal University of Technology Owerri and
an MSc degree in petroleum engineering from the African Uni-
versity of Science and Technology both in Nigeria. Iheanacho’s
prime research interest is in petrophysics and the reservoir char-
acterization of complex reservoir bodies. He worked for Zenith
Bank from 2007 to 2010 as a corporate banker, because of his
love for business management and financial transactions,
before coming back to the oil-and-gas business in which he
hopes to fulfill his desire of running an international oil and gas
firm. Iheanacho is also an SPE member.

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