HYDROLOGY AND FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

The drainage basin system refers to the network of interconnected waterways that drain a particular
land area into a larger body of water such as a lake or ocean.

Outputs are the various forms of water that leave the drainage basin system, including evaporation,
evapotranspiration (the process of water moving from plants into the atmosphere), and river discharge
(the amount of water flowing through a river channel).

Evaporation: This is the process by which liquid water is converted into water vapor (a gas). It occurs
when water is heated up, and the heat causes the water molecules to move faster and eventually break
free from the surface of the liquid. Evaporation usually takes place from bodies of water, such as oceans,
lakes, and rivers, but can also occur from wet surfaces like soil.

Evapotranspiration: This is the combination of two processes: evaporation and transpiration.

Evapotranspiration refers to the total amount of water that is lost from an ecosystem through the
process of evaporation from surfaces (such as soil, leaves, and water bodies) and transpiration from
plants.

River discharge: This refers to the volume of water that is flowing through a river channel at a given
point in time. It is usually measured in cubic meters per second (m³/s). The amount of discharge can vary
depending on the amount of water that is entering the river from precipitation or other sources, as well
as the amount of water that is leaving the river through evaporation, transpiration, and other processes.

Stores:

Interception: This refers to the water that is captured by vegetation and other surfaces before it reaches
the ground. This water can either be evaporated or eventually reach the ground through processes like
stemflow or throughfall.

Soil water: This is the water that is stored in the soil. It is held in the small spaces between soil particles
and is available for plants to use through their roots.

Surface water: This refers to water that is located on the surface of the Earth, such as in lakes, rivers,
and oceans.
Groundwater: This is water that is stored underground in spaces between rock and soil particles. It can
be accessed through wells or natural springs and is an important source of water for human and animal
use

Channel storage in geography, channel storage refers to the amount of water that is held within a river
channel, which can be influenced by a variety of factors such as the size and shape of the channel, the
slope of the land, and the amount and timing of precipitation.

Throughfall: This is the portion of precipitation that falls through the canopy of vegetation and reaches
the ground directly. Throughfall is influenced by the density and structure of vegetation, the intensity
and duration of rainfall, and the size and shape of leaves. Throughfall is important for water balance
calculations as it represents the input of water to the soil.

Stemflow: This is the portion of precipitation that runs down the stems or trunks of plants and reaches
the ground. Stemflow is influenced by the diameter and height of stems, the density of vegetation, the
intensity and duration of rainfall, and the presence of leaves. Stemflow can be an important source of
water for plants, especially in arid and semi-arid environments.

Overland flow: This is the movement of water over the land surface, which occurs when the rate of
rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Overland flow can result in erosion and sediment
transport, and can contribute to flooding. Overland flow is influenced by topography, soil properties,
land use, and the intensity and duration of rainfall.

Channel flow: This is the movement of water within a defined channel, such as a stream or river.
Channel flow is influenced by the size and shape of the channel, the slope of the land, the presence of
vegetation, and the amount of water entering the channel from tributaries or groundwater.

Infiltration: This is the process by which water enters the soil surface and percolates into the subsurface
layers. Infiltration is influenced by soil properties, land use, vegetation cover, and the intensity and
duration of rainfall. Infiltration is important for groundwater recharge, soil moisture storage, and
vegetation growth.

Percolation: This is the movement of water through the soil and rock layers beneath the soil surface,
typically to reach the groundwater. Percolation is influenced by soil and rock properties, groundwater
table depth, and the amount of water entering the subsurface layers from infiltration, throughflow, or
baseflow.
Throughflow: This is the horizontal movement of water through the soil layer parallel to the land
surface, before it reaches the channel network. Throughflow is influenced by soil properties,
topography, land use, vegetation cover, and the amount of water entering the soil from infiltration or
stemflow. Throughflow can be an important component of the water balance in forested or hilly
environments.

Groundwater: This is water that is stored in underground aquifers, typically found in the saturated zone
beneath the water table. Groundwater is influenced by the geology, soil properties, land use, and
climate of an area. Groundwater is an important source of water for drinking, irrigation, and industry,
and can be vulnerable to contamination from human activities.

