Workshop Technology Workshop Course

Workshop Technology
By
Anu Shrestha
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Institute of Engineering
Purwanchal Campus,Dharan
Workshop Technology
Lecture : 1 Year: I Tutorial : 0 Part: I/II Practical : 3
Course Objective:
The subject aims at imparting knowledge and skill components in the field of basic
workshop technology. It deals with different hand and machine tools required for
manufacturing simple metal components and articles.
Objectives:
After the completion of the course, the student shall be able to
1. Practice workshop safety rules effectively
2. Acquire knowledge and use simple hand tools
3. Acquire knowledge and use simple measuring and gauging instruments
4. Operate simple drilling machines for producing small holes
5. Operate various machine tools for producing simple metal components and articles
6. Acquire knowledge and practice on foundry, forging and welding
Course outline
1. General safety Considerations (2 hours)
1.1 Bench Tools 1.2 Machinist’s Hammers 1.3 Screw Drivers
1.4 Punches 1.5 Chisels 1.6 Scrapers 1.7 Scribers 1.8 Files
1.9 Pliers and Cutters 1.10 Wrenches 1.11 Hacksaw
1.12 Bench Vise 1.13 Hand drill 1.14 Taps and Dies
1.15 Hand Shears 1.16 Rules, Tapes and Squares
1.17 Soldering Iron
1.18 Rivets
Course outline
2. Hand Working Operations (1 hours)

2.1. Sawing
2.2. Filing
2.3. Threading
2.4. Scribing
2.5. Shearing 2.6. Soldering
2.7. Riveting
3. Measuring and Gauging
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Semi – Precision Tools – Calipers, depth Gauge, Feeler Gauge
3.3 Precision Tools – Micrometers, Vernier Calipers, Vernier Height
Gauge, Telescopic Gauge, Hole Gauge, Bevel Protractor, Dial
Indicator, Gauge Blocks and Surface Plate
Course outline
4. Drills and Drilling Processes (1 hours)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Drill Presses
4.3 Work Holding Devices and Accessories
4.4 Cutting Tools
4.5 Geometry of Drill Bits
4.6 Grinding of Drill Bits
4.7 Operations – Drilling, Counter – boring, Counter – sinking,
Reaming, Honning, Lapping
4.8 Cutting Speeds
4.9 Drilling Safety
Course outline
5.Machine Tools (4 hours)
5.1 General Safety Considerations
5.2 Engine Lathes
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Physical Construction
5.2.3 Types of Lathe
5.2.4 Lathe Operations – Facing, Turning, Threading
5.3 Shapers
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Types of Shapers
5.3.4 General Applications
Course outline
5.4 Milling Machines
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Types of Milling Machines
5.4.4 Milling Cutters – Plain, Side, Angle, End, Form
5.4.5 Milling Operations – Plain, Side, Angular, Gang, End, Form, Keyway
5.4.6 Work Holding Devices
5.4.7 Cutter Holding Devices
5.5 Grinding Machines
5.5.1 Abrasives, Bonds, Grinding Wheels
5.5.2 Rough Grinders – Portable Grinders, Bench Grinders, Swing
Frame Grinders, Abrasive Belt Grinders
5.5.3 Precision Grinders – Cylindrical Grinders, Surface Grinders
Course outline
6. Material Properties (1 hours)
6.1 Tool materials – Low, medium and high carbon steels; Hot
and cold rolled steels; Alloy steels; Carbide and Ceramic
materials
6.2 Heat treating methods for steels – Annealing, Tempering,
Normalizing, Hardening and Quenching
6.3 Non – ferrous metals – Brass, Bronze, Aluminum –
Comparative Properties
Course outline
7. Sheet Metal Works (1 hours)
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sheet Metal Tools
7.3 Marking and Layout
7.4 Operations – Bending, Cutting, Rolling
8. Foundry Practice (1 hours)
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pattern Making
8.3 Foundry Tools
8.4 Core Making
8.5 Melting Furnace – Cupola
8.6 Sand Casting Process
Course outline
9. Forging Practice (1 hours)

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Forging Tools
9.3 Operations – Upsetting, Drawing, Cutting, Bending, Punching
9.4 Forging Presses and Hammers
9.5 Advantages and Limitations
10. Metal Joining (2 hours)
10.1 Safety Considerations
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Soldering
10.4 Brazing
10.5 Welding – Gas Welding, Arc Welding, Resistance Welding,
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG), Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
Workshop Practice
Workshop Practice: 3 hours/week; 15 weeks
Bench Tools and hand operations: Measuring, Marking, Layout,
Cutting, Filling,Drilling, Tapping, Assembly
1. Bench Tools and hand operations: (Contd.)
2. Drilling machines
3. Measuring and Gauging Instruments
4. Engine lathe: Basic operations such as Plain turning, facing, cutting
off, knurling.
5. Engine lathe: Taper turning, drilling and boring
6. Basic Shaper Operations
7. Milling Machines
8. Grinding Machines
9. Sheet Metal works
10. Foundry Practice
11. Forging Practice
12. Electric Arc Welding
13. Gas Welding
Books
References
1. “Shop Theory”, J. Anderson and E. E. Tatro, McGraw – Hill, 5th Edition, 1942
2. “Machine shop operations and setups”, O. D. Lascoe, C. A. Nelson and H. W.Porter, American
Technical society, 1973
3. “Machine shop Practice – Vol. I” , Industrial Press, New York, 1971
4. “Machine shop Practice – Vol. I” , Industrial Press, New York, 1971
5. “ Technology of Machine Tools”, Mc Graw Hill – Ryerson, 3rd Edition
6. “Machinery’s Handbook”, Oberg, Jones and Horton, 23rd Edition, Industrial Press, New York.
7. “Elements of Workshop Technology – Vol. I ( Manufacturing Processes)” – S. K. Hajra Choudhury and
A. K. Hajra Choudhury – Media Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd. , Bombay, INDIA, Tenth Edition,
1993
8. “Elements of Workshop Technology – Vol. II: (Machine Tools)” – S. K. HajraChoudhury, S. K. Bose and
A. K. Hajra Choudhury – Media Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd. , Bombay, INDIA, Eight Edition,
1988
9. “A Course in Workshop Technology – Vol. I” – Prof. B. S. Raghuwanshi – Dhanpat Rai and Co. (P) Ltd,
Delhi, INDIA, Ninth Edition, 2002
10. “A Course in Workshop Technology – Vol. II” – Prof. B. S. Raghuwanshi – Dhanpat Rai and Co. (P) Ltd,
Delhi, INDIA, Ninth Edition, 2002
11. “Workshop Technology – Vol. I” – H. S. Bawa – Tata Mc – Graw Hill publishing company Limited, New
Delhi, INDIA,
12. “Workshop Technology – Vol. II” – H. S. Bawa – Tata Mc – Graw Hill publishing company Limited,
New Delhi, INDIA,
13.A text book of Workshop Technology – R. S. Khurmi and J. K. Gupta – S. Chand and Company Ltd,
New Delhi. INDIA
Workshop Technology
• Workshop technology is the type of technology which

deals with different manufacturing processes by which
component of a machine or equipment and tools are
made.
• Workshop is the center of learning about engineering
Materials, manufacturing practices, equipments, tools
and safety precaution to be observed in manufacturing
operations.
• Workshop technology is an important to the engineers ,
supervisors or workers to acquire knowledge in the
practical and theoretical aspects to engage in the
production of various machine or tools .
Safety
In an industry , there are numbers of machines and other
equipments which have large number of moving parts and
dangerous projections which may cause hazardous
accidents , fatal injuries if proper measures are not taken
for safe guarding against them. It is then very essential for
worker to know the basic engineering principles and he
should to aware of the dangers which may exist in an
industry.
Objectives of Industrial Safety:
• To increase production as a means to a higher standard of
living.
• To reduce the cost of production.
• To conserve and make the best use of labor available.
• To have better human relations in the industry.
Accident
• An accident is a mishap which causes some injury to the person ,damage
to the machines ,tools , and equipment , which results in loss of
production . The accident may be major ,minor and fatal.
Common causes of accidents:
• Poor housekeeping
• Lack of skills or knowledge
• Insufficient working space
• Carelessness of workers
• Loose clothing of workers
• Improper or defective tools
• Poor working conditions such as bad lighting and ventilation
• Unguarded machinery
• Improper maintenance of machines
• Over loading of machines
• Operating of machines at unsafe speed
• Bad layout , planning processes
• Violation of safety rules and non observance of safety precautions
Accident
According to H.W. Heinrich we carried out the analysis of accidents ,
observed that:
• 88% accidents occur due to human causes such as unsafe practices ,
lack of foresight, wrong attitude etc.
• 10% accidents occur due to mechanical failure such as plant
condition ,machine tool or equipment failure.
• 2% accidents occur due to nature such as weather , floods and
cyclones etc.
Safety precautions:
Following safety rules are to be considered while working on
Machine tools:
• General safety
• Machine safety
• Personnel safety
• Job safety
Safety
• General safety:
Do:
• Use your common sense
• Ask if doubt to your teachers/Instructors
• Always use correct tools for your job
• Replace tools that are worn or damaged
• Keep working area clean and free from oil ,
grease in order to in to avoid slipping of workers
• Keep tools and equipment in racks or on work
table when not in use.
Safety
General safety
Do not:
• Run in the workshop
• Throw things
• Touch any equipment or machine unless
authorized to do so
• Walk away and leave your machine running
• Lift heavy work by hands
• Direct compressed air at yourself or workmates.
It can kill.
Safety
Personnel safety:
Do:
• Report any accident, however small , immediately.
• Wear glasses.
• Wear safety shoes.
• Wear your overall buttoned up.
• Roll sleeves up or button the cuffs.
• Keep hair short or wear cap.
• Ensure all guards are in position before starting machine.
• Check that work area is clear before starting machine.
• Be careful of burrs and sharp edges.
• Use correct size of spanners at all times.
• Stand clear when lifting work pieces or equipment by cranes.
• Use chipping guard while chipping.
Safety
Personnel Safety
Do not:
• Wear rings , watches etc.
• Keep sharp tools (scribers ,centre punch. Dividers ) in your
overall pockets.
• Remove chips with bare hands , use a rake or brush.
• Manually lift heavy equipment.
• Touch revolving drills ,workpieces or any rotating parts of
machines and equipment.
• Use cracked or chipped tools.
• Lean on the machine /equipment.
• Use files , scrappers etc. without handles.
• Play on the machine /Equipment.
Safety
Machine /Equipment Safety:
Do:
• Keep machine , equipment , tools clean and good
condition.
• Switch of machine/equipment immediately , if any thing
goes wrong.
• Keep machines/equipment /surrounding area tidy.
• Replaced any worn or damaged nuts, bolts , belts handles (
i.e. machine elements).
• Switch off machine at the main at the end of working day.
• Remove drill chuck key before starting the drilling machine.
Safety
Do not:
• Fool about on machine / equipment/tools.
• Attempt to operatethe machine/equipment/tools while you are sureyou
understand it.
• Mount or use cracked /damaged tools (drii bits , reamers, center punch
etc.).
• Temper with machine/equipment/tools.
Job Safety:
Do:
• Use Soft jaw (jaw cover) before clamping/holding the surface finished
work pieces.
• Oil the finished work pieces and keep it in the safe placein order to
damage and corrosion.
Do not:
• Hold the finished workpieces with naked vice jaws.
• Leave the finish workpieces without oiling for a long period.
Bench work and fitting
• The work carried out by hand at the bench is called bench

work , whereas fitting is an assembling of parts together by
filling , chipping , sawing , scrapping , tapping .etc. necessary
after the machining operation. The bench work and fitting
plays an important role in engineering workshop to complete
and finish the job to the desired accuracy.
Fitting tools (bench work tools):

1.Holding tools
2.striking tool
3.cutting tools
4.scraping tools
5.drilling tools
6.measuring , marking , testing tools
1.Holding tool
Vice: Vice are work holding tools for clamping works on the
required position. Most of the manual operations such as
filling, sawing , cutting, threading by hand, and many other
machining operations such as shaping operations ,milling,
operations etc. are done by clamping the job rigidly in the
vice. Vices have two parallel jaws, one fixed and the other movable,
threaded in and out by a screw and lever.
Types of vices:
Bench Vice
The bench vice is a work holding device. It is the most
commonly used vice in a fitting shop.It is fixed to the bench
with bolts and nuts. The vice body consists of two main parts,
fixed jaw and movable jaw. When the vice handle is turned in
a clockwise direction, the sliding jaw forces the work against
the fixed jaw. Jaw plates are made of hardened steel.
Serrations on the jaws ensure a good grip.The size of the vice
is specified by the length of the jaws. Protective grips or clamps
which can be made of lead, fibre-tin plate, etc. are usually fitted over
the jaws. The width suitable for common work varies from 80 to 140
mm the maximum opening being 95- 180 mm
Bench work and Fittings
• Leg Vice The leg vice is used by blacksmiths but it is also suitable for
heavy hammering, chipping and cutting in the fitters work. The vice
is secured to the top of the strap which is fastened to a plate bolted
to the bench top. The leg of the vice is fastened to the bench leg
with staples and its end fit into a hole in the floor. This is suitable
for heavy work.
• Pipe Vice The pipe vice is used for holding round section metal,
tubes, pipes etc. It grips the work at four points on its surface.
• Hand Vice: The hand vice is used for gripping screws, rivets, small
drills and other similar objects which are to be conveniently held in
the bench-vice. The length varies from 125-150 mm and jaw width
from 40-44 mm.
Types of vices
c. Hand
vice
D. Pipe vice
A.Leg Vice
B. Machine or tool
maker’s vice
• Pin Vice: The pin vice is used for holding round material of small diameters
such as wire and pins during working. It also forms a very useful handle for
small files.
• Toolmakers Vice: The toolmaker's vice is particularly useful for holding small
work which requires filing or drilling and for such work as laying out small jobs
on the surface plates. These are made of mild steel.
2.Sticking tools
• The hammer is one of the most widely used fitter’s tools. It is
used for striking chisels in chipping and cutting and the punch
in marking.
• All the hammers used in a fitting shop are similar in
construction to the smith’s hand hammers, such as ball peen,
cross peen, straight peen, etc. The only difference lies in
weight. Hammers used in fitting work are comparatively lighter
in weight than the smith’s hand hammers.
• Ball Peen
Normally used by engineer's, the peen in this case, is rounded and is used
for riveting, chipping, shaping metal ,closing rivets , and laying out. The
weight of the hammer varies from 0.11 to 0.91 kg .
Peen
Handle
Face
Ball peen Straight peen Cross peen

hammer hammer Hammer
• Straight Peen Hammer: this hammer has a peen straight with handle i.e.
parallel to the axis of the handle. This is used for stretching or peening
metal. Where it is necessary to strike the metal a blow with minimum
damage to the surface.
• Cross Peen Hammer :This is similar to ball peen hammer in shape and size
except that the peen which is a cross or right angles to the handle . This is
mainly used for bending, stretching, hammering into shoulders inside
curves. etc
• Claw Hammer The most popular hammer for general work, available with
a wooden , glass-fibre or steel handle; with or without rubber grip. The
most popular weights are 455-680g . The claw is normally curved, and
incorporates a 'V' cut-out to draw nails from timber.
Claw
Hammer
Double faced hammer: It consists a head

of two identical faces at both ends .It is used Double faced hammer
for striking up tools for riveting.
• Soft hammer: It is made from soft metal such as copper and lead .This is
used for hammering finished jobs and for aligning jobs on a machine.
• Mallet: A wooden hammer ,plastic and rubber hammers also called

mallet. This is used by carpenters to drive their tools and by sheet metal
workers for bending their sheets.
• Sledge hammer: This hammer is used by blacksmith ,woodcutters ,

stonebreakers , fabricators etc. for heavy jobs. These are three types of
sledge hammers.
a)Double faced
b)Cross peen
c) Straight peen.
Weights: Ball , cross and straight peen hammers come with 100 , 200 , 300
, 400 , 500 ,600 , 800 and 1000g.wt. while sledge hammers have 1.5 kg to
10 kg wt.
Cutting tools
The main cutting tools used in fitting are cold chisels , hacksaw and files.
Chisels
• There are many verities of chisels used for chipping work by a fitter. Some
very commonly used forms are Flat, Cross-cut, Round nose and Diamond
point.
• All the chisels are forged from bar stock of carbon steel, to the desired
shape and the cutting edge ground to the correct angle.
• The included angle at the cutting edge varies between 400and 700,
depending upon the material on which it is to be used. Approximate
values of cutting angles for common materials are as follows:
• Brass and copper 400
• Wrought iron 500
• Cast iron and general cutting work 600
• Steel (cast) 700
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
• A flat chisel is a general purpose chisel which is most widely used in
cutting work, chipping large surface, cutting metal sheets, rods, bar stocks
and similar other purposes. Since it cuts the metal in cold state it is also
frequently known as cold chisel.
• A round nose chisel is used to correct centre which has run off-centre
during drilling operation. Another specific use of this type of chisel is in
cutting oil grooves and channels in bearings and pulley bushes and
cleaning small round corners.
Cutting tools
• A cross cut is a comparatively narrow chisel having its
cutting edge slightly broader than the blade. It is made to
keep the blade free when the chisel is used to cut deep
groove into the metal. Normal widths of the cutting edge
vary from 3 mm to 12 mm. This chisel is used to cut parallel
grooves on large surfaces, before chipping by means of a
flat chisel, cutting key ways, etc.
• A diamond point chisel is a special purpose chisel used for
chipping rough plates and cutting cast iron pipes, cutting ‘V’
grooves, chipping sharp corners, squaring up corners of
previously cut slots and cleaning angles.
Cutting tools
Files
• Files is a cutting tool having a large number of sharp edges or cutting
teeth which remove the chips of materials. Files are made to cut only in
the forward stroke. It is made of high carbon tool steel. Length of the files
varies according to the need but the most commonly used lengths range
from 10 cm to 30 cm and they cover almost all sorts of filing work done by
hand.
• Length between 10 cm and 15 cm are generally used for fine work,
between 15 cm and 25 cm for medium sized work and above 25 cm for all
general and large sized jobs.
Cutting tools
Bench work and fittings
Cutting tools
• Classification of files: Files are classified according to cut of teeth ,
coarseness(grade) , shape or cross section and the size of file:
• Classification of files according to cut:
I. Single cut
II. Double cut file
III. Rasp cut
IV. Curved cut
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Rasp cut file:A rasp cut is the row of the individual teeth cut by a sharp ,
narrow punch like chisel. It has isolated projections and recess which forms
relatively coarse and widely spaced teeth.
Uses: To remove soft material such as rubber , wood , aluminum, leather.
Curve cut or milled tooth file : The teeth are cut in arc or semicircle. The chips
do not clog. These files cut fast but produce a good surface finish. This file is
used to remove metals from medium hard metal such as copper , brass ,
aluminum etc.
Cutting tools
Classification of files according to coarseness:
• Coarseness of file is defined as number of the teeth per cm. of length .The
approximate number of teeth file for different grades are given below:
• Rough cut : 5 teeth /cm
• Coarse cut :10 teeth /cm
• Basterd cut:12 teeth /cm
These files are used for heavy stock removal from 0.5 to 1mm.The maximum
accuracy 0.2 to 0.5mm.
• Second cut file :16 teeth /cm
It is used for general work. The stock removal is 0.025 to 0.05mm.The
maximum work accuracy is 0.02 to 0.15 mm.
• Smooth cut file:20 teeth / cm.
• Super smooth file: more than 30 teeth / cm.
These files are used for finishing operations. The stock removal is 0.025 to 0.05
mm .
The most often used files are basterd , second cut , and smooth .
Cutting tools
Classification of files according to profile(cross sectional shape):
• Hand file:The hand file is for general use, typically on flat surfaces. It is
rectangular in cross-section , parallel in width along its length, but tapers
slightly in thickness for approximately the last third of its length towards the
point. It is double cut on both faces, single-cut on one edge and is plain on
the second edge. The plain edge with no teeth is known as the ‘safe ’ edge
and is designed to file up to the edge of a surface without damaging it. The
taper in thickness enables the file to enter a slot slightly less than its full
thickness.
• Pillar file :This file has the same section as a hand file but of a thinner
section. It is used for narrow slots and keyways.
• Flat file : The flat file is also for general use, typically on flat surfaces. It is
rectangular in cross section and tapers in both width and thickness for
approximately the last third of its length towards the point. Both faces are
double-cut and both edges single-cut. The tapers in width and thickness
enable this file to be used in slots which are narrower than its full width and
thickness and which require filing on length and width.
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
• Square file :The square file is of square cross-section, parallel for
approximately two-thirds of its length, then tapering towards the point. It is
double-cut on all sides. This file is used for filing keyways, slots and the
smaller square or rectangular holes with 90° sides.
• Three-square file/Triangular: The three-square or triangular file has a 60°
triangle cross-section, parallel for approximately two-thirds of its length, then
tapering towards the point. The three faces are double-cut and the edges
sharp. This file is used for surfaces which meet at less than 90°, angular
holes and recesses.
• Round file : The round file is of circular cross-section, parallel for
approximately two-thirds of its length and then tapering towards the point.
Second-cut and smooth files are single-cut, while the bastard is double-cut.
This file is used for enlarging round holes, elongating slots and finishing
internal round corners.
• Half-round file : The half-round file has one flat and one curved side. It is
parallel for approximately two-thirds of its length, then tapers in width and
thickness towards the point. The flat side is double-cut and the curved side
is single-cut on second-cutand smooth files. This is an extremely useful
double-purpose file for flat surfaces and for curved surfaces too large for the
round file.
Cutting tools
Needle files : Needle files are used for very fine work in tool making and
fitting, where very small amounts of material have to be removed in
intricate shapes or in a confined space. This type of file is available from
120 mm to 180 mm long, of which approximately half is file-shaped and
cut, the remainder forming a slender circular handle.
Care of files:
Never throw files on top of each other in a drawer, as the teeth may be
chipped. Never knock the file on its edge to get rid of filings in the teeth.
A file brush should be used regularly to remove filings from the teeth, as
failure to do so will cause scratching of the work surface and in efficient
removal of metal. Always clean the file on completion of the job before
putting it away. Do not exert too much pressure when using a new file,
or some of the teeth may break off due to their sharpness. work lightly
until the fine tooth points are worn slightly. For the same reason, avoid
using a new file on rough surfaces of castings, welds or hard scale.
Always use a properly fitted handle of the correct size . file should not
be used without a handle or with a handle which is split; remember, one
slip and the tang could pierce your hand.
Cutting tools
• Hack-Saw
• Desired lengths of bar stocks, rods, tubes, iron flats and metal sheets, etc. are
always required to be cut in fitting shop. Hack-saw is a common tool used for this
purpose. It consists of a metal frame, fitted with a wooden handle, carrying metal
clips with wing-nut at its end to hold. The clip carrying the wing nut is threaded so
as to stretch the blade to the desired extent. The frame can be either of fixed type,
which can accommodate the same length of blades or adjustable type which is
capable of accommodating different lengths of blades.
• Hack saw blades are made of high carbon steel or low alloy steel. Hack saw blade
is the main part. Push type blades, those which cut in forward stroke only, are
generally used. In these, the teeth always point away from the operator. The
blades in common use are generally 0.7 mm thick, 12.7 mm wide and 20 cm to 30
long. About 5 to 7 teeth per cm length of blade from the course group and 8 to 12
teeth per cm from the fine group of teeth.
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
• Scrapers
Scraping, unlike filing or chiseling, is not done to remove a great
deal of material. The material is removed selectively in small
amounts, usually to give a flat or a good bearing surface. A surface
produced by machining or filing may not be good enough as a
bearing where two surfaces are sliding or rotating. The purpose of
scraping is therefore to remove high spots to make the surface flat
or circular, and at the same time to create small pockets in which
lubricant can be held between the two surfaces. Surface plates and
surface tables are examples of scraping being used when flatness is
of prime importance. Examples where both flatness and lubricating
properties are required can be seen on the sliding surfaces of
centre lathes and milling, shaping and grinding machines.
Cutting tools
The flat scraper, for use on flat surfaces, resembles a hand file
thinned down at the point, but it does not have any teeth cut on it.
The point is slightly curved, and the cutting edges are kept sharp by
means of an oilstone. The scraper cuts on the forward stroke, the
high spots being removed one at a time by short forward rocking
strokes. The flatness is checked with reference to a surface plate. A
light film of engineer’s blue is smeared evenly on the surface plate,
and the surface being scraped is placed on top and moved slightly
from side to side. Any high spots show up as blue spots, and these
are reduced by scraping. The surface is again checked,rescraped
and the process is repeated until the desired flatness is obtained.
Flatness of the surface is indicated when the whole area being
scraped is evenly covered by blue from the surface plate.
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
• The same procedure is used on internal curved surfaces, using a
half-round scraper slightly hollow on the underside, to prevent
digging in, and with a cutting edge on each side. The reference
surface in this case is the shaft which is to run in the curved surface
and which is smeared(coat or mark) with engineer’s blue. Entry of the
shaft in the bearing indicates the high spots, which are removed by
scraping, and this process is repeated until the desired surface is
produced. The three-square or triangular scraper is commonly used
to remove the sharp edges from curved surfaces and holes. It is not
suited to scraping internal curved surfaces, due to the steeper angle
of the cutting edges tending to dig into the surface. However, the
sharp point is useful where a curved surface is required up to a
sharp corner.
Cutting tools
Drills
Drilling is an important operation carried out in a fitting shop for producing different
types and sizes of holes in various materials. There are many forms of drills used for
this purpose.
• The simplest form is a flat drill which is used for wood work. The other important and
most widely used is a fluted twist drill. It has a cylindrical body carrying the spiral
flutes cut on its surface. Twist drills are usually made of high-speed steel, some
cheaper varieties are made of high carbon steel. They are made in different forms to
suit the work but the most commonly used types are (i) those having parallel shank
and (ii) those having tapered shank, Parallel shank is provided on small sized drills
(say up to 12.7 mm) only and those above this size are usually provided with a
tapered shank.
• The twist drill essentially consists of two main parts, a shank which is gripped in the
chuck of the drilling machine and the body forms the main cutting unit.
Main advantages of using twist drills are:
1. The chips of the metal are automatically driven out of the hole through the spiral
flutes.
2. Cutting edges are retained in good condition for a fairly long period.
3. Heavier feeds and speeds can be quite safely employed.
4. For the same size and depth of hole they need less power as compared to other
forms of drills.
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Taps
• The hand operated taps used in fitting shops are employed for cutting
internal threads in cylindrical holes or for cleaning damaged threads in
similar parts. A tap consists of a toothed body having flutes (usually 4) cut
on its surface, a round shank and a square formation at the end of the
shank. The flutes are provided for the same purpose as in case of a twist
drill and square formation at the top enables to grip by the tapping
handle.
• All the hand taps of different sizes are usually available in a set of three
taps of each size known as taper or rough, second and finish or plug
respectively. The main difference between the three taps is the chamfer
angle. In the threading operations they are used in the same order as
taper, second and plug.
• When starting tapping care should be taken to start the thread in
alignment with the hole. Also the tap should be occasionally rotated back
about a turn to break the chips and facilitate their removal.
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Taps and tap wrench