Baseflow: This is the portion of streamflow that is contributed by groundwater discharge into the
channel. Baseflow is influenced by the depth and extent of the groundwater table, the permeability of
the soil and rock layers, and the amount of water entering the groundwater system from infiltration and
percolation. Baseflow can be an important component of streamflow in dry periods or in areas with low
rainfall.

Water tables: A water table is the level below the Earth's surface at which the ground becomes
saturated with water. It is the top of the zone of saturation, which is the area in the ground where the
pores or spaces between soil particles are filled with water. The level of the water table can rise or fall
depending on factors such as rainfall, temperature, and the amount of water that is extracted from wells
or other sources..

Recharge: Recharge is the process by which water is added to the groundwater system. This can happen
in several ways, such as when rain or snowmelt infiltrates into the ground, or when water from rivers or
lakes seeps into the ground. Recharge is an important process for maintaining the water table and
ensuring that there is enough water available in the groundwater system.

Springs: Springs are natural outlets where groundwater flows to the surface. They can be found in many
different settings, including mountains, valleys, and plains. Springs are often important sources of water
for human use and for supporting natural ecosystems. The temperature, chemistry, and flow rate of
spring water can vary depending on the characteristics of the groundwater source and the surrounding
geology

How a spring is formed

A spring is formed when groundwater from an aquifer flows to the surface of the ground due to a
pressure gradient created by the natural slope of the land or the presence of impermeable layers of
rock. The water can come from various sources, and the characteristics of the spring can be influenced
by the surrounding rock and soil.

Hydrographs are graphs that show the relationship between the discharge of a river and time. They are
important tools for studying river behavior and for predicting floods. There are two types of
hydrographs: storm hydrographs and annual hydrographs. The components of these hydrographs
include:

Precipitation: The amount and intensity of precipitation is the most important factor affecting the shape
of the hydrograph. In storm hydrographs, the peak discharge usually occurs shortly after the peak
rainfall, while in annual hydrographs, the peak discharge usually occurs after a prolonged period of
rainfall.

Infiltration: The rate at which water infiltrates into the ground affects the amount of runoff. In areas
with high infiltration rates, less water will contribute to surface runoff and the peak discharge will be
lower.

Soil type: Different soil types have different infiltration rates. Sandy soils have a high infiltration rate
while clay soils have a low infiltration rate. This affects the amount of runoff generated during a storm.

Topography: The slope and shape of the landscape affect the speed at which water flows into streams
and rivers. Steep slopes and narrow valleys lead to faster runoff and higher peak discharges.

Land use: Different land uses have different amounts of impervious surfaces, such as roads and
buildings, which prevent water from infiltrating into the ground. Urban areas with more impervious
surfaces generate more runoff and higher peak discharges than rural areas.

Drainage basin size: The size of the drainage basin affects the amount of water that contributes to the
stream or river. Larger drainage basins tend to generate higher peak discharges.

Vegetation: Vegetation can intercept and store precipitation, reducing the amount of runoff that
reaches the river. Forested areas generate less runoff than grasslands or bare ground.
Drainage Density: Drainage density is the measure of the length of all the streams and rivers in a
drainage basin per unit area. High drainage density means there are a lot of small tributaries feeding
into the main river channel, which can increase the speed at which water flows through the river.

Porosity and Permeability of Soils: Porosity refers to the amount of space between soil particles, and
permeability refers to how easily water can move through those spaces. Soils that are more porous and
permeable will typically allow water to infiltrate into the ground more quickly, reducing the amount of
water that flows into the river.

Rock Type: The type of rock in a drainage basin can also influence hydrographs. For example, permeable
rocks like sandstone or limestone can allow water to move through them more easily, while
impermeable rocks like shale or granite can cause water to collect on the surface and flow into the river
more quickly.

Slopes: The slope of the land in a drainage basin can also impact hydrographs. Steep slopes can cause
water to flow more quickly into the river, while gentler slopes can allow water to soak into the ground
more slowly.

Vegetation Type: The type of vegetation in a drainage basin can also impact hydrographs. Trees and
other plants can help slow down the movement of water over the surface of the land, reducing the
amount of runoff that flows into the river.

Land Use: Human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and deforestation can also impact
hydrographs. For example, urbanization can lead to more impermeable surfaces like concrete and
asphalt, which can increase the amount of runoff that flows into the river. Agriculture can also lead to
increased runoff due to the removal of natural vegetation and the use of fertilizers and pesticides.

Overall, it is important to consider all of these factors when studying hydrographs in a particular
drainage basin, as they can all have significant impacts on the amount and timing of water flow in a river

Channel processes refer to the various physical and chemical actions that shape the channel of a river or
stream over time. These processes include erosion and load transport, which are discussed below:

Erosion:
Erosion refers to the wearing away of the channel bed and banks of a river or stream by the action of
water and other materials carried by the river. There are four types of erosion:

Abrasion/corrasion: The process by which rocks and other materials carried by the river rub against the
bed and banks of the channel, causing them to wear away.

Solution: The process by which water dissolves soluble rocks and minerals, such as limestone, and
carries them away in solution.

Cavitation: The process by which the force of rapidly moving water creates small bubbles that collapse
and cause pressure waves that erode the channel bed.

Hydraulic action: The process by which the force of water moving through a channel dislodges and
carries away loose sediment and other materials.

Load transport:

Load transport refers to the movement of sediment and other materials carried by the river or stream.
There are four main types of load transport:

Traction: The movement of larger rocks and boulders along the bed of the river by rolling or sliding.

Saltation: The movement of smaller rocks and pebbles along the bed of the river by bouncing or
hopping.

Suspension: The movement of fine sediment, such as sand and silt, in the water column.

Solution: The transport of dissolved minerals and other materials in solution within the water.

Deposition and sedimentation:

Deposition is the process by which sediment is laid down or dropped by a flowing medium, such as a
river or ocean current, due to a reduction in the velocity of the fluid. Sedimentation is the process of
settling and accumulation of sediment in a particular location over a period of time.

Hjülstrom curve:

The Hjülstrom curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between river velocity and
sediment transport. It shows that at low velocities, sediment is deposited, while at high velocities,
sediment is eroded. There is an optimal velocity at which the river is able to transport the maximum
amount of sediment.

River flow:
River flow can be described by two main factors: velocity and discharge. Velocity is the speed at which
water moves through the river channel, while discharge is the volume of water flowing through the
channel over a specific period of time.

Patterns of flow:

River flow patterns can be classified into three categories: laminar, turbulent, and helicoidal. Laminar
flow is smooth and regular, with water molecules flowing parallel to each other in a straight line.
Turbulent flow is characterized by chaotic, irregular movements, with water molecules moving in all
directions. Helicoidal flow is a combination of laminar and turbulent flow, with water molecules flowing
in a spiral pattern.

Thalweg:

The thalweg is the line of lowest elevation within a river channel that defines the path of the main
current. It is usually located in the center of the channel and is the area where water flows the fastest.
The thalweg is important for understanding river morphology and can be used to estimate river
discharge.

Channel types refer to the different ways in which rivers or streams flow through the landscape. The
three main types of river channel patterns are straight, braided, and meandering.

Straight channels: A straight channel is a river or stream that flows in a straight line from its source to its
mouth. Straight channels are typically found in areas with a steep gradient or in man-made channels
such as canals. Straight channels have a single thread of water flowing through them.

Braided channels: A braided channel is a river or stream that is composed of multiple small,
interconnected channels that weave in and out of each other. Braided channels are typically found in
areas with a wide, flat valley floor and a high sediment load. The sediment load causes the river to
deposit sediment in the channel, creating small islands or bars that divide the channel into multiple
threads.

Meandering channels: A meandering channel is a river or stream that flows in a winding, snake-like path.
Meandering channels are typically found in areas with a gentle gradient and a low sediment load. As the
river flows, it erodes the outer banks of its channel and deposits sediment on the inner banks, causing
the channel to shift back and forth over time. Meandering channels often have a single thread of water
flowing through them, but may also have small cutoff channels or oxbow lakes where the river has
changed its course.

Meanders:

Meandering rivers are commonly found in flat or gently sloping landscapes, where there is a relatively
low gradient and the river's velocity is relatively low. As the river flows, it erodes the outer bank through
a process known as lateral erosion, and deposits sediment on the inner bank in areas of low velocity,
creating a point bar. Over time, the meandering river may erode through the narrow strip of land
between two adjacent bends, cutting off a loop of the river and forming an oxbow lake. Oxbow lakes are
often isolated from the main river channel and become important habitats for aquatic plants and
animals.