Cutting tools
Dies and stocks
Dies are used to cut threads on a round bar of a metal,
such as the threads on a bolt. It is a round or square
block of hardened steel with a hole containing threads
and flutes which form cutting edges. Die may be a solid
or adjustable type. Solid die has fixed dimensions. An
adjustable die may be split type with a split through
one side or two piece rectangular type. These types of
dies are fitted into special stocks and closed by means
of adjusting screws. The size of a die is specified by the
outside diameter of the thread to be cut and pitch of
the thread.
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Cutting tools
Fig. Die and die handles

Miscellaneous Tools
Screw Drivers
It is a very useful hand tool for rotating the screws. It consists
of wooden or a plastic handle and steel blade, shaped at the
end. The flat end of the tool is inserted into the slot provided
on the head of the screw for rotating it. Screw drivers are
made in various sizes to suit the corresponding sizes of the
slots on the screw heads. Sometimes star headed screw
driver is used for star headed screws.
Miscellaneous Tools
Slotted
Also known as: flat blade, flat
head, straight
Phillips
Also known as: cross
head
Miscellaneous Tools
Punch
• A punch made from a steel rod with a length of 90 to 150
mm and a diameter of 8 to 13 mm is used in bench work
for marking purpose and locating centres in more
permanent manner. The punch with a tapered point angle
of 400 is called a princk punch and that of 600 point angle is
called a centre punch.
Miscellaneous Tools
• Wrenches are used for tightening and loosening fasteners . a

box-end wrench is a good option for loosening stuck fasteners
because you can apply more torque without risking damage
to a ratchet mechanism. A wrench with an open end fits
around a fastener instead of over it, so you can slip a wrench
into an area where there isn't room for a socket. Always make
sure the tool you use is suited for the work you're doing. See
the chart below for more information on wrench types and
their uses.
Miscellaneous Tools
1.Open-End Wrench
• Tightens/loosens nuts and bolts
• Metric and standard sizes
• Two open ends (usually different sizes)
• Jointed or flex-head models let you work at different angles
2. Adjustable Wrench
• Moveable lower jaw to adjust wrench size
• Works with both standard and metric fasteners
3. Combination Wrench
• Metric and standard sizes 3 4
• One open end and one box end (usually the same size) 1 2
• 4. Ratchet Wrench
• Metric and standard sizes
• Ratchet action on one end moves freely in one direction and engages the fastener in the other direction to tighten or loosen
without removing the tool
• Some have pivoting ratchet ends for use in tight spaces
Miscellaneous Tools
Ratchet
wrench
Socket
wrench set
Miscellaneous Tools
• Electrical Pliers:Their jobs involve wire gripping, cutting, and bending.
There are lots of different types of pliers, each and every with distinctive
features for various tasks and jobs.
• Crimping net work pliers(Electronic pliers):To be able to crimp

connectors onto a wire, a particular tool is required, that is Crimping
Network Cable Pliers.
Miscellaneous Tools
Pipe Wrench
• Turns metal pipes and fittings
• Moveable upper jaw to adjust wrench size
Hex Key/Allen Wrench
• Tightens/loosens hex-head screws and bolts
• Standard and metric sizes
• Available as separate wrenches or in sets where the wrenches fold up into
a handle
• Available with T-handles for improved leverage
Miscellaneous Tools
• Sheet Metal Snips
• A snip is also called a hand shear. Snip is used like a pair of scissors
to cut thin soft metal sheets. Snips are used to cut sheet metal upto
20 S.W.G.(0.914mm).
Specification of Sheet Metal Snips
• Snips are specified by its overall length and the shape of the blade.
(snips are available in 150 mm, 200mm, 300 and 400 mm overall
length) Ex.200 mm, straight snips.
• Avoid cutting hard sheet metal, if so the blade becomes blunt.
Due to wear and tear, the cutting edge of the blades becomes
blunt. To resharpen the blade, the cutting angle alone should be
ground to an angle of 87° and should not grind the face of the
cutting side of the blade.
Miscellaneous Tools
• Different types of snips are
• Straight Snip
• Bent Snip
1.Straight Snip
• The straight snips are used to cut sheet metal along straight lines and outer sides of curves
• While cutting a sheet metal, blades are pressed against the sheet, which causes shearing tension
from both sides and the cutting action takes place.
• Cutting edge of the blade and clearance: Clearance between the blades should be free but without
gap. For straight snips, cutting angle is 87°.
• If the clearance is too large it cause unclean cut, chamfered and jamming of workpiece
• 2. Bent Snip
• The bent snips are used to cut the inside curved lines and for trimming curved edges.
• Specification of Bent Snips:
• Bent snips are specified by their overall length. Bend snips are available in 150, 200, 300 and 400
mm length.
NIPS AND SHEARS
Snips and shears are used for cutting sheet metal
and steel of various thickness and shapes. Normally, the heavier or
thicker materials are cut by shears.
Bent snip
Marking Tools
Marking Tools
Marking Tools
Callipers
Marking Tools
Marking Tools
Marking Tools
Marking Tools
Marking Tools
Marking out is the scratching of lines on the surface of a workpiece,
known as scribing, and is usually carried out only on a single
workpiece or a small number of workpieces. The two main
purposes of marking out are:
 to indicate the workpiece outline or the position of holes, slots, etc.
If the excess material will have to be removed, a guide is given for
the extent to which hacksawing or filing can be carried out
 to provide a guide to setting up the workpiece on a machine. The
workpiece is set up relative to the marking out and is then
machined. This is especially important when a datum has to be
established when castings and forgings are to be machined. It is
important to note that the scribed lines are only a guide, and any
accurate dimension must be finally checked by measuring.
Bench work and fitting Operations
2.Hand working operations
Some common bench work processes are described here
1. Marking
• It is the basic and one of the most important operations in bench work.
• Marking on the work can be done by setting out dimensions with the help of a
working drawing.
• The surface to be marked is coated with either the paste of red lead or chalk and
allowed to dry.
• After that, the work is held in a clamp, if it is round. If the work is too thin, it is
normally supported against an angle plate keeping the surface to be marked in a
vertical plane. Lines in horizontal direction are scribed by means of a scribing
gauge.
• Lines at right angles to this can be drawn easily by first turning the work through
90 and then using the scriber.
• Lines can easily be marked with the help of a try square. Circles and arcs on flat
surfaces are inscribed by means of dividers.
• After the scribing work is over, indentations on the surface are made, by using the
center punch and hammer along the scribed lines and arcs.
• The punch marks serve as the guide during further operations like filing, chipping
and drilling. etc.
2.
2.Chipping:It is a metal cutting process in which layers of stock are remomed
from workpiece surface or the workpiece is cut off by means of cutting
tool(chisel) and hammer.
• Chipping is done for :
I. Cutting off the workpieces(i.e. dividing into two parts ).
II. Shearing of the metal strips,
III. Removing the stock by forming chips from the workpiece.
Other applications of chipping are:
 To cut drilled hole , grooves , keyways
 To cut broken screws and studs
 To split rusted threads of nuts
 To cut off heads of rivets for their removal
The rough chipping removes stocks size of 1.5 to 2mm inone pass .finish
chipping removes stock size of 0.5 to 1mm thick in one pass.
Chipping
• It is the operation employed for removing the excess metal by
means of cold chisels.
• To have a properly chipped surface it is essential that the same
cutting angle should be maintained throughout the operation.
• In case the surface is too large it is advisable to cut grooves along
the whole surface by means of a cross cut chisel and then chip off
the remaining metal.
• The cutting angles of the chisels differ for different metals.
• Frequent lubrication and cooling of the cutting edge, while taking
heavy cuts for removing large amount of metal, it helps
considerably in chipping the metal easily and more effectively.
• To the correct cutting angle of the chisel, proper gripping of the
chisel and the hammer and correct standing position of the
operator play a significant part.
• The chisel should be firmly gripped in one hand leaving about 3 to 5

cm length above the thumb of the hand, and hammer should be
held near the end of the handle to ensure more power in the blows.
• The operator should stand erect with his two feet sufficiently apart
to balance his own weight equally on both the feet.
• The operator should always see the cutting edge of the chisel and
not the top of the same.
3.Sawing
Purpose of sawing
Sawing is metal cutting process used to cut bars , rods , tubes , and thick
metal sheets etc. to desire length with a tool known as hacksaw. It is also
for the purpose of cutting off or of providing work pieces with slots or
recesses.
• For manual sawing hand hacksaw is used only in single-piece production
and repair work on small-section workpieces because it is hard and time-
consuming manual work.
• For machine sawing-power hacksaw , circular saw and band sawing
machines are used.
• Preparatory work for sawing operation:
 Clamp the marked workpiece securely in a vice.
 Select the hacksaw blade according to hardness , shape , size of the
workpiece
 Place the blade in the holders, the teeth pointing away from the handle
and fixed it
 File the pilot groove (or guide) in the workpiece with the triangular file.
Pay attention:
I. Holding the saw correctly
II. Correct body positioning
III. Correct positioning of feet.
operations
• Standing position and guiding of the saw
Before beginning to saw make sure that the height of the vice is correct and that
the workpiece is firmly clamped.
Procedure: The saw is moved with the arms and such movement may be slightly
supported by the upper part of the body. When pushing the saw is pressed onto
the workpiece, pulling back is without exerting any pressure- Shortly before the
workpiece is sawn off the pressure is to be released so as to avoid the workpiece
to be pulled away by the saw which might damage the saw blade .
Notes
- The total length of the saw blade is to be utilized when sawing.
- - Cutting oil is to be slightly applied to the sides of the sawing blade before use to
minimize friction.
- Right-handed persons have to stand on the left of the vice so that the guiding
hand will not be pulled over the vice
Sawing
• This operation is performed in fitting shop for cutting different metal
pieces to the desired size and shape, usually prior to other operations
such as filing, drilling, scraping, etc.
• It is also employed for cutting metal pieces of required length out of the
bar stock.
• For sawing, the saw blade should be properly fitted, and stretched to have
the proper tension, in such a way that the cutting teeth always point away
from the operator so as to cut the metal in forward stroke.
• Sawing should be done steadily and slowly.
• An average speed of about 50 strokes per minute is a good practice.
• Sufficient pressure should be exerted in the forward stroke and this be
relieved during the backward stroke.
• It is advisable to use a coolant throughout the operation. A new blade
should not be directly used on a hard metal.
2.2. Filing
It is metal cutting process by which a large layer of metal is removed from the surface of the
blank with a tool known as a file.
• The fitters can perform the following operation by filing:
I. Bring the workpices to specified shape and size .
II. Fit the workpieces to one another .
III. Prepare the edge of a joint for welding .
IV. Perform other operations such as making grooves , slots , holes , of various shapes ,curved
shapes etc.
• Similar to the saw blades, most of the files have their teeth pointing away from the operator such
that they cut during the forward stroke.
• The pressure of the hand in filing should also be applied only during the forward stroke and
relieved during the return stroke.
• Beginners particularly should be careful enough to practice correct movement of file.
• It should always be more in a perfect horizontal plane for obtaining a truly plane and smooth
surface.
• As far as possible, try to use full length of the file during the operation.
• Moving the file diagonally on a flat surface always yields best results. A coarse pitched file should
be employed when enough metal is to be removed, followed by finishing with a smooth file.
Filling operations
Filling operations:
1. Straight filing :It is specially useful on long and narrow pieces of
work whose width is less than that of the file. In this method the
file stroke is made at right angles to the length of work.
2. Cross filing :The file is used across the work surface at an angle of
450 .
Change the direction of filing by 900at each time. It is most common
method of filing of general shaping work. In this method filing
strokes run alternatively from left to right and from right to left.
3.Draw filing :It is used to remove file marks and for finishing
operation. During this operation, the file is gripped as close to the
work as possible between two hands .It is moved lightly to and fro
over the work . For this purpose , a fine cut file with flat face
should be used.
2.3.Threading :
Internal thread cutting with tap:
• Hand Tapping:Taps are used to cut internal threads in hole
 Use a centre punch mark to centre the drill point.
 Drill a hole smaller than the measure needed for the tap
 Select the drill size for tapping hole.d=D-2H,where ,d=the hole diameter in mm,
• D=the thread diameter to be cut in mm.
• H=depthof thread in mm
• Or ,thumb rule can be used .
• Tap drill size=(0.8to 0.85)xMajor thread diameter
• The size of tap wrench is selected according to the diameter of tap, L=20D +100
• d= 0.5D+5
• Where,L=length of tap wrench ,D=Tap dia.in mm ,d=handle dia. In mm

Tapping procedure
 Countersink the hole entrance to a diameter slightly larger than the major
diameter of the threads
– This allows the tap to be started more easily & protects the start of the
threads from damage.
 Clamp the work-piece in a bench vise so the hole is in a vertical position.
 Mount the tap in the tap wrench
 Insert the tap into the hole in vertical position.
 Turn the tap clockwise one-quarter to one-half turn, then turn back three-
quarters of a turn to break the chip.
– Do this with a steady motion to avoid breaking the tap
– Use the correct cutting oil on the tap when cutting threads.
.
 When tapping a blind hole, use the taps in the order starting, plug, and then
bottoming.
– Remove the chips from the hole before using the bottoming tap.
– Be careful not to hit the bottom of the hole with the tap.
Place tap in the vertical position
When the tap is started, it may be
Start by turning 2 or 3 clockwise turns for a turned as shown.
right-hand thread, keeping steady
downward pressure on the tap.
Starting the tap. Tapping a thread by hand.