River cliffs: River cliffs are steep and often vertical slopes that form along the outside bends of a river.
They are created by the erosive force of the river's current as it cuts into the banks of the river. Over
time, the constant erosion of the banks causes the river to meander, forming bends and curves.

Point bars: Point bars are depositional features that form on the inside bends of a river. As the river
flows around a bend, it slows down, and the sediment it is carrying settles out, forming a gently sloping
deposit of sand and gravel. Over time, the point bar may grow larger, eventually connecting with the
opposite bank and forming a meander loop.

An oxbow lake is a U-shaped lake that forms when a meandering river cuts off a meander loop, leaving a
crescent-shaped lake separated from the main channel of the river. The formation of oxbow lakes can
be explained through a process called meandering.

Meandering is a natural process that occurs in rivers where the water flow is not uniform. As water
flows downstream, it erodes the outer banks of a river bend, creating a cut bank, and deposits sediment
on the inner bank, creating a point bar. Over time, the cut bank grows larger and the point bar migrates
downstream, causing the river channel to shift.

As the channel shifts, some of the meander loops become disconnected from the main channel, creating
oxbow lakes. This occurs when the river erodes the narrow strip of land that separates the meander
loop from the main channel, allowing water to flow directly from the main channel into the loop. As the
water flow in the loop slows down, sediment begins to accumulate, eventually forming a lake.

Oxbow lakes can have a significant impact on the ecology of a river system. They provide important
habitats for aquatic plants and animals, and can also help to improve water quality by trapping sediment
and pollutants. However, they can also be vulnerable to changes in water flow and can become stagnant
if not connected to the main channel of the river.

Riffle: A riffle is a shallow section of a river where the water flows more quickly over a rocky or gravelly
bottom. Riffles are often found in the upper reaches of a river where the gradient is steeper and the
water is more turbulent. They provide habitat for many species of fish and other aquatic animals.

Waterfalls:

Waterfalls are created when a river flows over a band of hard rock that is more resistant to erosion than
the surrounding rock. Over time, the softer rock is eroded away, leaving the hard rock standing in a
vertical wall. Waterfalls can be classified according to their shape, size, and the volume of water flowing
over them. Some of the world's most famous waterfalls include Niagara Falls, Victoria Falls, and Angel
Falls.

Gorges:

Gorges are narrow, steep-sided valleys that are often carved out by rivers or streams. They are typically
characterized by high cliffs, rugged terrain, and dramatic scenery. Gorges can be created by a variety of
processes, including erosion by running water, glacial activity, and tectonic uplift. In some cases, gorges
can provide important habitats for rare or endangered plant and animal species, and they may also be
popular destinations for outdoor recreation, such as hiking and rock climbing.

Bluffs:

Bluffs are steep, vertical faces of rock or earth that rise abruptly from the surrounding landscape. They
are often created by erosion from waves along a coastline or the movement of a river or stream. Bluffs
can be dangerous areas, as they may be prone to landslides or rockfalls. In some cases, bluffs can also
provide valuable habitats for plant and animal species that are adapted to the unique conditions found
on the steep slopes.

Floodplains:

Floodplains are flat, low-lying areas adjacent to rivers or streams that are periodically flooded when the
water level rises. They are typically composed of sediment deposited by the river over time, and they
can provide important habitats for a variety of plant and animal species. Floodplains can also be
important agricultural areas, as the nutrient-rich soils are well-suited for growing crops. However, floods
can also cause significant damage to human infrastructure and can disrupt ecosystems, so it is important
to manage floodplains carefully to balance the benefits and risks associated with flooding.
Human Modifications to catchment flows and stores and to channel flows by land-use changes

deforestation, afforestation, urbanisation, abstraction and water storage.

Land-use changes such as deforestation, afforestation, urbanisation, abstraction, and water storage can
have significant impacts on catchment flows and stores, as well as on channel flows. Here are some
explanations for each of these modifications:

Deforestation:

Deforestation involves the removal of trees and other vegetation from an area, which can have a range
of impacts on catchment flows and stores. When trees are removed, there is less interception and
evapotranspiration, which means that more water reaches the ground surface and runs off into streams
and rivers. This can lead to increased peak flows and reduced base flows, as well as increased erosion
and sedimentation. Deforestation can also reduce the storage capacity of the catchment, as trees are no
longer able to store water in their roots and soil.