Cutting External Threads on Rods by Using a Die:
• The good quality of the thread can be obtained if the bar dia is 0.2 to 0.4 smaller
than the major diameter of the thread.
• Clamp the bar in a vice so that projecting above the vice jaw 20 to 25 mm longer
than thread length.
• Put the die into the bar end and rotate the die it with slight pressure so that the
die cuts one to two threads .
• Apply lubricants in the bar and rotate the die stoke handle applying load uniformly
to roll handle in the same as tapping i.e. one –two revolutions clockwise and half a
revolution anticlockwise direction.
• To prevent breakage of the die teeth , make sure that the die keeps square with
the bar axis after being started on the bar without missalignment .
• Check the threading using the approparate sized nut.
• Marking with steel scriber and try square
• 1. Prepare the surface to be scribed and one or two datum
faces.
• 2. Mark the measure by dashes from one datum face by
means of steel gauge and steel scriber.
• 3. Put the try square to the other perpendicular datum face
and draw the scriber directly along the edge of the long leg.
Marking with height gauge scriber:
1. Prepare the surface to be scribed and a datum face.
2. Put the workpiece with the datum face onto the surface plate.
3. Set the scriber of the height gauge to the measure at the height scale.
4. Grip the height gauge at the base plate and draw it along towards your body with
massive workplaces held directly and smaller workpieces pressed against the angle
plate,
• Notes
- Parallel scribing necessitates exactly machined datum faces or datum edge
- For height gauge scribers without scale, the measure is to be set by means of special
height scales or gauge blocks.
- For height gauge scribers which are not starting from the zero position of the scriber
on the surface plate plane, a steel parallel is to be used as support for the
workpiece. The height of the steel parallel is to be taken into account when setting
the measure.
1 height of the steel parallel
2 measure to be marked on the workpiece
3 measure to be set at the height gauge
• Shearing
• Shearing is a metal fabricating process used to cut straight lines on flat metal
stock. During the shearing process, an upper blade and a lower blade are forced
past each other with the space between them determined by a required offset.
Normally, one of the blades remains stationary.
• The shearing process characteristics include:
• Its ability to make straight-line cuts on flat sheet stock
• Metal placement between an upper and lower shear blades
• Its trademark production of burred and slightly deformed metal edges
• Its ability to cut relatively small lengths of material at any time since the shearing
blades can be mounted at an angle to reduce the necessary shearing force
required.
• The illustration that follows provides a two-dimensional look at a typical metal
shearing process. Note how the upper shear blade fractures the metal workpiece
held in place by the workholding devices. The sheared piece drops away.
Typically, the upper shear blade is mounted at an angle to the lower

blade that is normally mounted horizontally. The shearing process
performs only fundamental straight-line cutting but any geometrical
shape with a straight line cut can usually be produced on a shear.
Metal shearing can be performed on sheet, strip, bar, plate, and even
angle stock. Bar and angle materials can only be cut to length.
However, many shapes can be produced by shearing sheet and plate.
Materials that are commonly sheared include:
Aluminum
Brass
Bronze
Mild steel
Stainless steel
• The shearing process uses three types of tool systems. They are used for shearing:
• Sheet metal and plate using a squaring or bow tie shear
• Angle materials using and angle shear, and
• Bar stock using a bar shear.
Soldering
• Soldering is a joining process wherein coalescence is produced by heating below 4500c
using a non-ferrous filler metal with a melting point below that of the base metal. The
metals to be joined dictate the flux, solder, and heating methods to be used. Base
metals are selected for specific properties such as electrical conductivity, weight, and
corrosion resistance .Filler metals used in soldering were once lead based (lead
solder), however, owing to regulations, lead-based solders are increasingly
replaced with lead free solders, which may consist of antimony, bismuth,
brass, copper, indium, tin or silver.
• Which Flux Can be Used for Soldering?
• Occasionally at the site of the joint, there are impurities such as oil, dirt or
oxidation, the flux helps prevent oxidation and can sometimes chemically
clean the metal. The flux used is rosin flux which helps the mechanical
strength and electrical contact of electrical joints. Sometimes it is also possible
to apply a ‘wetting agent’ to reduce the surface tension.
Soldering
• Uses of a Soldering Iron

• A soldering iron is a hand tool used to heat solder, usually from an electrical
supply at high temperatures above the melting point of the metal alloy. This allows
for the solder to flow between the workpieces needing to be joined.
• This soldering tool is made up of an insulated handle and a heated pointed metal
iron tip. Good soldering is influenced by how clean the tip of your soldering iron is.
To maintain cleanliness, a user will hold the soldering iron and use a wet sponge to
clean the soldering iron tip prior to soldering components or making soldered
connections.
• In addition to the soldering iron, solder suckers are an important part of the
soldering setup. If excessive solder is applied, these small tools are used to remove
the solder, leaving only that desired.
• What is a Soldering Gun Used For?
• Soldering guns are used for applications where more heat is required as irons use
lower power. This tool is used for joining stained glass, light sheet metal and heavy
electronic soldering work. When you need to solder intermittently, the soldering
gun is much more practical as it cools much quicker
Soldering
Basic Steps of Soldering
• Joint fitting /Joint design: A clearance of 0.127 mm is suitable for most soldering. When soldering
precoated metals, a clearance of 0.025 mm is recommended for maximum mechanical strength.
• Types of cleaning include:
– Mechanical - emery cloth ,grinding
– Chemical - cleaning using acids to remove rust, scale or sulfides. Most commonly used acids
are hydrochloric and sulphuric.
• Application of flux
– Flux should be capable of removing oxides and stop them from reforming.
– Flux should permit displacement by the solder.
– Flux should promote wetting of the surface by the solder.
• Application of heat: Heating the joints evenly or uniformly is of utmost importance to insure a
sound joint.
– Types of soldering equipment:
• Soldering irons - electric
• Plumbers torch - propane low heat
• Dip soldering - large tank with molten solder to solder multiple joints
• Oven heating - only used in production where other heating methods are impractical
Soldering
• Basic steps contd…

• Applying the Solder takes place in two steps:
– Wetting the metal surfaces
– Filling the gap between the wetted surfaces with solder
Depending upon conditions dictated by the application, each step can be done
separately. This allows for more easily controlled conditions.
• Cooling the Joint:
– As soon as possible after soldering the joint may be cooled using a water spray
or air blast. Slow cooling could cause excessive alloying, resulting in a brittle
joint.
• Flux Residue Treatment:
– Non-corrosive fluxes are ones which are rosin base and do not require
removal. Corrosive fluxes are fluxes containing zinc chloride. Removal is a must
to prevent corrosion.
Soldering Tools and materials
Application of Soldering
Types of Rivet joints
Riveting
• Hole diameter(d) should be slightly larger than the diameter of rivet (D)i.e.
d=(0.1 to 0.2) +D in mm.
• Diameter of rivet(D) depends on the thickness of sheet(t) i.e. D=6t ,mm
• Rivet length(L)=total plate or sheet thickneess( s)+ rivet diameter
• L=S+(0.8 to 1.2)D,mm,for forming a counter shunk head
• L=s+(1.2 to 1.5)D,mm , for forming a snap head rivet
Riveting
• Riveting procedure:
Preparatory work:
I. Mark and center punch the work piece.
II. Clamp the work piece in clamping device.
III. Drill the workpiece.
IV. Counter sinking is done to the counter sunk head rivet. It is not necessary for other
rivets.
Riveting :
I. Secure correct positioning of workpices to be riveted.
II. The rivet is inserted into a drilled hole which goes through all the pieces.
III. By means of hammer blows on the rivet set the work piece and die head are pressed
on against each other.
IV. By means of vertical hammer blows on the end of the rivet shank ,shank is
compressed and is pressed against the wall of the drilled hole.
V. The closed head is preformed by further blows using rivet header or head snapping
rivet set.
VI. Caulking is done on the edges of the plates after riveting with caulking tool to make
the joint sealed(water tight , steam tight , air tight).
Tools used for riveting
Dolly: It is a bar used to back up a rivet during upsetting and

finishing the closing heads.
Rivet set: It is used for forming the closing head after the
Dolly rivet is set up. The diameter of the hole is normally 0.2 mm
larger than the rivet diameter. The set end has a larger
clearing hole drilled at right angles to it. This prevents
punching from clogging the set hole.
Rivet set Caulking tool: It is a solid chisel with the flat working edge .It
is used for sealing riveted joints by caulking the edges of the
closing heads of the rivets and the plates.
Care: Riveting tools should be always kept in good conditions
to avoid accidents and to do good riveting.
Riveting
Measuring and layout tools
• Surface table and surface plate
• In order to establish a datum from which all measurements are made a
reference surface is required. This reference surface takes the form of a
large flat surface called a surface table upon which the measuring
equipment is used.
• Surface plates are smaller reference surfaces and are placed on a bench
for use with smaller workpieces. For general use, both surface tables and
surface plates are made from cast ironmachined to various grades of
accuracy. For high-accuracy inspection work and for use in
• standards rooms, surface tables and plates made
• from granite are available.
3. Measuring and Gauging
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Semi – Precision Tools – Calipers, depth
Gauge, Feeler Gauge
3.3 Precision Tools – Micrometers, Vernier
Calipers, Vernier Height Gauge, Telescopic
Gauge, Hole Gauge, Bevel Protractor, Dial
Indicator, Gauge Blocks and Surface Plate
Measuring Instruments
• Various measuring instruments and gauges are used in

engineering for the accurate production jobs. Accuracy of a
component produced in a workshop is mainly depends on
the degree of precision of measuring tools .Some
commonly used measuring instruments and gauges are
steel rule ,venire caliper ,slip gauge, depth gauges etc.
Different measuring instruments have different precision.
Some instruments can measure up to 0.0001mm while
other can measure up to 1mm.So the selection of
measuring instrument depends upon the accuracy of the
job required. Some commonly used measuring instruments
and gauges are described below:
Calipers
• Non graduated manual measuring tool
• In order to measure the diameter of a circular part it is essential that the
measurement is made along the largest distance or true diameter. The
steel rule alone is not convenient method of measuring directly the size of
the circular part. A caliper is used to transfer the distance between the
faces of a component to a scale or micrometer. It thus converts an end
measurement situation to the line system of the rule.
• The caliper consists of 2 legs higher at top and the ends of the legs span
the part to be measured. The legs of the caliper are made from carbon
and alloy steel they are exactly identical in shape with contact points
equidistance from the fulcrum. The working ends are suitably hardened
and tempered to a hardness of 400 to 500 and the measuring faces to a
hardness of 650 + 50Hv.
Types of Calipers
Types of Calipers
FIRM JOINT TYPE INSIDE CALIPER
Firm joint calipers work on the friction created at the junction of legs. The legs may
become loose after certain use but can be adjusted easily. These calipers are
particularly suitable for large work. The inside calipers is made with straight legs
which are bent outwards at the ends. Inside calipers are used for measuring hole
diameter, distance between shoulders etc. while using they should be adjusted
until they are at the largest size at which their legs can just be felt contacting the
extremities of a diameters of the hole.
Spring type inside caliper
Spring calipers are improved varieties of ordinary joint calipers. The legs of spring
calipers are made from suitable along steel the measuring faces properly heat
treated to a hardness of 650 +50 Hv. The 2 legs carry a cured spring at the tap,
fitted in notches. The curved spring is made from carbon spring steel, it is properly
hardness and tempered to a hardness of 470 to 520 Hv.
A screw is fixed in one leg and made to pass through the other. It is provided with
a nut is to force the legs a part and the distance between them can be adjusted by
applying the pressure against the spring pressure by heightening the nut. Thus in
spring caliper the legs are held firmly by spring tension spring calipers are more
accurate. The legs are straight and shape .
Types of Calipers
Firm joint type outside caliper
In outside caliper the 2 legs are bent inword . It is now for
measuring / comparing diameter thickness and other
outside dimension by frame firing the reading to the steel
rule ,vernier caliper or micrometer. When measuring with
form joint type outside caliper they should be adjusted by
taping one leg. When a nice feel has been obtained on the
job the size should be read on rule.
Spring type outside caliper
when measuring with spring type outside caliper the gap is
adjusted by adjusting screw. It is more accurate then firm
joint type outside caliper.
Types of Calipers
Transfer caliper
It is used to make transfer measurement from the inside of
chambered cavities over flanges and similar applications where the
legs of the calipers can’t be removed directly but must be collapsed
after the dimension has been measured. In these calipers an
auxiliary arm is provided to pressure the original setting after the
legs are collapsed.
Odd leg calipers:
The odd leg calipers are also called hermaphrodite calipers. These
are scribing tools having one legs bent and the other leg equipped
with a scriber. Distances from the edge of a work piece may be
scribed or measured with these calipers. They may have either
friction joint or spring arrangement. Odd leg caliper are specifically
used for finely centers of a circular job marking a line parallel to a
three edge and many other types of marking operations.
Types of Calipers
Principle of Vernier
• The principle of vernier is based on the
difference between two scales or divisions
which are nearly , but not alike for obtaining
small difference. It enables to enhance the
accuracy of measurement.
Least count of vernier Instruments
• Least count is the difference between the
value of main scale division and vernier scale
division.
• Least count =1 division main scale/total no. of
vernier scale division
• Total reading=Main scale reading +vernier
scale division which coincides with main scale
x Least count
Vernier caliper
Vernier caliper
Micrometer
The accuracy of vernier caliper is 0.02mm. most
engineering precision works have to be measured to a
much greater accuracy than this value in order to
achieve the interchangeability of component parts.
In order to achieve this greater precision measuring
equipment of a greater accuracy and sensitivity must
be used. Micrometer is one of the most common and
most popular forms of measuring instrument for
precise measurement with 0.01 mm accuracy.
However micrometer with 0.001 mm accuracy are also
available.
Micrometer
Micrometer may be classified as
(a) Outside micrometer
(b) Inside micrometer
(c) Screw thread micrometer
(d) Depth gauge micrometer
Principle of micrometer
• Micrometers work on the principle of screw and nut. We

know that when a screw is turned through nut by one
revolution it advances by one pitch distance if the
circumference of the screw is divided into equal parts its
rotation through one division will cause the screw to
advance through length . thus the minimum length that can
be measured by such arrangement will be either by
reducing the pitch of the screw thread or by increasing the
number of division on the circumference of screw, the
length value corresponding to one circumferential division
can be reduced and consequently the accuracy of
measurement can be increased.
• Least count of micrometer= pitch of the spindle screw/
no of division in the spindle
Outside micrometer
• Figure , illustrate an outside micrometer. It is used to

measure the outside diameter and length of small
parts to accuracy of 0.01mm. The main parts of an
outside micrometer are:
1. U shaped steel frame
2. anvil & spindle
3. lock nut
4. sleeve or barrel
5. thimble
6. ratchet
Measuring Instrument
Micrometer
Procedure to take micrometer reading
• The following procedure is followed while measuring the
dimension with the help of micrometer.
1. Micrometer is selected with a desired range suitable for w/p
2. checking of zero error. In case of 0.25mm micrometer the zero
error is checked by contacting the faces of the fixed anvil and
the spindle. While using micrometer of 25-50mm or 125mm to
150mm size the zero error is checked by placing a master of
25mm or 125mm respectively between the anvil & spindle.
Checking of zero error means the zero error means the zero of
the thimble should coincide with zero on main scale. If it does not
happen then zero error is present in the micrometer. A special
spanner is usually provided with the micrometer for eliminating
the zero error.
3. For measuring the particular dimension the w/p is first held
between the faces of anvil and spindle. Then the spindle is
moved rotating the thimble until the anvil and spindle touches
the work surface. Fine adjustment is made with the ratchet. Now
the reading on the main scale is noted.
Procedure to take micrometer reading
• Let it be 11.00mm.
4. subsequently the thimble reading which
coincide with the reference line is taken let it
be 34.
5. now total reading= main scale reading+ L.C.
x reading on the thimble is 11.00+
0.01x34=11.34mm
Thread Micrometer
This is a tool that is used to measure the pitch diameter of a screw. This tool
looks like a standard micrometer except that the anvils are specially configured
to reach into the screw thread groove...
Depth micrometer:
measures depths of slots and steps.
Inside micrometer:
used to measure the diameter of holes.
Vernier height gauge
vernier height gauge is similar to vernier caliper but in this instrument
the graduated bar is held in a vertical position and it is used in
conjunction with a surface plate .
Construction
A vernier height gauge consists of
(i) a finely ground and lapped base. The base is massive and robust in
construction to ensure rigidity and stability.
(ii) A vertical graduated beam or column supported on a massive base
(iii) Attached to the beam is a sliding vernier head carrying the vernier
scale and a clamping screw.
(iv) An auxiliary head which is also attached to the beam above sliding
vernier head. It has fine adjusting and clamping screw.
(v) A measuring jaw or a scriber attached to the front of sliding vernier.
Use:
The vernier height gauge is designed for accurate
measurement and marking of vertical height above a
surface plate datum. It can also be used to measure
differences in heights by taking the vernier scale reading
each height and determining the difference by subtraction.
It can be used for number of applications in tool room and
inspection department.
Slip gauges (= gauge stocks)
= Johnson gauges
Introduction
Slip gauges are rectangular block of high grade steel with exceptionally
close tolerance. These blocks are suitably hardened up to 800 Hr
through out to ensure maximum resistance to wear. These are then
stabilized by heating and cooling successively in stages so that
hardening stresses are removed. After being hardened they are
carefully finished by high grade lapping to a high degree of finish
flatness and accuracy. For successful use of slip gauges their working
faces are made truly flat parallel. A slip gauge looks as shown in fig
2.16.
The cross section of the gauges are
(i)9mmx30mm for sizes up to 10mm
(ii)9mmx35mm for larger sizes.
Any 2 slip gauges when perfectly clean may be wrung together. The
dimensions are permanently marked on one of the measuring faces of
gauges block.
Slip gauges (= gauge stocks)
= Johnson gauges
Introduction
Slip gauges are rectangular block of high grade steel with exceptionally
close tolerance. These blocks are suitably hardened up to 800 Hr
through out to ensure maximum resistance to wear. These are then
stabilized by heating and cooling successively in stages so that
hardening stresses are removed. After being hardened they are
carefully finished by high grade lapping to a high degree of finish
flatness and accuracy. For successful use of slip gauges their working
faces are made truly flat parallel. A slip gauge looks as shown in fig
2.16.
The cross section of the gauges are
(i)9mmx30mm for sizes up to 10mm
(ii)9mmx35mm for larger sizes.
Any 2 slip gauges when perfectly clean may be wrung together. The
dimensions are permanently marked on one of the measuring faces of
gauges block.
Uses of gauge blocks
(1) Direct precise measurement where accuracy is required.
(2) For checking the accuracy of vernier calipers, micrometer etc
(3) Setting up a comparator to a specific dimension.
(4) It is used for angle measurement with sine bar.
(5) The distance of plugs spigot etc. on fixture are measured
(6) To check gap between parallel locations such as in gap gauges or
between 2 mating parts
Wringing of slip gauges
• The accuracy of measurement depends on the phenomenon
of wringing. The slip gauges are wrung together by hand through a
combined sliding and rising motion.
• The various steps will be explained in the following. The gap
between 2 wrung slip gauges is only of the order of 0.00635 micron
which is negligible
Procedure for wringing(fig 2.17)
(i) Before using the slip gauges are cleaned by using a lint free cloth a
chamois leather or a cleaning tissue.
(ii) One slip gauges is then oscillated slightly over the other gauges with
a light pressure.
(iii) One gauge is then placed at 90 to other by using light pressure and
then it is rotated until the block one brought in one line. In this way
air is expelled out from between the gauges faces causing the
gauges blocks to where. The adhesion is caused partly by molecular
attraction and party by atmospheric pressure. When the 2 gauges
are wrung in this manner the total dimension will be exactly the sum
of their individual dimension. The wrung gauge can be handled as a
unit without the need for clamping all the pieces together.
Wringing of Slip gauge
Indian standard on slip gauges
According to Is 2984-1966 the size of slip gauges is defined as the
distance ‘l’ between 2 plane measuring faces. Slip gauges are
available in several grades or qualities.
There are 5 grades available as follows:
GradeII:
Grade II gauge blocks are workshop grade and used for rough
check. They are used for setting up machine tools, positioning
milling cutters etc. where the tolerance values are relatively wide.
Grade-I
These are used for more precise work such as setting up sine bars
checking gap gauges and setting dial test indicators to zero.
Grade 0 (zero)
This is more commonly known as inspection grade and its use is
confined to tool room or machine shop inspection.
Slip gauge
Grade 00(zero zero):
This grade gauges are placed in the standard
room and used for highest precision work
such as checking grade I &Grade II slip gauges.
Calibration grade
• This is a special grade with the actual size of
the slip calibration on a special chart supplied
with a set. The chart must be referred while
making up dimension.
Slip gauge
Dial Gauge
Uses :By using a dial indicator on any suitable base and with various
attachments, it can be used for variety of purposes as follows:
1. Determining errors in geometrical forms , e.g. ovality , out of roundness ,
taper etc.
2. Determining positional errors of surfaces ,e.g. in squareness , parallelism
,alignment etc.
3. Taking accurate measurements of deformation ( extension and
compression) in tension and compression testing of materials .
4. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits( as a
comparator).
The Practical applications of the use of dial indicator are:1.To check alignment
of lathe centers by using suitable accurate bar between centers.
2.To check trueness of milling machine arbour.
3.To check parallelism of the shaper ram with table surface etc.
Dial Indicator
Telescopic Gauge
Gauge
Angle measuring Instrument
4. Drills and Drilling Processes (1 hours)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Drill Presses
4.3 Work Holding Devices and Accessories
4.4 Cutting Tools
4.5 Geometry of Drill Bits
4.6 Grinding of Drill Bits
4.7 Operations – Drilling, Counter – boring, Counter
– sinking, Reaming, Honning, Lapping
4.8 Cutting Speeds
4.9 Drilling Safety
Drilling
• The process of drilling means making a hole in a solid metal piece by using
a rotating tool called drill.
• In the olden days, a flat drill was used for drilling a hole, but these days, a
twist drill is universally used. A twist drill is the cutting tool and it is used
in conjunction with a drilling machine. A twist drill has two cutting edges,
hence it is a multiple point cutting tool. The drilling operation is shown in
• Fig.
DRILLING MACHINES
Drilling machines are of the following types:

1. Sensitive drilling machines,
2. Pillar type drilling machines,
3. Radial drilling machines, and
4. Multispindle drilling machines.
Drilling Machine
• Sensitive Drilling Machine:This is a light duty machine and is capable of

drilling a hole of 12 mm dia maximum and its spindle speeds are
correspondingly high. This machine can tackle small jobs. The work piece
is kept on the table and clamped in the appropriate position and the hole
is drilled by lowering the spindle of the drilling head. Feed is given by
moving the hand wheel gently which lowers the spindle and the hole is
drilled up to the required depth. Remember that the job has to be moved
so as to align the centre of hole
exactly below the spindle
Drilling Machine
Pillar Drilling Machine:The majority of drilling work is carried out on

pillar drilling machines, so called because the machine elements are
arranged on a vertical pillar. The machines in the heavy-duty range have
power feed, are driven from the motor through a gearbox, and have a
drilling capacity in steel up to 50 mm diameter
Drilling Machine
• Radial drilling machine: This is really meant to drill holes in bigger and
heavier workpieces, which cannot be manipulated so that the centre of
the hole may be aligned with the drilling spindle. In this case, the drilling
head is mounted on a radial arm. The radial arm can be rotated around
the round column and the drilling head can be moved in or out on the
radial arm.
The work piece is kept on the table which is really an integral part of the
base and by the combined movement of the radial arm and the drilling
head (think of the polar coordinates θ, r), any point on the work piece can
be covered and a hole drilled at the required location, without shifting the
heavy work piece.
Drilling Machine
• RadialDrilling Machine
Drilling Machine
• What is Multi Spindle Drilling Machine?

• Multi Spindle Drilling Machines are generally used for drilling number of holes
simultaneous together. They are used in mechanical industry in order to increase the
productivity of machining system and to reduce the operation time.
Drill bit holding devices
• Drill vise
• ‘T’ – bolts and clamps
• Step block
• V – block
• Angle plate
• Drill jigs
• Drill Vise
• Vise is one of the important devices used for holding workpices on a drilling machine table. The
work is clamped in a vise between a fixed jaw and a movable jaw.
• Parallel blocks are placed below the work so that the drill may completely pass through the work
without damaging the table. Different types of vises are used for holding different types of work
and for performing different operations.
• The different types of vises are
• Plain vise
• Swivel vise
• Tilting vise
• Universal vise
• MACHINE TABLE VISES
• A machine table vise is equipped with jaws which clamp against
the workpiece, holding it secure. The vise can be bolted to the
drilling table or the tail can be swung around to lay against the
column to hold itself steady. Below are listed many types of special
purpose machine table vises available to machine operators.
• The standard machine table vise is the simplest of all vises. It is
equipped with two precision ground jaws for holding onto the work
and a lead screw to tighten the one movable jaw to the work .
• The swivel vise is a machine vise that has an adjustable base that
can swivel through 360° on a horizontal plane.
• The angle vise is very similar to the table vise. except this vise can
be tilted to 90°. to be perpendicular to the work table .
• Many other vises are available. They include the compound vise.
universal vise, magnetic vise, and contour vise.
vise
• CLAMPS
• Clamps are small, portable vises or plates which bear against the
workpiece and holding devices to steady the job. Clamps are made in
numerous shapes to meet various work-holding needs. Common types of
clamps are the C-clamp, the parallel clamp, the machine strap clamp, the
bent-tail machine clamp, the U-clamp, and the finger machine clamp .
• ‘T’ – Bolts and Clamps
• The workpieces can be held directly on the machine table by means of ‘T’
– bolts and clamps. The top of the machine table has ‘T’ – slots into which
‘T’ – bolts may be fitted. The bolts of diameter 15 to 20mm are used. The
clamps are made of mild steel. ‘T’ – bolts pass through a central hole on
the clamp. The clamp is made to rest horizontally on the work surface by
placing a suitable step block at the other end of the work.
• Some of the common types of clamps are: Plain slot clamp, goose-neck
clamp and finger clamp.
•
• STEP BLOCKS
• The step blocks are used in combination with ‘T’ – bolts and clamps for
holding the work directly on the table. The step block supports the other
end of the clamp. Workpieces of different heights are held by leveling the
clamp on different steps of the step block.
• ‘V’ – BLOCK
• ‘V’ – blocks are used for holding cylindrical workpieces. The work may be
supported on two or three ‘V’ – blocks according to the length of the work.
The work is held on the ‘V’ groove and is clamped by straps and bolts. They
are made of cast iron or steel and are accurately machined.
ANGLE PLATE
Angle plates have two faces at right angle to each other and are made of
cast iron. It resembles the English alphabet ‘L’. All the sides of a angle plate
are machined accurately. Slots and holes are provided on both the faces of
the angle plate. Work is clamped on one of its faces by means of bolts and
nuts.
• DRILL JIG
• Drill jigs are used in mass production process. A jig is specially
designed to hold the work securely and to guide the tool at any
desired position. Holes may be drilled at the same relative positions
on each of the identical workpieces.
• The work is clamped and removed easily. The cost of making a drill
jig is more but a low order of skill is sufficient to work with a drill jig.
• Different types of drill jigs are
• Plate jig
• Box jig
• Channel jig
• Indexing jig.
• Diameter jig
• TWIST DRILL
Twist drills usually have a taper shank, at the end which is fitted into
the drilling machine having a tapered sleeve of matching taper.
When the tapered sleeve rotates, the twist drill also rotates along
with it due to the friction between two tapered surfaces.
Sometimes the shank is machined parallel, then a special collet
chuck is fitted in the drilling machine, in which the drill is held.
The drill has two lips at the other end where the cutting takes place,
when the drill rotates. The angle between the two cutting lips is
usually 118°. The chips formed at the cutting edges are
automatically guided upwards through the helical grooves cut into
the body of the drill; these grooves are called flutes. This is
necessary, otherwise, the chips will interfere with the metal cutting.
• Machine reamer
• A reamer is used to produce a hole of greater accuracy than can be obtained
using a drill. The hole is drilled undersize by an amount depending upon the
diameter ; the requiredfinished size is then obtained with the reamer. Care
should be taken with the position and alignment of the drilled hole, since the
reamer will correct size, roundness and surface finish but will not correct
errors in alignment. Counterbore
• A counterbore cutter, is used to enlarge an existing hole to provide a flat and
square seating for a screw, bolt or nut under the workpiece surface. Teeth are
provided on the end face and on the circumference, to permit cutting to a
depth. A pilot is provided which locates in the existing hole and guides the tool
during cutting.
• Countersink
• Countersink cutters, made from high speed steel, are used to cut a large
chamfer of the correct angle, usually 90°, as a seating for countersink-
head screws. Countersinks should be run at a fairly slow speed to avoid
chatter. They are available with parallel and taper shanks. Spotface
• A spotface cutter, is used to provide a flat and square seating for a screw,
bolt or nut on the surface of the workpiece, usually on the surface of a
rough casting which would not otherwise provide a sufficiently accurate
seating.The spotface is similar to a counterbore cutter, but has teeth on
the end only. It will cut to only a very limited depth and cannot be used to
counter bore.
Drilling operations
• Core drilling: Holes made in castings by use of cores, are rough and require
a special kind of drill, called core drill to clean up the holes. This operation
is called core drilling.
• Step drilling: More than one diameter can be ground on the drill body
which saves an extra operation.
• Counter boring: Often a flat surface is needed around a hole to provide a
good seating area for washer and nuts/head of a bolt. The counter boring
tool has a pilot, which ensures that the counter bore is concentric with the
hole.
• Counter sinking: Counter sinking provides a tapered entrance to the hole.
A special counter sinking tool with a pilot is used as shown
Drilling operations
Drilling operations
• Reaming: Reaming is an operation of sizing and improving the geometry

and finish of a previously drilled hole. Hand, machine and shell reamers
are used for this purpose. Machine reamers are used with a drilling
machine. To work efficiently, proper stock allowance is very important.
Reamers cannot remove much material, but at the same time, enough
material should be available all round. For holes up to 12.5 mm in
diameter, about 0.38–0.4 mm of material is left as reaming allowance.
A reamer follows the original hole and cannot shift its centre.
• Tapping: Tapping is also done on a drilling machine with a special flexible
adapter for holding machine taps. Tapping means cutting internal threads
in a hole. A machine tap set consists of two tapsrough and finish. Both
taps should be used in the same order. During tapping, the spindle r.p.m. is
drastically reduced and a good lubricant used.
Safety in use of drilling machine
• Most accidents happen from:

• hair caught on rotating spindles, chucks and tools;
• entanglement of gloves, clothing, bandages,
• watches and rings;violent spinning of the workpiece due to poor clamping, causing
broken bones, dislocations and even amputation;
• not wearing eye protection;
• swarf – causing cuts.Remember that you have a duty under the various health and
safety regulations already covered in
• To avoid the risk of accident:
• Always follow the training provided by your employer.
• Always have guards properly fitted and in the correct position.
• Always wear eye protection and any other PPE required.
• Do not wear jewellery or loose clothing.
• Always have long hair tied back or in a hairnet.
• Never leave the chuck key in the chuck
Course outline
5.Machine Tools (4 hours)
5.1 General Safety Considerations
5.2 Engine Lathes
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.3 Types of Lathe
5.2.4 Lathe Operations – Facing, Turning, Threading
5.3 Shapers
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Types of Shapers
5.3.4 General Applications
Machine Tools
• Machine tool can be defined in several ways ,
but one comprehensive definition can be; “A
machine tool is a non portable and power
operated device or system of devices in which
energy is expended to produce jobs of desired
dimension and finish by machining i.e.
removing excess material from the preformed
blank(s) in the form of chips with the help of
cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface at
controlled speeds and feeds”.
Major components of machine tools and their
functions
• Any machine tool like lathe, drilling machine, milling machine etc. is
essentially comprised of some major components as common
features. Those common major components or units are:
• Devices for properly and firmly holding the blank and the cutting
tool(s).
• Devices for providing motions and power to the tool(s) and the
workpiece.
• Kinematic system for transforming and transmitting the motions
and power from the power source(s) to the tool(s) and workpiece.
• Automation and control systems.
• Heavy structural body to support and accommodate those systems
quite strongly, rigidly and safely.
Types of Machine Tools
Lathe
The major components and their functions in a centre lathe are :

• Headstock: This heavy housing, being mounted on the bed at its left end,
receives power and motion from the motor and transmit the same to the
workpieces through a clutch, speed gear box (SGB) and the spindle
contained in the headstock housing. Thus the headstock enables rotating
the workpiece at different speeds as required.
Lathe
• Tailstock: This relatively smaller body can be shifted and fixed at
any location on the lathe bed coaxially with the headstock. The
main functions of the tailstock are to provide support to long and
heavy workpieces and often hold and move some cutting tools for
operations like drilling, reaming etc.
• Carriage: This heavy part with a number of mechanisms and parts

in it is made to slide along the lathe bed. The carriage firmly holds
the tools and moves it at different feed rates. The carriage derives
motions usually from the spindle through a feed gear box (FGB) and
a feed rod or lead screw.
• Bed: This rigid bulky horizontal beam stands firmly on two legs or
columns. On the bed, the headstock remains bolted, the tailstock is
shifted and clamped and the carriage slides.
Lathe
• The common and frequent uses of centre lathes include;
• Turning -Straight turning, step turning, Taper turning,

form turning, eccentric turning
• Facing, Chamfering, Grooving, Parting off, Undercutting,
• Centering, Drilling, Reaming, Boring ,Counter boring, Counter
sinking
• Thread cutting; external and internal
• Knurling etc.
Lathe operations
Lathe Operations
1.Turning:It is the process of removing excessive materials from the work piece to
produce cylindrical or conical shaped surface. There are various types of
turning processes ,which are going to be discussed below:
i) Straight tuning: It is also called parallel turning , plain turning or cylindrical
turning .In this process, the work piece is rotated and tool is fed parallel to
the lathe axis .It produces a cylindrical surface by removing excessive
materials. This process is repeated until the job is completed. There are two
kinds of cut
a)Roughing cut or rough turning b)finishing cut or finish turning
ii) Shoulder turning: Sometimes , we to turn a work piece having different
diameters. The surface forming the step from one diameter to the other is
called shoulder and turning of this part of the work piece is called shoulder
turning. Shoulder turning are of various types .The are square shoulder,
angular or beveled shoulder, under cut shoulder ,radius shoulder.
Lathe operations
iii) Taper turning :A uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a work piece
along its length is called taper. In lathe ,we can also produce conical surfaces
from cylindrical surfaces ,which is also called taper turning .Taper turning is
done in a lathe by feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the
job. There are various processes of taper turning which are given below:
a)Taper turning by using a form tool b)Taper turning by setting over tailstock
c)Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest d) simultaneous feed method
e) Taper turning by using taper turning attachment f)Tracing attachment method
iv)Eccentric turning:
When a cylindrical surface two separate axis of rotation, with the first axis, is
off set to the other axis then such a work piece is machined by the operation
called eccentric turning. Here three sets of centre holes are drilled.
Lathe operations
• Combined feed method of taper turning:The combined feed is made with

the movement of a tool in longitudinal and lateral direction
simultaneously while moving the workpiece.
• The taper, which we are going to obtain, is equal to the resultant to the
magnitude of the longitudinal and lateral feeds. Changing the feeds rates
in both directions can change the direction and the taper angle.
Lathe operations
• Contour turning:
• In this operation of lathe machine the tool is not fed in a straight path .
Instead the tool follows a contour. A contoured form is created in the
turned part.
• Feed : Contoured feed . Not parallel to the axis of w/p roatation.
• Form turning:
• In this method a special shaped tool is used . The tool is inserted
radially.
• Feed for forming : Radial.
• Diagram for lathe machine operation which involves forming and
contour turning
Lathe operations
Facing:
• It is an operation of reducing the length of the workpiece by feeding the cutting tool
perpendicular to the lathe axis. This operation of reducing a flat surface on the end of
the workpiece. For this operation, regular turning tool or facing tool may use. The
cutting edge of the tool should set to the same height as the centre of the workpiece.
• Chamfering:
It is the operation of getting a beveled surface at the edge of a cylindrical
workpiece. This operation is done in case of bolt ends and shaft ends.
Chamfering helps to avoid damage to the sharp edges and protect the
operation getting hurt during other operations. Chamfering on bolt helps to
screw the nut easily.
Cutoff or Parting:
• In parting operation the tool is fed radially and the end part of the
workpiece is cut off.
• Feed : Radial.
Lathe operations
• Drilling:
Drilling and reaming is done by feeding the lathe tool along the axis of the
rotating job part.
• Knurling operation:
• It is an operation of obtaining a diamond shape on the workpiece for the
gripping purpose. This is done to provide a better gripping surface when
operated by hands. It is done using a knurling tool. The tool consists of a
set of hardened steel roller, and it is held rigidly on the toolpost.
Lathe operations
• Thread cutting:
• It is the important operation in the lathe to obtain the continuous ”helical
grooves” or ” threads’‘.
• When the threads or helical grooves are formed on the out surface of the
workpiece is called external thread cutting. When the threads or helical
grooves are formed on the inner surface of the workpiece is called internal
thread cutting. The workpiece is rotating between the two centres i.e., live
centre and dead centre os the lathe. Here the tool is moved longitudinally
to obtain the required type of the thread. When the tool is moved from
right to the left we get the left-hand thread. Similarly, when the tool is
moved from left to the right we get the right-hand thread.
Lathe operations
• Grooving:
• It is the process of reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a very narrow surface. It is
done by a groove tool. A grooving tool is similar to the parting-off tool. It is often done at the
end of a thread or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a small margin.
• Undercutting:
• Undercutting is similar to grooving operation when performed inside a hole. It is the process
of boring a groove or a large hole at a fixed distance from the end of a hole.
• This is similar to the boring operation, except that a square nose parting is used.
Undercutting is done at the end of an internal thread or a counterbore to provide clearance
for the tool or any part.
Lathe operations
• Boring:
Boring is the operation of enlarging the hole which is already drilled,
punched or forged. It cannot produce a hole. Boring is similar to the
external turning operation and can be performed in a lathe. In this
operation, the workpiece is revolved in a chuck or a faceplate and the
tools which are fitted to the tool post is fed into the work.
It consists of a boring bar having a single-point cutting tool which enlarges
the hole. It also corrects out of roundness of a hole. This method adopted
for boring small-sized works only. The speed of this process is slow.
• Counterboring:
Counterboring is the operation of enlarging the end of the hole through a
certain distance. It is similar to a shoulder work in external turning.
The operation is similar to boring and plain boring tools or a counterbore
may be used. The tool is used called a counterbore. The speed is slightly
less than drilling.
Lathe operations
• Taper Boring:
The principle of turning a tapered hole is similar to the external taper
turning operation and is completed by rotating the work on a chuck or a
faceplate. The feeding tool is at an angle to the axis of rotation of the
workpiece.
A boring tool is mounted on the tool post and by swivelling the compound
slide to the desired angle, a short taper hole is machined by hand feeding.
Tapping
Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads of small diameter
using a multipoint cutting tool called the tap. In a lathe, the work is
mounted on a chuck or on a faceplate and revolved at a very slow speed.
A tap of required size held on a special fixture is mounted on the tailstock
spindle.
Lathe operations
Reaming:
Reaming is the operation of finishing and
sizing a hole which has been already drilled or
bored. The tool is used is called the reamer,
which has multi-plate cutting edges.
Types of lathes
1.Accordining to their constructions and design lathes can be classified as

follows:
a)Bench lathe : It is very small size of lathe and is mounted on separately
prepared bench .It is used for small and precision work since it isz very
accurate .It is usually provided with all attachment , which the larger lathe
carries, and it is capable performing all the operations which a larger lathe
can do.
b)Speed lathe: these may be of bench type or they may have the supporting
legs cast and fitted to the bed. These lathes have most of all attachment
which the other types of lathes caerry but have no provision power feed
.They have no gear box , carriage and the lead screw , with the result the
tool is feed and actuated by hand .Usually the tool is either mounted on a
tool post or supported on T-shaped support.Such lathes are usually
employed for wood turning ,polishing, centering and metal spinning etc.
Types Of lathes
3.Engine lathe or center lathe: It is widely used type of lathe . It carries a great
historical significance that in the very early days of development it was driven
by a steam engine. From this , it is derived its name which is popular even
today. These lathes are now made to have an individual motor driven.
Although it is practically resembles a speed lathe in most of its features , but
its construction is relatively more robust .Its headstock is bigger in size and
more robust , incorporating suitable mechanism for providing multiple speeds
to the lathe spindle. The headstock spindle may receive , power from a lathe
shaft or an individual motor through belt.In that case , it will have a cone
pulley with back gears in the headstock to provide different speeds .The drive
in that case is known as a cone pulley drive. .If it receives the power from the
constant speed motor and for providing different speeds to the spindle it
carries a combination of gears , instead of the cone pulley and back gears
combination , the lathe is known as geared head lathe and the headstock as all
geared headstock.
4.Toolroom lathe:It is nothing but the same engine lathe but equipped with
some extra attachments to make it suitable for relatively more accurate and
precision type of work carried out in a toolroom.It carries much wider range
of speeds and feeds . The usual attachments provided on a tool room lathe are
taper turning attachments , follower rest , collet chucks etc. This lathe is made
to have a comparatively smaller bed length than the usual engine lathe. The
most commonly used lengths are 135 to 180 cm.
5. Capstan and Turret lathes: These lathes form a very important and useful group
and vastly used in mass production .These machines are actually of
semiautomatic type and a very wide range of operations can be performed on
them. In operating these machines , a very little skill is required of the
operator.Whatever skill is needed of the operator is only setting of tools in the
turret or capstan head and once this setting has been successfully
acomplished further operation of this machines is more or less automatic.
They carry special mechanism for indexing of their tool heads.
6.Automatic lathe:These lathe help a long way in enhancing the quality as well as
the quantity of production.They are so designed that all the working and job
handling movements of the complete manufacturingprocess for the job are
done automatically.No participation of the operator is required during
operation.Another variety of this type of lathes includes semiautomatic lathes
, in which the mounting and removal of work is done by operator where as all
the operations are performed by the machine automatically.Automatic lathes
are available having single or multispindles.They fall in the category of heavy
duty , high speed lathes mainly employed in mass production.
7.Special purpose lathe:A large number of lathes are designed to suit a definit
class of work and perform certain specified operations only.They,obviously ,
prove to be more efficient and effective as compared to the common engine
lathe so far as this specified class of work is concerned.Example of special
purpose lathes are copying lathe ,vertical lathe and screw cutting lathe etc.
Classification of lathes according to the height of centres ( above the bed) :
1. Small lathes-having height of centres upto 150mm
2. Medium size lathe-having height of centres from 150 to 300 mm
3. Heavy duty lathes-having height of centres above 300mm
Shaping Machines
Shaping Machine is one of the reciprocating type of machine tool which is

used to produce flat surfaces having required surface quality.The surfaces
may be horizontal, vertical or inclined .It can produce any surface
composed of straight line elements.
Working principle: The working principle of shaping machine its that the
work piece to be machined is held rigidly in a suitable device like vice or
clamped directly on the machine table .The tool is held on the tool post
and the tool post is also held in the ram of the machine .This ram moves in
to and fro motion or the reciprocating motion and the cutting tool
removes the excess material from the work piece .Generally material is
removed in the forward stroke which is also called the cutting stroke or
working stroke ,material is not removed in the returned stroke which is
also called non cutting stroke or idle stroke but in case of draw cut shaper
the cutting takes place in the return stroke and forward stroke is an idle
stroke.
Shaping Machines
• The main motion or cutting motion is performed to the shaping tool .Both
strokes ( forward and return) forms a cycle.
• The feed motion produces thickness of the chip.In horizontal shaping
machine , the the clamped workpiece is moved against the cutting tool
where at in the vertical shaper the tool is moved forward the workpiece.
• The feed motion produces the thickness of the chip. In horizontal shaping
machine ,the clamped workpiece is moved against the tool where as in the
vertical shaping machine ,the tool is moved forward to the workpiece.
tool
Cutting stroke
Feed
direction
Job
Shaping Machines
Types shaping machines:

The shaping machines are classified in many ways depending upon the
design and the purposes for which they are intended .They are classified
under the following headings.
1.According to the type of mechanism used for giving reciprocating
motion to the ram a) Crank type b)Geared type c) Hydraulic type
2.According to the position and travel of ram
a)Horizontal type b)Vertical type c) Travelling head type
3.According to the type of design of the table
a)Standard shaper b)universal shaper
4.According to the cutting stroke
a)Push type b)draw cut type
Shaping Machines
Shaping machine parts:

The following stated below represent the component of shaping machine
tool:
1.Base:
Just as other machine tools, base is designed to take the entire load of the
shaping machine. It is bolted on the floor of workshops. Base are made of
cast iron in order to resist vibration and to take the compressive load.
2.Column:
The column mounted on the base .It is made of a cast iron . It is provided
with accurately machine guideways on the top on which the ram
reciprocates. Some guideways are also provided on the front vertical face
for the cross-rail movement. All ram driving mechanism is enclosed in the
column.
Shaping Machines
3.Cross-rail:
The shaping machine part is mounted on the ground vertical guideways of
the column. It features two parallel guideways on its top perpendicular to
the ram axis, this is called a saddle. It helps to move the table crosswise
direction by the help of a feed screw.
A cross-rail allows the table to raised and lowered at a required size the
workpiece will accommodate. This is done by the rotating elevating screw
that cause the cross rail to slide up and down on the vertical face of the
column.
4.Saddle:
A saddle is mounted on the cross rail to hold the table firmly on its top.
The crosswise movement of the saddle causes the table to also move
crosswise direction if the cross-feed screw is rotate.
Shaping Machines
5.Table:
A table is mounted on the saddle, it moves crosswise by rotating the cross-
feed rod and vertically by rotating the elevating screw. The table is made
of cast iron, in shape of a box with an accurate top and side surfaces.
These surfaces features t-slots for holding the workpiece.
In a universal shaping machine, the table is designed to swiveled on a
horizontal axis and its upper part is tilted up or down. In heavy shaper, the
front face of the table is supported by adjusted table to offers more
rigidity.
6.Ram:
A ram is a reciprocating member that holds a shaping tool. It in form of
semi-cylindrical and ribbed inside which make it more rigid. It holds the
screwed shaft for altering the position of the ram with respect to the
work.
Shaping Machines
7.Tool head:
The tool head is design to firmly hold a cutting tool and offers both vertical
and angular movement to the tool. This movement is done by a down feed
screw handle. The tool head also allows the tool to have an automatic
relief during the return stroke of the ram.
The head tool consists of apron, clapper box and a clapper block; the
apron contains the clapper box and tool post, clamped on the vertical slide
by the screw. The apron is swiveled upon the apron swivel pin in direction
of right or left. The clapper box houses the clapper block using a hinge pin.
A tool post is mounted on the clapper block.
shaper machine Operations:
• Horizontal cutting
• Vertical cutting
• Inclined cutting
• Irregular cutting
Shaping Machines
1.Horizontal cutting:
Horizontal surfaces are machined by moving the work mounted on the
machine table at a cross direction with respect to the ram movement.
The clapper box can be set vertical or slightly inclined towards the uncut
surface.
This arrangement enables the tool to lift automatically during the return
stroke. The tool will not drag on the machined surface.
2.Vertical cutting:
A vertical cut is made while machining the end of a workpiece, squaring
up a block or machining a shoulder.
The feed is given to the tool by rotating the down feed screw of the
vertical slide.
The table is not moved vertically for this purpose.
The apron is swiveled away from the vertical surface being machined.
Shaping Machines
3.Inclined cutting:
An angular cut is done at any angle other than a right angle
to the horizontal or to the vertical plane.
The work is set on the table and the vertical slide of the
tooth head is swiveled to the required angle either towards
the left or towards right from the vertical position.
4.Irregular cutting:
A round nose tool is used for this operation.
For a shallow cut the apron may be set vertical but if the
curve is quite sharp, the apron in swiveled towards the
right or left away from the surface to be cut. It can cut
inclined flat surfaces on the workpiece.
Shaping Machines
Specification of Shaper Machine:
The specification of shaper machine depends upon the following:
• The maximum length of stroke ram.
• Types of the drive ( Crank, Gear and Hydraulic type)
• Power input of the machine
• Floor space required to establish the machine
• Weight of the machine in tonne.
• Feed
• Cutting to return stroke ratio.
• Angular movement of the table.
• Advantages of Shaper Machine:
• The single point tool used is inexpensive or we can say low tooling cost.
• The cutting stroke having a definite stopping point.
• The work can be held easily in the shaper machine.
• The set up is very quick and easy and also can be readily changed from one job to another job.
• Disadvantages of Shaper Machine:
• By nature, it is a slow machine because of its straight-line forward and returns strokes the single
point cutting tool requires Several strokes to complete a work. (They are slow)
• The cutting speed is not usually very high speeds of reciprocating motion due to high inertia force
developed in the motion of the units and components of the machine.
• Other applications of Shaper Machine:
• To generate straight and flat surfaces.
• Smooth rough surfaces.
• Make internal splines.
• Make gear teeth.
• To make dovetail slides.
• Make key ways in pullies or gears.
• Machining of die, punches, straight and curved
slots.
Machine Tools
5.4 Milling Machines

5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Types of Milling Machines
5.4.4 Milling Cutters – Plain, Side, Angle, End, Form
5.4.5 Milling Operations – Plain, Side, Angular, Gang, End, Form, Keyway
5.4.6 Work Holding Devices
5.4.7 Cutter Holding Devices
5.5 Grinding Machines
5.5.1 Abrasives, Bonds, Grinding Wheels
5.5.2 Rough Grinders – Portable Grinders, Bench Grinders, Swing
Frame Grinders, Abrasive Belt Grinders
5.5.3 Precision Grinders – Cylindrical Grinders, Surface Grinders
Milling Machine
Types of Milling Machines
Types and Main components of Milling Machines
Working principle of milling machine
Milling cutters
Milling cutters
Milling cutters
Milling cutters
Milling cutters
Milling cutters
Milling operations
Milling operations
Milling operations
Milling operations
Work holding devices
Tool holding Devices
6. Material Properties
6.1 Tool materials – Low, medium and high carbon steels; Hot
and cold rolled steels; Alloy steels; Carbide and Ceramic
materials
6.2 Heat treating methods for steels – Annealing, Tempering,
Normalizing, Hardening and Quenching
6.3 Non – ferrous metals – Brass, Bronze, Aluminum –
Comparative Properties
Steels
CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS
Steel can be classified into (i) plain carbon steel, and (ii) alloy steel.
Plain carbon steel is that steel in which the only alloying element present is
carbon. In alloy steel, apart from carbon, other alloying elements like
chromium, nickel, tungsten, molybdenum, and vanadium are also present and
they make an appreciable difference in the properties of steel.
Before we go further, readers must note that in steels, besides iron and
carbon, four other elements are always present. These are S, P, Mn and Si.
Removing these elements from steel is not a practical proposition. However,
the effect of sulphur and phosphorus on the properties of steel is detrimental
and their percentage is generally not allowed to exceed 0.05%. Similarly, the
usual percentage of manganese and silicon in steel is kept below 0.8 and 0.3%,
although their effect is not detrimental to the properties of steel. In fact,
manganese counters the bad effect of sulphur. The presence of these four
elements to the extent indicated does not put plain carbon steel into the
category of alloy steel. However, if higher percentages of Mn and Si are
intentionally added to steel in order to alter its properties, then the resulting
steels come within the category of alloy steels.
Steels
Plain Carbon Steels
Since the properties of plain carbon steels are so dependent upon
their carbon percentage, these steels are further classified into
following categories on the basis of carbon percentage only:
(i) Low carbon or dead mild steel having carbon below 0.15%,
(ii) Mild steel having carbon between 0.15–0.3%,
(iii) Medium carbon steel having carbon between 0.3–0.7%, and
(iv) High carbon steels having carbon content above 0.7% (the
higher practical limit of C% is 1.3%).
• As the carbon percentage increases, the strength and hardness of
plain carbon steel increases while ductility decreases.
Steels
Applications and Uses of Plain Carbon Steel
• Dead mild steel. It has got very good weldability and ductility. Hence, it is used in welded
and solid drawn tubes, thin sheets and wire rods, etc. It is also used for those parts which
undergo shock loading but must have good wear-resistance. To increase its wear-resistance,
the parts have to undergo case hardening process; which provides a hard surface, while the
core remains soft and tough.
• Mild steel. It is used very extensively for structural work. It retains very good weldability if
carbon percentage is limited to 0.25%. Forgings, stampings, sheets and plates, bars, rods and
tubes are made of mild steel.
• Medium carbon steel. It has little weldability but is stronger and has better wearing
property than mild steel. It is used for railway axles, rotors and discs, wire ropes, steel
spokes, marine shafts,carbon shafts, general agricultural tools etc.
• High carbon steels. It is used for hand tools like cold chisels, cold working dies, hammers,
boiler maker’s tools, wood working tools, hand taps and reamers, filers, razors, shear blades
etc. High carbon steels can be hardened by the process of quenching and being hard can be
used for cutting tools which are not used in hot condition. If they become hot (above 150°C),
they begin to lose their hardness and become blunt.
Hot rolled steel
• Hot-rolling refers to a mill process in which you roll the steel at a temperature above its
recrystallization temperature; a heat that typically exceeds 1000° F.
• When steel is heated past its recrystallization point, it becomes more malleable and can be properly
formed and shaped. It also allows for the ability to produce larger quantities of steel. The steel is
then cooled at room temperature, which “normalizes” it, eliminating the worry for stresses in the
material arising when quenching or work-hardening.
• When the steel cools off, it will shrink non-uniformly, which gives slightly less control on the overall
size and shape of a finished hot-rolled product.
• Hot-rolled steel typically has a scaly surface finish. For situations in which the appearance of the
material is a concern, the scales can be removed by several techniques: pickling, grinding, or sand-
blasting.
• These properties make hot-rolled steel most suitable for structural components and other
applications where incredibly precise shapes and tolerances are of less importance, such as:
• Railroad tracks
• I-beams
• Agricultural equipment
• Sheet metal
• Automotive frames
•
Cold rolled steel
• As you might suspect, the manufacturing process behind cold-rolled steel is a bit different. Despite the name, this
process refers to steel that is pressed with the pressure of a roller at room temperature.
• Compared to hot-rolled steel, cold-rolled steel has a nearly 20% increase in strength through the use of strain
hardening. It’s through a series of breakdown, semi-finishing, sizing, semi-roughing, roughing, and finishing that
cold-rolled steel shapes can be created.
• Cold-rolling steel allows for the creation of very precise shapes. Since the process is performed at room
temperature, the steel will not shrink as it cools, as it does in the hot-rolled process.
• The exterior finish of cold-rolled steel is very desirable when aesthetics and visual appeal are a priority in your
project.
• However, the applications of cold-rolled steel are somewhat limited to a couple of shapes – square, round, flat,
and variations thereof.
• Typical uses for cold-rolled steel:
• Strips
• Bars
• Rods
• Home appliances
• Roof and wall systems
• Metal furniture
• Aerospace structural members
• HO
ALLOY STEELS
Just as the properties of cast iron can be improved by adding some alloying elements to its
composition,so can the properties of plain carbon steels be improved tremendously by
addition of alloying elements.
In fact, in the case of steels, the effect of alloying is much more marked. The main object of
alloying insteels are:
(i) Alloy steels can be hardened by heat treatment processes to greater depth and with less
distortion and less chance of cracking.
(ii) Alloying develops corrosion resisting property as in stainless steels.
(iii) Alloying develops the property of red hardness as in cutting tool.
(iv) Alloying develops the strength and toughness of steels as in high strength low alloy
(HSLA)
steels.
(v) Some alloy steel show a marked resistance to grain growth and oxidation at high
temperatures
etc.
Main alloying elements used are chromium, nickel, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium,
cobalt,
manganese and silicon. Alloy steels are available in a great variety, each one has been
developed for a specific purpose. We shall study them by grouping them in (i) stainless steels,
(ii) tool steel and
(iii) special steels.
ALLOY STEELS
Stainless steels. These steels are called stainless because they do not
corrode or rust easily.
Main alloying elements used are chromium and nickel. Stainless steels are
further divided into the
following three categories:
(i) Ferritic stainless steel. These steels contain a maximum of 0.15%
carbon, 6–12% chromium,0.5% nickel besides iron and usual amounts of
manganese and silicon. These steels are stainless and relatively cheap.
They are also magnetic. These days, one and two rupee coins are made
from such steels. These steel are essentially Iron-chromium alloys and
cannot be hardened by heat treatment. Main usage for such steel is in
manufacture of dairy equipment, food processing plants, chemical
industry etc.
(ii) Martensitic stainless steel. These stainless steels have 12–18%
chromium but contain higher carbon percentage (0.15–1.2%). These
steels can be hardened by heat treatment, but their corrosion resistance is
reduced. These steels are used for making surgical knives, hypodermic
needles, bolt, nut,screws and blades etc.
ALLOY STEELS
(iii) Austenitic stainless steels. These are the most
important and costliest among all stainless steels. In these
steels, besides chromium, nickel is also added. Nickel is a
very strong austenite stabiliser and therefore the
microstructure of these steels is austenitic at room
temperature. The most common amongst stainless steel is
18/8 steel. Its composition is 18% chromium, 8% nickel,
0.08–0.2% carbon, manganese 1.25% maximum and silicon
0.75% maximum.Such steels have extremely good
corrosion resistance but they cannot be hardened by heat
treatment. However, they are very susceptible to ‘‘strain-
hardening’’. In fact, due to strain hardening , their
machining becomes very difficult. It is used extensively for
household utensils and in chemical plants and other places
where high corrosion resistance is required.
ALLOY STEELS
Tool steels. The requirements in a tool steel are that it

should be capable of becoming very hard and further, that
it should be able to retain its hardness at high temperatures
commonly developed
during cutting of steel and other materials. This property is
called ‘‘red hardness’’. Further tool steel should not be
brittle and should have good strength.
High speed steel (HSS) is the name given to a most
common tool steel. Its name implies that it can cut steel at
high cutting speeds. At high cutting speed, the temperature
rise is higher but high speed
steel tools can retain their hardness up to 600–625°C. The
property of red hardness comes from addition of tungsten.
A typical composition of H.S.S. is tungsten 18%, chromium
4%, vanadium 1%, carbon 0.75–1%, rest iron.
ALLOY STEELS
Tungsten is a costly metal. It has been found that
molybdenum can also impart ‘‘red hardness’’ to steel
and actually half per cent of molybdenum can replace
one per cent of tungsten. Molybdenum is far cheaper
than tungsten. H.S.S. with tungsten are known as T-
series and H.S.S. with molybdenum are known as M-
series steels. A very useful H.S.S. has a composition of
tungsten 6%, molybdenum 6%, chromium 4% and
vanadium 2%, besides iron and carbon . Another
version of H.S.S. is called super high speed steel. It is
meant for heavy duty tools and has about 10–12%
cobalt, 20–22% tungsten, 4% chromium, 2% vanadium,
0.8% carbon, rest iron.These days, tools are made of
tungsten carbide and other materials, besides H.S.S.
ALLOY STEELS
Special Alloy Steels
(i) Manganese steels. All steels contain small amounts of manganese to
mitigate the bad effects of sulphur. The true manganese alloy steels contain
much larger amounts of Mn. They have work hardening properties. They are
used for railway points and crossings, and with usage, they become more
wear-resistant.
(ii) Nickel steels. Nickel can be added in steels up to 50%. Nickel makes the
steel highly resistant to corrosion, non-magnetic, and having very low
coefficients of thermal expansion. Such steels are used for turbine blades,
internal combustion engine valves etc.
(iii) Chromium steels. Chromium makes steel corrosion resistant, and
increases its UTS. And IZOD strength. Very often alloy steels are used with
both chromium and nickel being added. Ni-Cr steel wires are often used in
furnaces, toasters and heaters.
(iv) Silicon steels. A steel containing 0.05% carbon, about 0.3% Mn and 3.4%
of silicon possesses extremely low magnetic hysteresis and is used widely for
making laminations of electrical machines.Silico-manganese steels are also
used frequently for making springs.
Ceramics
Ceramics form an important part of materials group.

Ceramics are compounds between metallic and
nonmetallic elements for which the inter-atomic bonds
are either ionic or predominantly ionic. The term
ceramics comes from the Greek word keramikos
which means ‘burnt stuff’. Characteristic properties of
ceramics are, in fact, optimized through thermal
treatments. They exhibit physical properties those are
different from that of metallic materials.
Types and applications of ceramics
Ceramics greatly differ in their basic composition. The properties of
ceramic materials also vary greatly due to differences in bonding, and thus
found a wide range of engineering applications. Classification of ceramics
based on their specific applications and composition are two most
important ways among many.
Based on their composition, ceramics are classified as:
• Oxides,
• Carbides,
• Nitrides,
• Sulfides,
• Fluorides, etc.
• The other important classification of ceramics is based on their
application, such as:
• Glasses,
• Clay products,
• Refractories,
• Abrasives,
• Cements,
• Advanced ceramics.
• In general, ceramic materials used for engineering applications can be
divided into two groups: traditional ceramics, and the engineering
ceramics. Typically, traditional ceramics are made from three basic
components: clay, silica (flint) and feldspar. For example bricks, tiles and
porcelain articles. However, engineering ceramics consist of highly pure
compounds of aluminum oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon
nitride (Si3N4).
• Glasses: glasses are a familiar group of ceramics – containers, windows,
mirrors, lenses, etc. They are non-crystalline silicates containing other
oxides, usually CaO, Na2O, K2O and Al2O3 which influence the glass
properties and its color. Typical property of glasses that is important in
engineering applications is its response to heating. There is no definite
temperature at which the liquid transforms to a solid as with crystalline
materials. A specific temperature, known as glass transition temperature
or fictive temperature is defined based on viscosity above which material is
named as super cooled liquid or liquid, and below it is termed as glass.
• Clay products: clay is the one of most widely used ceramic raw
material. It is found in great abundance and popular because of
ease with which products are made. Clay products are mainly two
kinds – structural products (bricks, tiles, sewer pipes) and white-
wares (porcelain, chinaware, pottery, etc.).
• Refractories: these are described by their capacity to withstand high
temperatures without melting or decomposing; and their inertness
in severe environments. Thermal insulation is also an important
functionality of refractories.
• Abrasive ceramics: these are used to grind, wear, or cut away other
material. Thus the prime requisite for this group of materials is
hardness or wear resistance in addition to high toughness. As they
may also exposed to high temperatures, they need to exhibit some
refractoriness. Diamond, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, silica
sand, aluminium oxide / corundum are some typical examples of
abrasive ceramic materials.
• Cements: cement, plaster of paris and lime come under

this group of ceramics. The characteristic property of
these materials is that when they are mixed with water,
they form slurry which sets subsequently and hardens
finally. Thus it is possible to form virtually any shape.
They are also used as bonding phase, for example
between construction bricks.
• Advanced ceramics: these are newly developed and
manufactured in limited range for specific applications.
Usually their electrical, magnetic and optical properties
and combination of properties are exploited. Typical
applications: heat engines, ceramic armors, electronic
packaging, etc.
• Some typical ceramics and respective applications are as follows:

• Aluminium oxide / Alumina (Al2O3): it is one of most commonly used
ceramic material. It is used in many applications such as to contain
molten metal, where material is operated at very high temperatures
under heavy loads, as insulators in spark plugs, and in some unique
applications such as dental and medical use. Chromium doped
alumina is used for making lasers.
• Aluminium nitride (AlN): because of its typical properties such as
good electrical insulation but high thermal conductivity, it is used in
many electronic applications such as in electrical circuits operating
at a high frequency. It is also suitable for integrated circuits. Other
electronic ceramics include – barium titanate (BaTiO3) and
Cordierite (2MgO-2Al2O3-5SiO2).
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
Types of Copper alloys
1. Brass
Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the
proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create
a range of brasses with varying properties. Brass is a
substitutional copper alloy. The relatively low melting
point of brass (900 to 940 °C, depending on
composition) and its flow characteristics make it a
relatively easy material to cast. Different grades of
brass, with different amounts of zinc, have different
characteristics in surface smoothness, corrosion-
resistance, ease and quality of machining, response to
plating, ductility levels, chemical and temperature
limits.
Brass
• Uses: It is used for decoration for its bright gold-
like appearance; for applications where low
friction is required such as locks, gears, bearings,
doorknobs, ammunition casings and valves; for
plumbing and electrical applications; and
extensively in brass musical instruments such as
horns and bells for its acoustic properties. It is
also used in zippers. Brass is often used in
situations where it is important that sparks not
be struck, as in fittings and tools around explosive
gases.
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
2. Bronze
• Bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze
does not necessarily contain tin, and a variety of alloys
of copper, including alloys with arsenic phosphorus,
aluminum, manganese, and silicon, are commonly
termed "bronze". Bronze is generally harder than
wrought iron, with Vickers hardness of 60–258. Bronze
is softer, weaker and less stiff than steel. Bronze resists
corrosion (especially seawater corrosion) and metal
fatigue more than steel and is a better conductor of
heat and electricity than most steels.
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• Uses: Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and