Afforestation:

Afforestation involves the planting of trees and other vegetation in an area that was previously
deforested or had no trees. Afforestation can have a range of benefits for catchment flows and stores.
Trees can help to increase infiltration and reduce runoff, which can lead to increased base flows and
reduced peak flows. Trees also help to increase the storage capacity of the catchment, as they can store
water in their roots and soil. Additionally, trees can help to reduce erosion and sedimentation.

Urbanisation:

Urbanisation involves the development of land for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes.
Urbanisation can have significant impacts on catchment flows and stores. When land is developed, there
is often increased impervious cover, such as buildings, roads, and parking lots, which can lead to
increased runoff and reduced infiltration. This can lead to increased peak flows and reduced base flows,
as well as increased erosion and sedimentation. Urbanisation can also reduce the storage capacity of the
catchment, as natural areas are replaced by impervious surfaces.

Abstraction:

Abstraction involves the removal of water from a catchment for human use, such as for drinking water,
irrigation, or industrial purposes. Abstraction can have a range of impacts on catchment flows and
stores. When water is abstracted, there is less water available for other uses, including natural
ecosystems. This can lead to reduced base flows, as well as changes in the timing and magnitude of peak
flows. Abstraction can also reduce the storage capacity of the catchment, as water is removed from the
system.

Water storage:

Water storage involves the construction of dams, reservoirs, and other structures to store water for
human use, such as for drinking water, irrigation, or hydropower. Water storage can have a range of
impacts on catchment flows and stores. When water is stored, there is less water available for
downstream uses, including natural ecosystems. This can lead to reduced base flows, as well as changes
in the timing and magnitude of peak flows. Water storage can also increase the storage capacity of the
catchment, as water is held back and released gradually. However, water storage can also have negative
impacts on the environment, including changes to the natural flow regime, altered sediment transport,
and changes to aquatic ecosystems.

The causes and impacts of river floods; prediction of flood risk and recurrence intervals.

River floods can be caused by a variety of factors, including heavy rainfall, snowmelt, and dam failures.
When the amount of water entering a river system exceeds the capacity of the channel, flooding can
occur. The impacts of river floods can be devastating, including loss of life, property damage, and
economic disruption.

One of the key factors in predicting the risk of river floods is the amount and intensity of rainfall in a
given area. This information can be gathered through weather monitoring systems, such as radar and
satellite imagery, as well as through ground-based observations. In addition, historical data on river
levels and flooding can be used to identify areas that are at particular risk.

To predict the likelihood of future floods, scientists use a variety of tools, including hydrological models,
which simulate the behavior of water in a river system. These models take into account factors such as
rainfall, soil moisture, and topography to predict the flow of water through a river network.

In addition to predicting the risk of flooding, scientists can also estimate the recurrence interval of floods
in a given area. The recurrence interval is the expected frequency of a flood of a certain magnitude, and
can be calculated based on historical data and statistical analysis.

The impacts of river floods can be severe, and can include damage to homes and infrastructure, loss of
crops and livestock, and disruption of transportation and commerce. In addition, river floods can lead to
contamination of water supplies and the spread of waterborne diseases.
To mitigate the impacts of river floods, communities can take a variety of steps, including developing
flood warning systems, building levees and other flood control structures, and implementing land use
policies that limit development in flood-prone areas. In addition, individuals can take steps to protect
themselves and their property, such as purchasing flood insurance, raising their homes above flood
levels, and having emergency plans in place in case of a flood

The prevention and amelioration of river floods to include:

• forecasts and warnings

The prevention and amelioration of river floods involve a range of strategies and measures aimed at
reducing the risk of flooding, mitigating its impacts, and enhancing the resilience of communities and
ecosystems to floods. Here are some of the key strategies and measures that are commonly used:

Flood forecasting and warning systems: These systems use real-time data from river gauges, weather
stations, and other sources to predict the likelihood and severity of floods, and to issue timely warnings
to communities in the affected areas. For example, the European Flood Awareness System (EFAS)
provides early warnings of floods across Europe, based on a combination of meteorological and
hydrological data.