ship fittings prior to the wide employment of stainless steel
owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to
salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship
propellers and submerged bearings. It is also widely used
for cast bronze sculpture. Many common bronze alloys
have the unusual and very desirable property of expanding
slightly just before they set, thus filling in the finest details
of a mold. Bronze parts are tough and typically used for
bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs. Bronze is
also used to make bronze wool for woodworking
applications where steel wool would discolor oak.
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• Nickel and Cobalt Alloys
• Nickel and Cobalt have high strengths and high melting points and
thus are used for corrosion protection and high temperature
resistance. Solidified powders of nickel and cobalt based super
alloys can be formed by using spray atomization followed by hot
isostatic pressing which are then used for making rings that retain
the turbine blades. Since Iron, Nickel and Cobalt are magnetic, they
form very good magnetic materials.
• Solidified powders of nickel and cobalt based super alloys can be
formed by using spray atomization followed by hot isostatic
pressing which are then used for making rings that retain the
turbine blades. Since Iron, Nickel and Cobalt are magnetic, they
form very good magnetic materials. Because of their
biocompatibility, cobalt alloys are used for prosthetic devices.
• A Ni-Fe alloy Invar displays approximately no expansion during
heating and are hence used in producing bimetallic composite
materials. Cobalt is used for absorbing shocks and vibrations in
cutting tools.
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
• Copper added nickel alloy called Monel is used for its
strength and corrosion resistance in salt water and at
elevated temperatures.
• Solid solution strengthening, dispersion strengthening
and precipitation hardening are used to make super
alloys which basically consist of Iron, Nickel and Cobalt.
These strengthening measures produce high strength
at elevated temperatures, resistance to corrosion and
resistance to creep up to 1000°C. Thus made super
alloys are used in making vanes and blades for turbines
and jet engines, heat exchangers, chemical reaction
vessel components and heat treating equipment.
Aluminium
Aluminium
Carbide
• Straight or single carbide
First the straight or single carbide tools or inserts
were powder metallurgically produced by mixing,
compacting and sintering 90 to 95% WC powder
with cobalt. The hot, hard and wear resistant WC
grains are held by the binder Co which provides
the necessary strength and toughness. Such tools
are suitable for machining grey cast iron, brass,
bronze etc. which produce short discontinuous
chips and at cutting velocities two to three times
of that possible for HSS tools.
Carbides
• Composite carbides
• The single carbide is not suitable for machining steels because of rapid growth of
wear, particularly crater wear, by diffusion of Co and carbon from the tool to the
chip due to continuous, intimate and wide bulk (plastic) contact between the chip
and the tool surfaces under high stress and temperature. For machining steels
successfully, another type called composite carbide have been developed by
adding (8 to 20% by volume) a gamma phase to WC and Co mix. The gamma phase
is a mix of TiC, TiN, TaC etc. which are more diffusion resistant than WC due to
their more stability and less wettability against steel.
• Mixed carbides
• Titanium Carbide (TiC) is not only more stable but also much harder than WC. So
for machining ferritic steels causing intensive diffusion and adhesion wear, a large
quantity (5 to 25%) of TiC is added with WC and Co to produce another grade
called mixed carbide. But increase in TiC content reduces the toughness of the
tools. Therefore, for finishing with light cut but high speed, the harder grades
containing upto 25% TiC are used and for heavy roughing work at lower speeds
lesser amount (5 to 10%) of TiC is suitable.
HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON STEELS
• Object of heat treatment. Metals and alloys are heat treated to

improve their mechanical properties, to relieve internal stresses or
to improve their machinability. The properties of carbon steels can
also be altered significantly by subjecting them to heat treatment
processes.
Heat treatment consists of three basic steps:
(i) Heat the metal/alloy to a predetermined temperature. This
temperature will, ideally, depend upon the actual composition of
carbon steel (i.e. carbon percentage),
(ii) Soaking or holding the metal/alloy at that temperature for some
time, so that the temperature across the entire cross-section
becomes uniform, and
(iii) Cooling the metal/alloy at a predetermined rate in a suitable
medium like water, oil or air.
The rate of cooling is the most important factor.
Kinds of Heat Treatments Given to Carbon Steels
Carbon steels are subjected to the following four basic heat-
treatment processes:
(i) Annealing,
(ii) Normalising,
(iii) Hardening, and
(iv) Tempering.
We shall now describe these processes very briefly.
Annealing. The purpose of annealing is to soften the material.
Along with softening, the internal stresses, if any, will also get
removed.
The approximate temperatures to which the steel-sample should be
heated will depend upon its carbon content. The recommended
temperatures are shown in the following table:
Heat treatment
Annealing
Soaking time may be given at the rate of 3-4
minutes for everyone mm thickness of the
crosssection of material.
In annealing, the work piece is allowed to cool
inside the furnace only after switching off
electrical power or oil supply to the furnace. This
ensures that the work piece cools at a very slow
rate.
This process results in softening of material and
increase in ductility due to grain growth.
Heat treatment process
Normalizing. Normalizing entails heating to the

same temperatures as recommended for
annealing (except for high carbon steel
specimens, which are to be heated to much
higher temperatures than for annealing
particularly as carbon percentage in sample
increases), soaking and then cooling the
sample in still air. Main object of normalizing is
getting rid of internal stresses and grain-
refinement.
Heat treatment Process
Hardening. Hardening involves heating (to the same temperatures

as in case of annealing) and soaking. Thereafter, the work piece is
taken out of the furnace and quickly cooled at a very fast rate in a
tank of cold water or oil, agitating the water/oil vigorously. (This
cooling operation is called ‘‘quenching.’’) The result is hardening of
the work piece. However, in order to harden, the carbon content in
the work piece should be at least 0.25%. Therefore, dead mild steel
cannot be hardened in this way. Mild steel will also harden slightly
for specimens containing over 0.25% carbon. Higher the carbon
percentage, higher will be resulting hardness. Hardened pieces
become brittle and their extreme brittleness becomes a great
disadvantage.They tend to fail in-service. Therefore hardening
process is invariably followed by a tempering process.
Heat treatment process
Tempering. Tempering means giving up a certain

amount of hardness but shedding a great deal
of brittleness acquired in the process of hardening. It is
a trade off between hardness and brittleness, so
that hardened component may give useful service
without failure.
Tempering involves heating the carbon steel part to a
temperature varying from 150°–600°C (depending
upon how much trade off is required) and cooling the
component in an oil or salt bath or even in air.
Heat treatment Process
Case hardening. As mentioned above, only those carbon
steels can be hardened whose carbon content is about
0.25% or more. How do we harden dead mild steel? The
answer is by case hardening. In this process, the work piece
is packed in charcoal and heated as in annealing. It is kept
at that high temperature for a few hours. The result is that
carbon enters into the surface of the work piece to the
depth of a mm or two depending upon the heating time.
The work piece now has a case where carbon percentage is
as per requirement for hardening. It is then heated and
quenched in the usual manner. The result is a component
whose surface acquires hardness, but core remains soft and
tough.
7. Sheet Metal Works (1 hours)
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sheet Metal Tools
7.3 Marking and Layout
7.4 Operations – Bending, Cutting, Rolling
8. Foundry Practice (1 hours)
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pattern Making
8.3 Foundry Tools
8.4 Core Making
8.5 Melting Furnace – Cupola
8.6 Sand Casting Process
Sheet Metal Works
Sheet Metal Hand Tools
1.Measuring Tools
1.Measuring Tools
1.Measuring Tools
Sheet Metal Operations
Shearing Operation
Figure: (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking.

• if punched out part (slug) is discarded byproduct => PUNCHING
• if punched out part (blank) is final product => BLANKING
(b) Examples of various shearing operations on sheet metal.
Shearing Operation
Deep Drawing steps
Sheet metal operations
Sheet metal operations
Shearing
Shearing
Shearing
Bending
Drawing
Squeezing
Sheet Metal Joints
Sheet Metal Joints
Sheet Metal Joints
Sheet Metal Joints
Sheet metal working machines
Casting
INTRODUCTION
Manufacture of a machine part by heating a metal or alloy above its melting point
and pouring the liquid metal/alloy in a cavity approximately of same shape and
size as the machine part is called casting process. After the liquid metal cools and
solidifies, it acquires the shape and size of the cavity and resembles the finished
product required. The department of the workshop, where castings are made is
called foundry.
The manufacture of a casting requires:
(a) Preparation of a pattern,
(b) Preparation of a mould with the help of the pattern,
(c) Melting of metal or alloy in a furnace,
(d) Pouring of molten metal into mould cavity,
(e) Breaking the mould to retrieve the casting,
(f) Cleaning the casting and cutting off risers, runners etc., (this operation is called
‘fettling’)
(g) Inspection of casting.
Foundry Tools and Equipments
Foundry Hand Tools
Foundry Hand Tools
Metal Casting Process
• One of the oldest processes to shape metals into useful products
• Involves
– pouring molten metal into a mold patterned after the part to be
manufactured
– allowing it to solidify, and
– removing the part from the mold
• first was used around 4000 B.C. to make ornaments, arrowheads,
and various other objects
• wide variety of products can be cast
• process is capable of producing intricate shapes in one piece,
including those with internal cavities, such as engine blocks
Classification of casting processes
Metal casting components
Metal casting components
Advantages of casting/Reason for selecting Casting
processes:
 Casting can be used to create complex part geometries, including
both external and internal shapes.
 Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net
shape. No further manufacturing operations are required to achieve
the required geometry and dimensions of the parts. Other casting
processes are near net shape, for which some additional shape
processing is required (usually machining) in order to achieve
accurate dimensions and details.
 Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings weighing
more than 100
tons have been made.
 The casting process can be performed on any metal that can be
heated to the liquid state.
 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.
Sand Casting Process
Sand casting, also known as sand-mold casting, consists of pouring
molten metal into a sand mold, allowing the metal to solidify, and
then breaking up the mold to remove the casting.
The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a
pattern (an approximate duplicate of the part to be cast), and then
removing the pattern by separating the mold into two halves. The
mold also contains the gating and riser system. In addition, if the
casting is to have internal surfaces (e.g., hollow parts or parts with
holes), a core must be included in the mold.
Terms used in sand casting
The various terms related to sand mold are illustrated in the Figure
• Cope: The upper part of the molding flask.
• Cheek: The middle part of the molding flask.
• Drag: The lower part of the molding flask.
• Runner: It is the passage through which the molten metal is poured.
• Gate: It is the small passage connecting the runner to the mold cavity.
• Parting Line: It is the line along which the sand surface of the drag and
cope meet each other.
• Riser: It is the passage through which the molten metal rises up
after filling the cavity. On seeing the metal through it, it is ensured that the
mold has completely filled.
• Pouring Basin: It is the enlarged portion in the form of a countersunk, at
the top of the runner.
• Vent: Vents are placed in the mold to carry off gases produced when the
molten metal comes into contact with the sand in the mold and core. They
also exhaust air from the mold cavity as the molten metal flows in to the
mold.
PATTERNS AND CORES
• Pattern is replica or model of object which to be created. It is used to
make hollow cavity in sand mold in which molten metal is poured and
allow solidifying to create object.
Sand casting requires a pattern a full-sized model of the part, enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the final casting.
Materials used to make patterns include wood, plastics, and metals .
Wood is a common pattern material because it is easily shaped. Its
disadvantages are that it tends to warp, and it is abraded by the sand
being compacted around it, thus limiting the number of times it can be
reused. Metal patterns are more expensive to make, but they last much
longer. Plastics represent a compromise between wood and metal.
PATTERNS AND CORES
A good pattern should follow following requirements.

 Low cost and easy to cast.
 Easy to repair.
 It should light in weight which make it easy to handle.
 It should able to withstand ramming forces without deformation.
 It should does not change its dimensions in presence of moisture.
 It should be easily removable from mould.
 It should have long life without change in its dimensions.
Types of Pattern
• Solid or Single Piece Pattern:
It is simplest type of pattern which is made in single piece. It is used for
simple objects. It is either placed into cope or in drag according to the
simplicity of operation.
• Split Pattern or Multi Piece Pattern:

These patterns are made into two or more pieces. The first half of pattern
placed into cope and other half into drag. It is used for complex objects
where removal of single piece pattern from mould is impossible. When
pattern is made in more than three parts cheeks are also used for easy
removal.
Types of Pattern
• Cope and Drag Pattern:
These are two piece split pattern as discussed above. It is used for large
objects.
Match Plate Pattern:
Match plate pattern is a split pattern in which cope and drag section mounted
on opposite sides of a plate. The plate is known as match plate. These will
make easy to cast any shape with high production rate. Mostly runner, gates
etc. are also mounted on same plate which will easy to mould making work.
These patterns are used for mass production.
Pattern
Loose Piece Pattern:
• When removal of pattern is impossible due to an extended surface at
either upper half or lower half, the extended part made as loose piece so
this extended part can be removed first before removal of whole pattern.
This will make easy removal of pattern without effect on the cavity. These
patterns are known as loose piece pattern.
Pattern
• Sweep Pattern:
These pattern are used for large rotational symmetrical casting. A sweep is
a section of large symmetrical object which is rotated along a edge into
sand which make a large symmetrical mould. These patterns makes easy
pattern making work of large objects.
• Skeleton Pattern:
These patterns used for large simple castings. In these patterns, skeleton
like structure made by using simple pattern sections. These will save both
time and material.
Pattern
• Follow Board Pattern:
Follow board is a wooden board which is used to support pattern during
moulding. It acts as sit for pattern.
• Gated Pattern:
These are simply more than one looses piece which are attached with a
common gating system. These are used for mass production. It is used to
produce small size cavities into one mould.
Types of Pattern Allowance:
• Allowance can be classified into following types.
• Shrinkage allowance:
Shrinkage is defined as reduce the dimension of casting during
solidification or during cooling. This is general property of all materials.
Some metal shrinks more, some less but every material shrinks. There are
three types of shrinkage.
1. Liquid Shrinkage
2. Solidification Shrinkage
3. Solid Shrinkage
The liquid shrinkage and solidification shrinkage are compensated by
suitable riser but solid shrinkage does not compensated by it so the
pattern is made slightly larger to compensate shrinkage. This is known as
shrinkage allowance.
Types of Pattern Allowance
• Draft Allowance:
• When the pattern is removed from mould, the parallel surface to the direction
at which pattern is withdrawn, damaged slightly and convert into slightly
tapered surfaces. To compensate these changes, these parallel surfaces on
patterns are made slightly tapered (1-2 degree). This allow easy removal of
pattern from mold and does not affect the actual dimension of casting. These
are known as draft allowance.
Types of Pattern Allowance
Machining Allowance:
• As we known the casting gives poor surface finish and rough surfaces. Also,
the Pattern is made manually which does not fixed accurate angles and
dimensions of mating parts. But we need a proper finished and dimensionaly
accurate casting. To avoid these problems, casting made slightly larger and
after solidification machining is done on it for better surface finish and
accurate dimensions. This change in dimension of casting is known as
machining allowance.
• Distortion Allowance:
When casting of very thin surfaces like V Shape, U shape etc. it will distort or
damage during pattern removal or during casting. To avoid this problem, a
chamber is provided on pattern to compensate distortion during pattern
removal. This change in casting dimension is known as distortion allowance.
Types of Pattern Allowance:
Rapping Allowance:
• When the pattern is removed from casting, it will slightly increase the
dimension of casting. So to compensate this changes, the pattern is made
slightly smaller from casting. This change in dimension is known as rapping
allowance.
Cores
• Core is a pre-prepared shape of the mould. It is used to provide internal
cavities, recesses, or projections in the casting. It is usually positioned into a
mould after the removal of the pattern.
• A core is usually made of the best quality sand and is placed into desired
position in the mould cavity. Core prints are added to both sides of the pattern
to create impressions that allow the core to be supported and held at both
ends.
Types of Cores
STEPS INVOLVED IN MAKING A SAND MOLD
(i)Initially a suitable size of flask is selected for a two piece pattern.
Sufficient care should also be taken in such that sense that the molding
box must adjust mold cavity, riser and the gating system.
(ii)Place the drag portion of the pattern with the parting surface down on
the bottom board.
(iii)The facing sand is then sprinkled carefully all around the pattern so
that the pattern does not stick with molding sand during withdrawn of the
pattern.
(iv)The drag is then filled with loose prepared molding sand and ramming
of the molding sand is done uniformly in the molding box around the
pattern . Fill the molding sand once again and then perform ramming.
Repeat the process three four times,
(v)The excess amount of sand is then removed using strike off bar to bring
molding sand at the same level of the molding flask height to completes
the drag.
(vi)The drag is then rolled over and the parting sand is sprinkled over on the
top of the drag.
(vii)Now the cope pattern is placed on the drag pattern and alignment is done
using dowel pins.
(viii)Then cope (flask) is placed over the rammed drag and the parting sand is
sprinkled all around the cope pattern.
(ix)Sprue and riser pins are placed in vertically position at suitable locations
using support of molding sand. It will help to form suitable sized cavities
for pouring molten metal etc.
(x)The gaggers in the cope are set at suitable locations if necessary. They
should not be located too close to the pattern or mold cavity otherwise
they may chill the casting and fill the cope with molding sand and ram
uniformly.
(xi)Strike off the excess sand from the top of the cope.
(xii)Remove sprue and riser pins and create vent holes in the cope with a
vent wire. The basic purpose of vent creating vent holes in cope is to
permit the escape of gases generated during pouring and solidification of
the casting.
(xiii)Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the cope surface and roll over
the cope on the bottom board.
(xiv)Rap and remove both the cope and drag patterns and repair the mold
suitably if needed and dressing is applied
(XV)The gate is then cut connecting the lower base of sprue basin with runner and
then the mold cavity.
(xvi)Apply mold coating with a swab and bake the mold in case of a dry sand mold.
(xvii)Set the cores in the mold, if needed and close the mold by inverting cope over
drag.
(xviii)The cope is then clamped with drag and the mold is ready for pouring
Sequence of operations for sand casting
Sequence of operations for sand casting
(a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the pattern.
Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-
c) Patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note
the presence of core prints designed to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes
produce core halves, which are pasted together. (f) The cope half of the mold is
assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins and
attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. (g) The flask is rammed with sand,
and the plate and inserts are removed. (h) The drag half is produced in a similar
manner with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and
aligned with pins.(i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the
pattern is withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place
within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag
and securing the assembly with pins. The flask are then subjected to pressure to
counteract buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the
metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are
cut off and recycled, and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated
(whennecessary).
MOLDS AND MOLD MAKING
In making the mold, the grains of sand are held together by a

mixture of water and bonding clay. A typical mixture (by volume) is
90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay. Other bonding agents can be
used in place of clay, including organic resins (e.g., phenolic resins)
and inorganic binders (e.g., sodium silicate and phosphate).
Several indicators are used to determine th equality of the sand
mold: (1) strength—the mold’s ability to maintain its shape and resist
erosion caused by the flow of molten metal; it depends on grain
shape, adhesive qualities of the binder, and other factors;
(2) permeability—capacity of the mold to allow hot air and gases
from the casting operation to pass through the voids in the sand;
(3) thermal stability—ability of the sand at the surface of the mold
cavity to resist cracking and buckling upon contact with the molten
metal;
(4)collapsibility—ability of the mold to give way and allow the casting

to shrink without cracking the casting; it also refers to the ability to
remove the sand from the casting during cleaning; and
(5) reusability—can the sand from the broken mold be reused to
make other molds? These measures are sometimes incompatible.
Sand molds are often classified as green-sand, dry-sand, or skin-
dried molds.
• Green sand molds are made of a mixture of sand, clay, and water,
the word green referring to the fact that the mold contains moisture
at the time of pouring. Green-sand molds possess sufficient strength
for most applications, good collapsibility, good permeability, good
reusability, and are the least expensive of the molds.
A dry-sand mold is made using organic binders rather than