Land use planning and management: This involves regulating the use of land in flood-prone areas, such
as prohibiting construction in floodplains, and promoting the use of green infrastructure, such as
wetlands and forests, which can help to absorb and slow down floodwaters.

Structural measures: These include building flood walls, levees, and other physical barriers to protect
communities and infrastructure from flooding. For example, the Netherlands has an extensive system of
flood defenses, including dikes and storm surge barriers, to protect against coastal flooding.

Non-structural measures: These are measures that do not involve physical structures, but rather aim to
reduce the vulnerability of communities to floods through education, preparedness, and early warning.
This can include community-based disaster risk reduction programs, public awareness campaigns, and
emergency planning and response systems.

Floodplain management and restoration: This involves restoring natural floodplains and wetlands, which
can help to absorb and store floodwaters, reducing the risk of flooding downstream. For example, in the
United States, the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) promotes the use of floodplain management
measures, such as floodplain zoning and floodplain restoration, to reduce flood risk.
Hard engineering

Dams: A dam is a barrier constructed across a river or other waterway to hold back and control the flow
of water. Dams can be used to store water, generate hydroelectric power, or prevent floods. When a
dam is used to control floods, it is designed to hold back water during periods of high rainfall and release
it gradually downstream. This reduces the risk of downstream flooding.

However, dams can also have negative environmental impacts. They can alter the natural flow of rivers,
affecting the habitats of fish and other aquatic species. Dams can also block the movement of sediment
downstream, leading to erosion and other environmental problems.

Straightening: Straightening a river channel involves removing meanders and bends to create a
straighter channel. This can increase the speed at which water flows, reducing the likelihood of flooding.
Straightening can also make the river more navigable and create more land for development.

However, straightening can have negative environmental impacts. It can alter the natural flow of the
river, leading to erosion and sedimentation downstream. Straightening can also impact the habitats of
fish and other aquatic species.

Levées: A levée is an embankment built along the banks of a river to contain the flow of water during
periods of high rainfall. Levées are typically made of soil, sandbags, or other materials. They are
designed to hold back water and prevent it from flooding nearby areas.

Levées can be effective in preventing flooding, but they can also have negative impacts. If a levée is
poorly constructed or maintained, it can fail during a flood and cause significant damage. Levées can
also impact the natural flow of the river and its surrounding habitats.

Diversion spillways: A diversion spillway is a channel built to divert water away from areas at high risk of
flooding. It is typically used to direct water into storage reservoirs or other areas where it can be safely
released. Diversion spillways can be constructed using concrete, soil, or other materials.

Diversion spillways can be effective in preventing flooding, but they can also have negative impacts.
They can alter the natural flow of the river and impact the habitats of fish and other aquatic species.
They can also be expensive to build and maintain.

soft engineering

River floods can cause significant damage to human life, property, and the environment. To prevent and
ameliorate river floods, a combination of soft engineering floodplain and drainage basin management,
wetland and river bank conservation, and river restoration measures can be implemented.

Soft engineering floodplain management involves using natural and sustainable measures to reduce the
risk of flooding. These measures include constructing floodplains, creating storage ponds, and building
vegetated swales that can hold excess water during a flood event. By creating more space for water to
be stored, the risk of flooding downstream is reduced.

Drainage basin management involves managing the entire river basin to reduce the risk of flooding. This
includes controlling land use, preventing soil erosion, and reducing sedimentation in the river. By
managing the entire basin, the amount of water entering the river can be reduced, which can reduce the
risk of flooding downstream.

Wetland and river bank conservation involves preserving and restoring wetlands and river banks.
Wetlands can act as natural sponges, holding excess water during a flood event. River banks that are
stable and covered with vegetation can absorb some of the energy of the flowing water, reducing the
risk of erosion and flooding downstream.

River restoration involves restoring rivers to a more natural state, including removing artificial
structures, creating meanders, and planting vegetation. This can help to slow down the flow of water
and reduce the risk of flooding downstream.

In summary, soft engineering floodplain and drainage basin management, wetland and river bank
conservation, and river restoration are all important measures to prevent and ameliorate river floods. By
using a combination of these measures, we can reduce the risk of flooding and protect human life,
property, and the environment.