clay, and the mold is baked in a large oven at temperatures ranging
from 200C to 320C (392Fto 608F). Oven baking strengthens the
mold and hardens the cavity surface.A dry sand mold provides
better dimensional control in the cast product, compared to green-
sand molding. However, dry-sand molding is more expensive, and
production rate is reduced because of drying time.
In a skin-dried mold, the advantages of a dry-sand mold is partially
achieved by drying the surface of a green-sand mold to a depth of
10 to25mm(0.4–1 in) at the mold cavity surface, using torches,
heating lamps, or other means. Special bonding materials must be
added to the sand mixture to strengthen the cavity surface.
• Bench Molding :This type of molding is preferred for small jobs. The whole
molding operation is carried out on a bench of convenient height. In this
process, a minimum of two flasks, namely cope and drag molding flasks
are necessary. But in certain cases, the number of flasks may increase
depending upon the number of parting surfaces required.
• Floor Molding :This type of molding is preferred for medium and large size
jobs. In this method, only drag portion of molding flask is used to make
the mold and the floor itself is utilized as drag and it is usually performed
with dry sand.
• Pit Molding: Usually large castings are made in pits instead of drag flasks
because of their huge size. In pit molding, the sand under the pattern is
rammed by bedding-in process. The walls and the bottom of the pit are
usually reinforced with concrete and a layer of coke is laid on the bottom
of the pit to enable easy escape of gas. The coke bed is connected to
atmosphere through vent pipes which provide an outlet to the gases. One
box is generally required to complete the mold, runner, sprue, pouring
basin and gates are cut in it.
• Machine Molding For mass production of the casting, the general hand molding technique proves
un economical and in efficient. The main advantage of machine molding, besides the saving of
labor and working time, is the accuracy and uniformity of the castings which can otherwise be only
obtained with much time and labor. Or even the cost of machining on the casting can be reduced
drastically because it is possible to maintain the tolerances within narrow limits on casting using
machine molding method. Molding machines thus prepare the moulds at a faster rate and also
eliminate the need of employing skilled molders. The main operations performed by molding
machines are ramming of the molding sand, roll over the mold, form gate, rapping the pattern and
its withdrawal. Most of the mold making operations are performed using molding machines 12.19.5
Loam Molding Loam molding uses loam sand to prepare a loam mold. It is such a molding process
in which use of pattern is avoided and hence it differs from the other molding processes. Initially
the loam sand is prepared with the mixture of molding sand and clay made in form of a paste by
suitable addition of clay water. Firstly a rough structure of cast article is made by hand using bricks
and loam sand and it is then given a desired shape by means of strickles and sweep patterns.
Mould is thus prepared. It is then baked to give strength to resist the flow of molten metal. This
method of molding is used where large castings are required in numbers. Thus it enables the
reduction in time, labor and material which would have been spent in making a pattern. But this
system is not popular for the reason that it takes lots of time in preparing mould and requires
special skill. The cope and drag part of mould are constructed separately on two different iron
boxes using different sizes of strickles and sweeps etc. and are assembled together after baking. It is
important to note that loam moulds are dried slowly and completely and used for large regular
shaped castings like chemical pans, drums etc.
Cupola Furnace
Construction of Cupola Furnace:
The Cupola Furnace is consists of:
• Legs
• Slag Hole
• Sand Bed
• tuyers
• Preheating Zone
• Melting Zone
• Charging Door
• Brick lining
• Spark Arrester
Cupola furnace
• Legs:
Legs are provided for supporting purposes.
• Slag Hole or Slag spout:
The slag hole is used for removing or extracting the slag from the melting iron.
• Sand Bed:
• This is in taper form and from this, the melted iron comes out easily.
• Tuyeres:
• By tuyeres, we enter the gas to the proper burn of fuel.
• Preheating Zone:
• In the Preheating zone, the heating process started and heats the metal
charge about 1090 degrees Celsius.
• Melting Zone:
In the melting zone, we do not provide much heat to melt the metal
charge because it’s already melted in the preheating zone with a
temperature of about 1090 degrees Celsius.
• Charging door:
• From here we supply the charge to the furnace. The charge
introduced in the cupola consists of pig iron, scrap, casting rejection,
coke, and flux. Coke is the fuel and limestone are added as a flux to
remove undesirable materials like ash and dirt. The scrap consists of Steel
and cast iron rejections.
• Brick lining and Steel shell:
The shell of the cupola furnace is being usually made of steel and it’s
called a steel shell.
• Spark Arrester:
This device used in the system for preventing the emission from the fireplace.
• The working of Cupola furnace is, Over the sand Bottom, Coke in charged
extending up to a predetermined height. This serves as the coke bed
within which the combustion takes place.
• Cupola operation is started by igniting the coke bed at its bottom. After
the Coke bed is properly Ignited, alternate charges of limestone, pig iron,
and coke are charged until the level of the charging Door.
• Then the air blast is turned on and combustion occurs rapidly within the
coke bed. Within 5 to 10 minutes after the blast is turned on the first
molten cast iron appears at the tap hole.
• Usually, the first iron which comes out will be too cold to pour into sand
molds. During the cupola operation, molten metal may be tracked every
10 minutes depending on the melting rate and the capacity.
• All the oxygen in the air blast is consumed by the combustion, Within the
combustion zone.
• The chemical reaction takes place which is,
• C + O2 (from the air) → CO2 + Heat
• This is an exothermic reaction. The temperature in this zone varies
from 1550 to 1850 degree Celsius.
• Then hot gases consisting principally of Nitrogen and carbon dioxide
moved upward from the combustion zone, where the temperature is 1650
degree Celsius.
• The portion of the coke bed if the combustion zone is reducing zone. It is a
protective zone to prevent the oxidation of the metal charge above and
while dropping through it. As the hot carbon dioxide gas moves upward
through the hot coke, some of it is reduced by the following reaction.
• 3Fe + 2CO → Fe3C + CO2
This is an endothermic reaction.
• The first layer of iron above the reducing zone is the melting zone where
the solid iron is converted into the molten state. A significant portion of
the carbon is picked up by the metal also takes place in this zone.
• The hot gas is passed upward from the reducing and melting zones into
the preheating zone which includes all layers of charge above the melting
zone up to the charging Door.
• Since the layer of the charge is preheated by the outgoing gases which
exist at the top of the cylindrical shell. this temperature in this zone is
around 1090 degrees Celsius.
9. Forging Practice (1 hours)
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Forging Tools
9.3 Operations – Upsetting, Drawing, Cutting, Bending, Punching
9.4 Forging Presses and Hammers
9.5 Advantages and Limitations
10. Metal Joining (2 hours)
10.1 Safety Considerations
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Soldering
10.4 Brazing
10.5 Welding – Gas Welding, Arc Welding, Resistance Welding,
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG), Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
Forging
Introduction
Smithy is defined to handle relatively small jobs only such as those
that can be heated in hearth or open fire, and the work is carried
out by using of hand hammers or small power hammers.
Forging refers to the production of those jobs which must be
heated in a closed furnace. The part of job where forging is done is
termed as a forge. The work is normally performed by means of
heavy hammers, forging machines, presses etc.
Forging
Forging is defined as the controlled plastic deformation
or working of metal into predetermined shapes.
Forging implies the use of powerful pressure from a hammer
or press on metal which has been heated to its plastic range.
The normal plastic range for steels and high-strength alloys is
from about 1038°C to about 1260C; for brasses and bronzes,
from about 593°C to about 926°C; and for aluminum and
magnesium alloys, from about 343°C to about 510°C
Forging
During forging, the material should have sufficient flow

properties and work at the upper limit of the material’s
potential strength so as to fill the die cavity shape without
resulting in cracks in the material.
Forging is a cost effective way to produce net-shape or near-
net-shape components. Virtually all metals can be forged. This
makes an extensive range of physical and mechanical
properties available in products with the highest structural
integrity.
Tools & Equipment Used in Smithy & Forging
(a) Smith’s forge

(b) Anvil
(c) Swage block
(d) Hammers
(e) Tongs
(f) Chisels
(g) Hardie
(h) Fullers
(i) Swage
(j) Flatters
(k) Punch and Drift
(l) Set Hammer
Smith’s Forge or Hearth

It is used for heating purpose during
the forging operation . The structure of
hearth is made of cast iron or cast steel.
It has four-legged support, an hearth
known as bottom, a chimney along with
hood.
An opening is also provided on the rear side
of the structure to supply the air into the furnace. The hearth is
covered by fire bricks lining. For quenching purpose, a water tank is
also provided in front side of forge. Air under pressure is supplied to
the furnace by the blower.
Anvil
The anvil is an important smiths tool. It is used for supporting the work
while hot metal hammering. The hardie hole is of square shape and is
used for holding square shanks of swages , fullers etc. while the Pritchel
hole is of circular shape used for bending rods of small diameter and as a
die for hot punching.
Swage Block
It is a block of cast steel consisting of a number of slots of different
shapes and sizes along its four side faces. It has through holes from
top face to bottom face which vary in shapes and sizes.
It is used for mainly squaring, sizing, heading, bending, punching
and forming operations. The swage block is supported on a cast iron
base. It is specified according to size of block or by weight
Hardie
It is fitted in the hardie hole provided in the tail of anvil. It has a cutting
edge at the top of body. During cutting or shearing operations, chisels are
used in conjunction with this bottom cutting tool. It is made by high
carbon steel.
Fullers
These are also made of tool steel (high carbon steel). They are used in
pairs (top and bottom). Bottom-one part of fuller is held in hardie hole of
anvil with its square shape of shank. They are used for necking down or to
reduce the cross section of a job. In some cases, they are also used in
drawing out operation
Hammers
Sledge Hammer
It has double faces on both ends as shown in figure. Sledge hammers are
comparatively heavier than hand hammers. Therefore, they are used for
heavy type of forging work when heavy blows are needed.
Straight-Peen Hammer
This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in-line with the
hammer handle. It is used for swaging, riveting in restricted places and
stretching metals.
Holding Tools
TONGS: The tongs are used for holding the hot metal while is
being worked. These are made of mild steel. The various
types of tongs commonly used for holding work are as follows:
a) Closed Mouth Tong: A closed mouth tong is used for
holding thin sections.
b) Open Mouth Tong: An open mouth tong is suitable for
holding heavier stock.
c) Round Hollow Tong: A round hallow tong is use for holding
square, hexagonal and orthogonal work.
d) Square Hollow Tong: A square hollow tong is used for
holding square, hexagonal and octagonal section.
e) Pick-up tong: A pick-up tong is used for picking up round
bars, but not for holding work during forging.
Holding tools
Holding Tools
1) Bench vice: The bench vice is a work holding device. It is the most
commonly used vice in a fitting shop.
Forging Operations
Forging Operations
The numbers of operations are performed in a smithy shop for the
formation of desired shape of object by forging. The commonly used
operations are as follows:
(i) Up-Setting (ii) Drawing down
(iii) Setting down (iv) Bending
(v) Cutting (vi) Punching
Forging Operations
1) UP-SETTING: It consists of increasing the cross section of a bar at

the expense of its length. In this process first of all the heating is
done and then heavy blow is given by hand hammer. Up setting
may be various kinds.
(a) Head Up-Setting: When heating is done at one end of item and
pressure is applied at one end is called head up setting.
(b) Full Up-Setting: When heating is done at both end of item and
then pressure is applied at both end is called full up setting.
(c) Central Up-Setting: When heating is done at the centre of the

item and then pressure is applied at the central position is called
central up setting.
Forging Operations
Forging Operations
2) BENDING: It is an important operation in forging and is very

frequently used. In this process the item is heated and bent as
desired.
3) DRAWING DOWN: In this process the length of a bar stock may
increased with a corresponding decrease or reduction in its
thickness, width or both of a bar stock. In other words, it is exactly
a reverse process to that of upsetting or jumping
Forging Operations
4) Setting Down: It is a process of local thinning down effected by set
hammer. The work is usually fullered at the place where the settings
down commence.
5) Fullering : In this operation main target is to increase the width along
with a slight change in length. Fullering operation should always be
started at the centre part of stock.
Forging Operations
6) Punching and Drifting:

In this operation, stock of bar is placed on the pritchel hole of the
anvil or over a correct hole of swages block and then a punch in hot
condition is used for producing the hole. External pressure on
punch is given by using hammering.
Punching by using die, is usually followed by drifting. In this, drift as
a tool is made to pass through the punched hole to produce a
finished hole of a required size. Drift is also a large sized punch.
• Safety Precautions while Working in Welding shop (A) Gas welding
1. One should not use a leaking gas cylinder. 2. One should not
handle oxygen cylinders, valves, regulators, hoses or fittings with
oily hands. 3. Welder should not mix the gases in one cylinder. 4. No
one should transfer the gas from one cylinder to another. 5. One
should clearly mention on the cylinders the type of gas in it (i.e.
oxygen, acetylene, etc.). 6. One should use nose masks where the
local exhaust ventilation is not practicable. Insist the safety officer
to provide proper ventilation system. 7. Always avoid skin contact
with fluxes, which contain fluorides. If they will penetrate the skin,
they produce severe irritation. 8. No one should weld the parts,
which are coated with toxic material such as lead, cadmium, zinc,
mercury, or paint containing toxic before materials. Any such
coatings must be removed prior to welding. 9. Acetylene gas should
not be brought in contact with the unalloyed copper directly
(except in torch) which may result in a violent explosion.
• Arc welding 1. One should use protective clothing and eye protection devices
while performing arc welding operation, otherwise radiation from electric arc will
damage the retina of eyes. One has to be sure that other people standing nearby
also uses eye-protection devices from ultraviolet rays. 2. Always use ear protection
devices such as muffler because excessive noise caused during the process of arc
welding may cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. 3. Welder should keep
clothing and gloves dry. 4. Always keep welding cables free of grease and oil. 5.
One should prevent the non-insulated portion of the electrode holder from
touching the welding ground or job-piece when the current is on. 6. Always keep
the body insulated from both the work and the metal electrode holder. 7. One
should carry out the welding process by standing on the insulating material like dry
wood rather than on a grounded metal structure. 8. It is easier and safer to
establish an arc on a clean surface than on a dirty or rusty one. 9. Always turn the
welding machine off when it is not in use. 10. One should not change the polarity
switch when the machine is under use. This will burn the surface of the switch and
the resulting arc can cause injury to the welder. 11. Always avoid using electrode
holders with defective jaws or poor insulation.
Welding
Welding processes divide into two major categories:
(1) fusion welding, in which coalescence is accomplished by
melting the two parts to be joined, in some cases adding
filler metal to the joint; and (2) solid-state welding, in which
heat and/or pressure are used to achieve coalescence, but
no melting of the base metals occurs and no filler metal is
added.
Fusion welding is by far the more important category.
It includes (1) arc welding, (2) resistance welding, (3) oxyfuel
gas welding, and (4) other fusion welding processes—
ones that cannot be classified as any of the first three types.
Fusion welding processes
• Arc Welding Equipment
• Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are
shown in Fig. 17.9.
• However some common tools of arc welding are shown separately
through Fig. 17.10-17.17.
• Few of the important components of arc welding setup are described as
under.
• 1. Arc welding power source
• Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric
arc welding,
• each having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually
obtained from generators
• driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal
combustion engines. For
• AC welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all arc
welding where
• mains electricity supply is available. They have to step down the
usual supply voltage (200-
• 400 volts) to the normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts).
The following factors
• influence the selection of a power source:
• 1. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded
• 2. Available power source (AC or DC)
• 3. Required output
• 4. Duty cycle
• 5. Efficiency
• 6. Initial costs and running costs
• 7. Available floor space
• 8. Versatility of equipment
• 2. Welding cables
• Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the
power source through
• the electrode holder, the arc, the workpiece and back to the
welding power source. These are
• insulated copper or aluminium cables.
• 3. Electrode holder
• Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode mannually and
conducting current to
• it. These are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn
matched to the amperage
• output of the arc welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes
that range from 150 to 500
• 4. Welding Electrodes
• An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An
• arc is set up between electrode and workpiece. Welding electrodes are classified into following
• types-
• (1) Consumable Electrodes
• (a) Bare Electrodes
• (b) Coated Electrodes
• (2) Non-consumable Electrodes
• (a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
• (b) Tungsten Electrodes
• Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this
• electrode starts melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus
• consumable electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy
• wire without any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts
• melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs many functions
• like prevention of joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.
• Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon,
• pure tungsten or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But
• practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of
• oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material during welding. The materials of nonconsumable
• electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated
• or zirconiated tungsten.
• 5. Hand Screen
• Hand screen (Fig. 17.12) used for protection of eyes and supervision
of weld bead.
• Welding 321
• 6. Chipping hammer
• Chipping Hammer (Fig. 17.13) is used to remove the slag by striking.
• 7. Wire brush
• Wire brush (Fi. 17.14) is used to clean the surface to be weld.
• 8. Protective clothing
• Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away
the exposure of direct
• heat to the body.
Welding
ARC WELDING
Arc welding (AW) is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence
of the metals is achieved by the heat of an electric arc between an
electrode and the work. The same basic process is also used in arc
cutting . A generic AW process is shown in Figure 30.1.An electric
arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit. It is
sustained by the presence of a thermally ionized column of gas
(called a plasma) through which current flows. To initiate the arc in
an AW process, the electrode is brought into contact with the work
and then quickly separated from it by a short distance. The electric
energy from the arc thus formed produces temperatures of 5500C
(10,000F) or higher, sufficiently hot to melt any metal. A pool of
molten metal, consisting of base metal(s) and filler metal (if one is
used) is formed near the tip of the electrode. In most arc welding
processes, filler metal is added during the operation to increase the
volume and strength of the weld joint.
Arc welding
Electrode
Electrodes: Electrodes used in AW processes are classified as consumable or non

consumable.
Consumable electrodes provide the source of the filler metal in arc welding.
These electrodes are available in two principal forms: rods (also called sticks) and
wire . Welding rods are typically 225 to 450 mm (9–18 in) long and 9.5 mm (3/8 in)
or less in diameter. The problem with consumable welding rods, at least in
production welding operations, is that they must be changed periodically, reducing
arc time of the welder.
Consumable weld wire has the advantage that it can be continuously fed into the
weld pool from spools containing long lengths of wire, thus avoiding the frequent
interruptions that occur when using welding sticks. In both rod and wire forms, the
electrode is consumed by the arc during the welding process and added to the
weld joint as filler metal.
Electrode
• Non-consumable electrodes are made of

tungsten (or carbon, rarely), which resists melting
by the arc. Despite its name, a non-consumable
electrode is gradually depleted during the
welding process (vaporization is the principal
mechanism), analogous to the gradual wearing of
a cutting tool in a machining operation. For AW
processes that utilize non-consumable electrodes
, any filler metal used in the operation must be
supplied by means of a separate wire that is fed
into the weld pool.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(Manual metal arc welding)
Shielded Metal-arc Welding

Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW) is one of the oldest, simplest,
and most versatile joining processes. About 50% of all industrial and
maintenance welding currently is performed by this process. The
electric arc is generated by touching the tip of a coated electrode
against the workpiece and withdrawing it quickly to a distance
sufficient to maintain the arc (Fig. 30.7a). The electrodes are in the
shapes of thin, long rods (hence, this process also is known as stick
welding) that are held manually.The heat generated melts a portion
of the electrode tip, its coating, and the base metal in the
immediate arc area. The molten metal consists of a mixture of the
base metal (the workpiece), the electrode metal, and substances
from the coating on the electrode; this mixture forms the weld
when it solidifies. The electrode coating deoxidizes the weld area
and provides a shielding gas to protect it from oxygen in the
environment.
A bare section at the end of the electrode is clamped to one
terminal of the power source, while the other terminal is connected
to the workpiece being welded (Fig. 30.7b). The current, which may
be DC or AC, usually ranges from 50 to 300 A. The SMAW process
has the advantages of being relatively simple, versatile, and
requiring a smaller variety of electrodes. The equipment consists of
a power supply, cables, and an electrode holder. The SMAW process
commonly is used in general construction, shipbuilding, pipelines,
and maintenance work. It is especially useful for work in remote
areas where a portable fuel-powered generator can be used as the
power supply. SMAW is best suited for workpiece thicknesses of 3
to 19 mm, although this range can be extended easily by skilled
operators using multiple pass techniques.
Submerged-arc Welding
In submerged-arc welding (SAW), the weld arc is shielded by a

granular flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium
fluoride, and other compounds. The flux is fed into the weld zone
from a hopper by gravity flow through a nozzle (Fig. 30.9).The thick
layer of flux completely covers the molten metal. It prevents spatter
and sparks and suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation and
fumes characteristic of the SMAW process. The flux also acts as a
thermal insulator by promoting deep penetration of heat into the
workpiece. The unused flux can be recovered (using a recovery
tube), treated, and reused. The consumable electrode is a coil of
bare round wire 1.5 to 10 mm in diameter; it is fed automatically
through a tube (welding gun). Electric currents typically range from
300 to 2000 A. The power supplies usually are connected to
standard single- or three-phase power lines with a primary rating
up to 440 V .
Because the flux is gravity fed, the SAW process is limited

largely to welds in flat or horizontal position having a
backup piece. Circular welds can be made on pipes and
cylinders-provided that they are rotated during welding. As
Fig. 30.9 shows, the un-fused flux can be recovered,
treated, and reused. SAW is automated and is used to weld
a variety of carbon and alloy steel and stainless-steel sheets
or plates at speeds as high as 5 m/min. The quality of the
Weld is very high-With good toughness, ductility, and
uniformity of properties. The SAW process provides very
high welding productivity, depositing 4 to 10 times the
amount of Weld metal per hour as the SMAW process.
Typical applications include thick-plate Welding for
shipbuilding and for pressure vessels.
Gas Metal-arc Welding
• In gas metal-arc welding (GMAW), developed in the

1950 and formerly called metal inert-gas (MIG)
welding, the Weld area is shielded by an effectively
inert atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon dioxide, or
various other gas mixtures (Fig. 30.10a). The
consumable bare Wire is fed automatically through a
nozzle into the Weld arc by a Wire-feed drive motor
(Fig. 30.10b). In addition to using inert shielding gases,
deoxidizers usually are present in the electrode metal
itself in order to prevent oxidation of the molten-weld
puddle. Multiple-weld layers can be deposited at the
joint.
MIG Welding
MIG Welding
The temperatures generated in GMAW are relatively low;

consequently, this method is suitable only for thin sheets and
sections of less than 6 mm; otherwise incomplete fusion may occur.
The operation, which is easy to perform, is commonly used for
welding ferrous metals in thin sections. Pulsed-arc systems are used
for thin ferrous and nonferrous metals.
The GMAW process is suitable for Welding most ferrous and
nonferrous metals and is used extensively in the metal-fabrication
industry. Because of the relatively simple nature of the process, the
training of operators is easy. The process is versatile, rapid, and
economical, and Welding productivity is double that of the SMAW
process. The GMAW process can be automated easily and lends
itself readily to robotics and to flexible manufacturing systems
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding:
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an AW process that

uses a non consumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas
for arc shielding. The term TIG welding (tungsten inert gas
welding) is often applied to this process GTAW can be
implemented with or without a filler metal. Figure 30.9
illustrates the latter case. When a filler metal is used, it is
added to the weld pool from a separate rod or wire, being
melted by the heat of the arc rather than transferred across
the arc as in the consumable electrode AW processes.
Tungsten is a good electrode material due to its high
melting point of 34100C. Typical shielding gases include
argon, helium, or a mixture of these gas elements.
TIG welding
TIG welding
• GTAW is applicable to nearly all metals in a wide range of stock

thicknesses. It can also be used for joining various combinations of
dissimilar metals. Its most common applications are for aluminum
and stainless steel. Cast irons, wrought irons, and of course
tungsten are difficult to weld by GTAW. In steel welding
applications, GTAW is generally slower and more costly than the
consumable electrode AW processes, except when thin sections are
involved and very-high-quality welds are required. When thin
sheets are TIG welded to close tolerances, filler metal is usually not
added. The process can be performed manually or by machine and
automated methods for all joint types. Advantages of GTAW in the
applications to which it is suited include high-quality welds, no
weld spatter because no filler metal is transferred across the arc,
and little or no post weld cleaning because no flux is used.
• RESISTANCE WELDING
• In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are heated by their resistance to the flow
• of an electrical current. Usually this is the only source of heat, but a few of the welding
• operations combine resistance heating with arc heating, and possibly with combustion of
• metal in the arc. The process applies to practically all metals and most combinations of pure
• metals and those alloys, which have only a limited plastic range, are welded by heating the
• parts to fusion (melting). Some alloys, however, may welded without fusion; instead, the parts
• are heated to a plastic state at which the applied pressure causes their crystalline structures
• to grow together. The welding of dissimilar metals may be accomplished by melting both
• metals frequently only the metal with the lower melting point is melted, and an alloy bond
• is formed at the surface of the unmelted metal.
• In resistance welding processes no fluxes are employed, the filler metal is rarely used
• and the joints are usually of the lap type. The amount of heat generated in the workpiece
• depend on the following factors:
• (1) Magnitude of the current,
• (2) Resistance of the current conducting path, and
• Mathematically, H = IVt
• = I(IR)t
• = I2Rt
• Where H = heat generated in joules
• I = current in Amp.
• R = resistance in ohms
• t = time of current flow in seconds.
• Types of Resistance welding
• The major types of resistance welding are given as under:
• (1) Spot Welding
• (2) Seam Welding
• (3) Projection Welding
• (4) Resistance Butt Welding
• (5) Flash Butt Welding
• (6) Percussion Welding
• (7) High Frequency Resistance Welding
• (8) High Frequency Induction Welding
• Some of the above important welding processes are
discussed as under,
• Spot Welding
• In this process overlapping sheets are joined by local fusion at one or more spots, by the
• concentration of current flowing between two electrodes. This is the most widely used resistance
• welding process. A typical resistance spot welding machine is shown in Fig. 17.23. It essentially
• consists of two electrodes, out of which one is fixed. The other electrode is fixed to a rocker
• arm (to provide mechanical advantage) for transmitting the mechanical force from a pneumatic
• cylinder. This is the simplest type of arrangement. The other possibility is that of a pneumatic
• or hydraulic cylinder being directly connected to the electrode without any rocker arm. For
• welding large assemblies such as car bodies, portable spot welding machines are used. Here
• the electrode holders and the pneumatic pressurizing system are present in the form of a
• portable assembly which is taken to the place, where the spot is to be made. The electric
• current, compressed air and the cooling water needed for the electrodes is supplied through
• cables and hoses from the main welding machine to the portable unit. In spot welding, a
• satisfactory weld is obtained when a proper current density is maintained. The current
• density depends on the contact area between the electrode and the work-piece. With the
• continuous use, if the tip becomes upset and- the contact area increases, the current density
• will be lowered and consequently the weld is obtained over a large area. This would not be able
• to melt the metal and hence there would be no proper fusion
• A resistance welding schedule
• is the sequence of events that normally take place in each of the welds. The events
are:
• 1. The squeeze time is the time required for the electrodes to align and clamp the
two
• work-pieces together under them and provide the necessary electrical contact.
• 2. The weld time is the time of the current flow through the work-pieces till they
are
• heated to the melting temperature.
• 3. The hold time is the time when the pressure is to be maintained on the molten
• metal without the electric current. During this time, the pieces are expected to be
• forged welded.
• 4. The off time is time during which, the pressure on the electrode is taken off so
that
• the plates can be positioned for the next spot.
• Before spot welding one must make sure that
• (i) The job is clean, i.e., free from grease, dirt, paint, scale, oxide etc.
• (ii) Electrode tip surface is clean, since it has to conduct the current
into the work with
• as little loss as possible. Very fine emery cloth may be used for
routine cleaning.
• (iii) Water is running through the electrodes in order to
• (a) Avoid them from getting overheated and thus damaged,
• (b) Cool the weld.
• (iv) Proper welding current has been set on the current selector
switch.
• (v) Proper time has been set on the weld-timer.
• Spot welding electrodes
• Spot welding electrodes are made of materials which have
• (1) Higher electrical and thermal resistivities, and
• (2) Sufficient strength to withstand high pressure at
elevated temperatures.
• Copper base alloys such as copper beryllium and copper
tungsten are commonly used
• materials for spot welding electrodes. For achieving the
desired current density, It is important
• to have proper electrode shape for which three main types
of spot welding electrodes are used
• which are pointed, domed and flat electrodes.
• Applications of Spot Welding
• (i) It has applications in automobile and aircraft industries
• (ii) The attachment of braces, brackets, pads or clips to formed
sheet-metal parts such
• as cases, covers or trays is another application of spot welding.
• (iii) Spot welding of two 12.5 mm thick steel plates has been done
satisfactorily as a
• replacement for riveting.
• (iv) Many assemblies of two or more sheet metal stampings that do
not require gas tight
• or liquid tight joints can be more economically joined by spot
welding than by
• mechanical methods.
• (v) Containers and boxes frequently are spot welded.
• Resistance Seam Welding
• It is a continuous type of spot welding wherein spot welds overlap each other to the desired
• extent. In this process coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced by the heat obtained from
• the resistance to electric current (flow) through the work pieces held together under pressure
• by circular electrodes. The resulting weld is a series of overlapping resistance-spots welds made
• progressively along a joint by rotating the circular electrodes. The principle of seam welding is
• shown in Fig. 17.24(a) and resistance seam welding process set up is shown in Fig. 17.24(b). The
• seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that circular rolling electrodes are used to
• produce a continuous air-tight seam of overlapping welds. Overlapping continuous spot welds
• seams are produced by the rotating electrodes and a regularly interrupted current.
• Applications
• 1. It is used for making leak proof joints in fuel tanks of automobiles.
• 2. Except for copper and high copper alloys, most other metals can be seam welded.
• 3. It is also used for making flange welds for use in watertight tanks.
• 17.7.1.3 Resistance Projection Welding
• Fig.17.25 shows the projection welding.
• This process is a resistance welding process in
• which two or more than two spot welds are
• made simultaneously by making raised portions
• or projections on predetermined locations on
• one of the workpiece. These projections act to
• localize the heat of the welding circuit. The
• pieces to be welded are held in position under
• pressure being maintained by electrodes. The
• projected contact spot for welding should be
• approximately equal to the weld metal
• thickness. The welding of a nut on the automotive
• chasis is an example of projection welding
• Resistance Upset Butt and Flash Butt Welding
• This welding is also used for joining metal pieces end to end but it has largely replaced
• the butt-welding method for weld articles small cross-sections. It can be used for thick
• sections also. Initially the current is switched on and then one end the moveable part to be
• welded is brought gently closer to the fixed end of the other part to localize heat at the ends
• and thus raises the temperature of the ends quickly to the welding heat. On acquiring contact
• of fixed end and moveable end with each other, the moveable end is then pressed against one
• another by applying mechanical pressure. Thus the molten metal and slag to be squeezed out
• in the form of sparks enabling the pure metal to form the joint and disallowing the heat .to
• spread back. The principle of upset butt welding and flash butt welding are depicted in Fig.
• 17.26 (a, b). In this resistance welding single phase A.C. machines are commonly employed.
• The merits and demerit of flash welding over simple butt-welding are follows:
• Merits
• 1. It is comparatively much faster than butt welding.
• 2. This method utilizes less current in comparison to butt welding as the small portion
• of the metal is only being heated for getting a good weld
• 3. Created joint by this welding is much stronger than the butt welding joint. Also the
• strength of the weld produced is high even more than that of the base metal. The
• end of the metal pieces to be welded in this welding need not be squared as it is
• the basic requirement in butt-welding.
• 4. A high degree of accuracy can be easily achieved in terms of length alignment of weld.
• Demerits
• 1. The periodic maintenance of machine and replacement of insulation is needed as
• flashing particles of molten metal are thrown out during welding which may enter
• into the slide ways and insulation of the set up.
• 2. Welder has to take enough care against possible fire hazard due to flashing during
• welding.
• 3. Additional stock has to be provided for compensating loss of metal during f1ashing
• and upsetting. This increases to the cost of weld.
• 4. Cost of removal of flash weld metal by trimming, chipping, grinding, etc. will increase
• to the welded product.
• 5. Surface of the jobs where they come in contact with the gripping surfaces, should
• be clean otherwise they will restrict the flow of electric current.
• 6. The available power, opening between the jaws of the gripping clamps and upsetting
• pressure of the welding set limit the size and cross sectional area of the jobs to be
• welded.
• Applications
• All conducting forged metals can be easily be flash welded. A number of dissimilar metals
• can also be welded by controlling the welding conditions carefully. Metals generally welded
• metal by the process involves lead, tin, antimony, zinc, bismuth and their alloys, low carbon
• steels, stainless steel, alloy steels, tool steels, copper alloys, aluminium alloys, magnesium
• alloys nickel alloys, molybdenum alloys, and titanium alloys. This process is used in automobile
• industry, welding of solid and tubular structural assemblies, etc. in air-craft industry, welding
• of band saw blades, welding of tool steel drills, reamers and taps etc. to mild steel or alloy
• steel shanks, welding of pipes and tubes.
• Common Advantages of Resistance Welding
• Some common advantages of resistance welding include:
• (a) It is well suited for mass production.
• (b) It is economical in operation, since nothing is consumed except electrical power.
• (c) Skilled welders are not required.
• (d) Welds are quickly made.
• (e) It is possible to weld dissimilar metals.
• Some disadvantages of resistance welding include:
• (a) High initial cost of the resistance welding equipment
• (b) Certain resistance welding processes are limited to lap joints.
• (c) A lap joint has an inherent service between the two metal pieces, which causes
• stress concentrations in applications where fatigue is present. This service may
also
• cause trouble when corrosion is present
• GAS WELDING PROCESSES
• A fusion welding process which joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen /air
• and fuel gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane or butane) mixture is usually referred as ‘gas
• welding’. The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the edges of the
• parts to be welded, generally with the addition of a filler metal. Operation of gas welding is
• shown in Fig. 17.5. The fuel gas generally employed is acetylene; however gases other than
• acetylene can also be used though with lower flame temperature. Oxy-acetylene flame is the
• most versatile and hottest of all the flames produced by the combination of oxygen and other
• fuel gases. Other gases such as Hydrogen, Propane, Butane, Natural gas etc., may be used
• for some welding and brazing applications.
• Oxy-Acetylent Welding
• In this process, acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct
proportions in the welding torch
• and ignited. The flame resulting at the tip of the torch is
sufficiently hot to melt and join the
• parent metal. The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a
temperature of about 3300°C and thus can
• melt most of the ferrous and non-ferrous metals in
common use. A filler metal rod or welding
• rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to build up
the seam slightly for greater
• strength.
• Types of Welding Flames
• In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important
means to control the welding joint
• and the welding process. The correct type of flame is
essential for the production of satisfactory
• welds. The flame must be of the proper size, shape and
condition in order to operate with
• maximum efficiency. There are three basic types of oxy-
acetylene flames.
• 1. Neutral welding flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal
proportions). 2. Carburizing welding flame or reducing
(excess of acetylene).
• 3. Oxidizing welding flame (excess of oxygen).
• Neutral Welding Flame
• A neutral flame results when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are mixed
• in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip. The temperature of the neutral flame is of
• the order of about 5900°F (3260°C). It has a clear, well defined inner cone, indicating that the
• combustion is complete. The inner cone is light blue in color. It is surrounded by an outer
• flame envelope, produced by the combination of oxygen in the air and superheated carbon
• monoxide and hydrogen gases from the inner cone. This envelope is Usually a much darker
• blue than the inner cone. A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical change
• on the molten metal and, therefore will not oxidize or carburize the metal. The neutral flame
• is commonly used for the welding of mild steel, stainless steel, cast Iron, copper, and aluminium.
• Carburising or Reducing Welding Flame
• The carburizing or reducing flame has excess of acetylene and can be recognized by
• acetylene feather, which exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope. The outer
• flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually much brighter in color.
• With iron and steel, carburizing flame produces very hard, brittle substance known as iron
• carbide. A reducing flame may be distinguished from carburizing flame by the fact that a
• carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a reducing flame. A reducing flame has an
• approximate temperature of 3038°C. A carburizing-flame is used in the welding of lead and for
• carburizing (surface hardening) purpose. A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not
• carburize the metal; rather it ensures the absence of the oxidizing condition. It is used for
• welding with low alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g., non-ferrous) that do not
• tend to absorb carbon. This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.
• Oxidising Welding flame
• The oxidizing flame has an excess of oxygen over the acetylene. An oxidizing flame can
• be recognized by the small cone, which is shorter, much bluer in color and more pointed than
• that of the neutral flame. The outer flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out at the
end. Such a flame makes a loud roaring sound. It is the hottest flame (temperature as
• high as 6300°F) produced by any oxy-fuel gas source. But the excess oxygen especially at high
• temperatures tends to combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low strength oxides.
• Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding area to have a
• scummy or dirty appearance. For these reasons, an oxidizing flame is of limited use in
• welding. It is not used in the welding of steel. A slightly oxidizing flame is helpful when
• welding (i) Copper-base metals (ii) Zinc-base metals and (iii) A few types of ferrous metals such
• as manganese steel and cast iron. The oxidizing atmosphere in these cases, create a basemetal
• oxide that protects the base metal.
• Gas Welding Equipments
• An arrangement of oxy acetylene welding set up is shown in
Fig.17.7. The basic tools and
• equipments used for oxy-acetylene welding are following:
• Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in compressed gas cylinders. These gas cylinders
• differ widely in capacity, design and colour code. However, in most of the countries, the
• standard size of these cylinders is 6 to 7 m3 and is painted black for oxygen and maroon for
• acetylene. An acetylene cylinder is filled with some absorptive material, which is saturated
• with a chemical solvent acetone. Acetone has the ability to absorb a large volume of acetylene
• and release it as the pressure falls. If large quantities of acetylene gas are being consumed,
• it is much cheaper to generate the gas at the place of use with the help of acetylene gas
• generators. Acetylene gas is generated by carbide-to-water method.
• Oxygen gas cylinders are usually equipped with about 40 litres of oxygen at a pressure
• of about 154 Kgf/cm2 at 21°C. To provide against dangerously excessive pressure, such as could
occur if the cylinders were exposed to fire, every valve has a safety device to release
• the oxygen before there is any danger of rupturing the cylinders. Fragile discs and fusible
• plugs are usually provided in the cylinders valves in case it is subjected to danger.
• Gas pressure regulators
• Gas pressure regulators are employed for regulating the supply of acetylene and oxygen
• gas from cylinders. A pressure regulator is connected between the cylinder and hose leading
• to welding torch. The cylinder and hose connections have left-handed threads on the acetylene
• regulator while these are right handed on the oxygen regulator. A pressure regulator is fitted
• with two pressure gauges, one for indication of the gas pressure in the cylinder and the other
• for indication of the reduced pressure at which the gas is going out.
• Welding torch
• Fig 17.8 shows the construction of the welding torch. It is a tool for mixing oxygen and
• acetylene in correct proportion and burning the mixture at the end of a tip. Gas flow to the
• torch is controlled with the help of two needle valves in the handle of the torch. There are
• two basic types of gas welding torches:
• (1) Positive pressure (also known as medium or equal pressure), and
• (2) Low pressure or injector type
• The positive pressure type welding torch is the more common of the two types of oxyacetylene
• torches.
• Mixi
• Torch tips
• It is the portion of the welding apparatus through which the gases pass just prior to their
• ignition and burning. A great variety of interchangeable welding tips differing in size, shape
• and construction are available commercially. The tip sizes are identified by the diameter of
• the opening. The diameter of the tip opening used for welding depends upon the type of metal
• to be welded.
• Hose pipes
• The hose pipes are used for the supply of gases from the pressure regulators. The most
• common method of hose pipe fitting both oxygen and acetylene gas is the reinforced rubber
• hose pipe. Green is the standard color for oxygen hose, red for acetylene, and black hose for
• other industrially available welding gases.
• Goggles
• These are fitted with colored lenses and are used to protect the eyes from harmful heat
• and ultraviolet and infrared rays.
• Gloves
• These are required to protect the hands from any injury due to the heat of welding
• process.
• Spark-lighter
• It is used for frequent igniting the welding torch.
• Filler rods
• Gas welding can be done with or without using filler rod. When welding with the filler
• rod, it should be held at approximately 900 to the welding tip. Filler rods have the same or
• nearly the same chemical composition as the base metal. Metallurgical properties of the weld
• deposit can be controlled by the optimum choice of filler rod. Most of the filler rods for gas
• welding also contain deoxidizers to control the oxygen content of weld pool.
• Fluxes
• Fluxes are used in gas welding to remove the oxide film and to maintain a clean surface.
• These are usually employed for gas welding of aluminium, stainless steel, cast iron, brass and
• silicon bronze. They are available in the market in the form of dry powder, paste, or thick
• solutions.
• BRAZING
• Like soldering, brazing is a process of joining metals without melting the base metal. Filler
• material used for brazing has liquidus temperature above 450°C and below the solidustemperature of the base
metal. The filler metal is drawn into the joint by means of capillary
• action (entering of fluid into tightly fitted surfaces). Brazing is a much widely used joining
• process in various industries because of its many advantages. Due to the higher melting point
• of the filler material, the joint strength is more than in soldering. Almost all metals can be
• joined by brazing except aluminum and magnesium which cannot easily be joined by brazing.
• Dissimilar metals, such as stainless steel to cast iron can be joined by brazing. Because of
• the lower temperatures used there is less distortion in brazed joints. Also, in many cases the
• original heat treatment of the plates being joined is not affected by the brazing heat. The joint
• can be quickly finished without much skill. Because of the simplicity of the process it is often
• an economical joining method with reasonable joint strength. The brazed joints are reasonably
• stronger, depending on the strength of the filler metal used. But the brazed joint is generally
• not useful for high temperature service because of the low melting temperature of the filler
• metal. The color of the filler metal in the brazed joint also, may not match with that of the
• base metal. Because the filler metal reaches the joint by capillary action, it is essential that
• the joint is designed properly. The clearance between the two parts to be joined should be
• critically controlled. Another important factor to be considered is the temperature at which
• the filler metal is entering the joint.
• During brazing, the base metal of the two pieces to be
joined is not melted. An important
• requirement is that the filler metal must wet the base
metal surfaces to which it is applied.
• The diffusion or alloying of the filler metal with the base
metal place even though the base
• metal does not reach its solidus temperature. The surfaces
to be joined must be chemically
• clean before brazing. However, fluxes are applied to
remove oxides from the surfaces. Borax
• is the most widely used flux during the process of brazing.
It will dissolve the oxides of most
• of the common metals.
• Methods of Brazing
• Torch Brazing
• It is the most widely used brazing method. Heat is produced, generally, by burning a
• mixture of oxy-acetylene gas, as in the gas welding. A carbonizing flame is suitable for this
• purpose as it produces sufficiently high temperature needed for brazing.
• Furnace Brazing
• It is suitable for brazing large number of small or medium parts. Usually brazing filler
• metal in the granular or powder form or as strips is placed at the joint, and then the assembly
• is placed in the furnace and heated. Large number of small parts can be accommodated in
• a furnace and simultaneously brazed.
• 17.13.2 Braze Welding
• In welding processes where the joint of the base metal is melted and a joint is prepared
• having higher joint strength, it is likely to cause metallurgical damage by way of phase
• transformations and oxide formation. In this process, the base metal is not melted, but the
• joint is obtained by means of a filler metal.

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Workshop Technology

2. Hand Working Operations (1 hours)

9. Forging Practice (1 hours)

• Workshop technology is the type of technology which

• The work carried out by hand at the bench is called bench

Fitting tools (bench work tools):

Ball peen Straight peen Cross peen

Double faced hammer: It consists a head

• Mallet: A wooden hammer ,plastic and rubber hammers also called

• Sledge hammer: This hammer is used by blacksmith ,woodcutters ,

Taps and tap wrench

Fig. Die and die handles

• Wrenches are used for tightening and loosening fasteners . a

• Crimping net work pliers(Electronic pliers):To be able to crimp

thicker materials are cut by shears.

• The chisel should be firmly gripped in one hand leaving about 3 to 5

• Or ,thumb rule can be used .

• Tap drill size=(0.8to 0.85)xMajor thread diameter

• Where,L=length of tap wrench ,D=Tap dia.in mm ,d=handle dia. In mm

Starting the tap. Tapping a thread by hand.

Typically, the upper shear blade is mounted at an angle to the lower

• Uses of a Soldering Iron

• Basic steps contd…

Dolly: It is a bar used to back up a rivet during upsetting and

• Various measuring instruments and gauges are used in

• Micrometers work on the principle of screw and nut. We

• Figure , illustrate an outside micrometer. It is used to

Drilling machines are of the following types:

• Sensitive Drilling Machine:This is a light duty machine and is capable of

Pillar Drilling Machine:The majority of drilling work is carried out on

• What is Multi Spindle Drilling Machine?

• Reaming: Reaming is an operation of sizing and improving the geometry

• Most accidents happen from:

The major components and their functions in a centre lathe are :

• Carriage: This heavy part with a number of mechanisms and parts

• Turning -Straight turning, step turning, Taper turning,

• Combined feed method of taper turning:The combined feed is made with

1.Accordining to their constructions and design lathes can be classified as

Shaping Machine is one of the reciprocating type of machine tool which is

Types shaping machines:

Shaping machine parts:

5.4 Milling Machines

Tool steels. The requirements in a tool steel are that it

Ceramics form an important part of materials group.

• Cements: cement, plaster of paris and lime come under

• Some typical ceramics and respective applications are as follows:

• Uses: Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and

• Object of heat treatment. Metals and alloys are heat treated to

Normalizing. Normalizing entails heating to the

Hardening. Hardening involves heating (to the same temperatures

Tempering. Tempering means giving up a certain

Figure: (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking.

A good pattern should follow following requirements.

• Split Pattern or Multi Piece Pattern:

In making the mold, the grains of sand are held together by a

(4)collapsibility—ability of the mold to give way and allow the casting

A dry-sand mold is made using organic binders rather than

During forging, the material should have sufficient flow

(a) Smith’s forge

Smith’s Forge or Hearth

1) UP-SETTING: It consists of increasing the cross section of a bar at

(c) Central Up-Setting: When heating is done at the centre of the

2) BENDING: It is an important operation in forging and is very