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What, Where, How and When?Class 6 Notes History Chapter 1
• People have lived along the banks of rivers for several hundred
thousand years. Some of the earliest people who lived there were
skilled gatherers, that is, the people who gathered food.
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• The Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills to the North-West were some of the
areas where women and men first began to grow crops such as wheat
and barley about 8000 years ago.
•
• People also began rearing animals like sheep, goat, and cattle and
started living in villages.
• The places where rice was first grown were situated in the North
Vindhyas.
• Men and women moved in search of livelihood, as well as to escape

from natural disasters like floods or droughts. Sometimes, men
marched in armies, conquering other’s lands.
• People have shared new ways of carving stones, composing music,

and even cooking food, over several hundreds of years
• Manuscripts were usually written on palm leaves or on the specially

prepared bark of a tree known as the birch, which grows in the
Himalayas.
• Inscriptions are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or

metal.
• Archaeologists study the remains of buildings made of stones and
bricks, paintings and sculpture. They also explore and excavate to find
tools, weapons, pots, pans, ornaments and coins.
• Archaeologists also look for the bones of animals, birds, and fishes in
order to find out what people ate in the past.
• All dates before the birth of Christ are counted backwards and usually
have the letters BC or BCE (Before Christ) added on.
• People have lived on the banks of the Narmada for several thousand
years. The earliest of them were skilled gatherers—people who
gathered their food.
• Near Sulaiman and Kirthar hills in present-day Pakistan, crops like

wheat and barley were first grown 8000 years ago. People also began
rearing animals like sheep, goat, and cattle. They lived in villages. Rice
was first grown in the north of the Vindhyas.
• Agriculture developed near the Garo hills and near the Vindhyas.
• Some of the earliest cities flourished about 4700 years ago on the
banks of the Indus and its tributaries. Cities also developed on the
banks of the Ganga.
• People travelled from one place to another and interacted with each
other, thus sharing ideas. This has enriched our culture.
• Old books, called manuscripts, were usually written on palm leaf or the
bark of the birch trip. They are helpful in revealing our past.
• Archaeologists have also found inscriptions, which are an engraved

form of writing on hard surfaces, such as stone or metal. They were
used for various purposes
• The people who study objects made and used in the past are called
archaeologists. They explore and excavate to find old objects. They
also look for bones of living beings to find what people ate.
• The people who study the past are historians. They look for information
found from manuscripts and inscriptions, which they call source.
Archaeologists: People who study the objects made and used in the past
are called archaeologists.
Excavation: The process of digging under the surface of the earth in order
to find old objects is called excavation.
Historians: Scholars who study the past are called historians.
Inscriptions: These are writings on very hard surfaces like stone or metal.
Manuscripts. Books that were written long ago by hand on palm leaf or
barks of trees are called manuscripts.
Skilled Gatherers: The people who gathered their food. They have lived on
the banks of the Narmada for several hundred thousand years.
Tributaries: Smaller rivers that flow into a larger river are said to be its
tributaries.
8000 years ago – beginning of agriculture
4700 years ago – the first cities
2500 years ago – the Magadha Kingdom
On The Trial of the Earliest People Class 6 Notes Chapter 2
Palaeolithic: This term refers to the age where we find a large number of
stone tools. It extends from 2 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago
and is divided into Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic.
Mesolithic: This period extends from 10,000 years ago to about 12,000
years ago. Stone tools found during this period were generally tiny and were
called Microliths.
Neolithic: This was the period that dates back to about 10,000 years ago,
and is, therefore, known as the New Stone Age.
The Earliest People: They were hunter-gatherers, a name derived from the
way they collected food. They hunted animals, collected berries and fruits
and gathered nuts, stalks and eggs. To hunt, they needed to move
constantly, and to gather plant products, they needed knowledge about the
edibility of plants and change of seasons.
Archaeological Evidence of Early Man: How do we know about the early

man? This has been possible through an analysis of objects found, which
were probably used by the early man. For example, tools made of stones,
bones and wood.
Uses of Tools: Stone tools were used to cut meat and bones, scrape bark
(from trees) and hides (animal skins) as well as to chop fruit and roots.
Making Stone Tools: Two different techniques were used for making stone
tools.
Choosing a Place to Live In: Dwellings chosen by the early man were
located near sources of water, such as rivers and lakes as well as where the
good quality stone was available for their tools.
Painting-Rock paintings: Paintings on a rock shelter.
Finding out about Fire: At Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh, evidence

and traces of ash have been found suggesting use of fire. The fire might
have been used as a source of light, to cook meat and to scare away
animals.
A Changing Environment: About 12,000 years ago, there was a major

change in the climate of the world. This change led to a shift to warm
conditions, leading to the development of grasslands at many places which
helped people to start thinking about the herding and rearing animals.
Habitation-cum-Factory Sites: Places where stones were found and early

people made their tools. Sometimes, people lived (habitat) here for a longer
span of time.
Bhimbetka: This is a place in Madhya Pradesh where we find examples of

habitation sites, natural caves and rock shelters.
People who lived in the subcontinent about 2 million years ago were Hunter-
gatherers. They hunted wild animals and gathered plant produce to get their
food. They moved from place to place, in search of more food, water and
resources.
Hunter-gatherers made and used various types of tools—tools of stone,
wood and bone.
Habitation refers to the place where people lived.
• Stone tools were made using different techniques like a stone on stone
(using a stone to give required shape to another stone) and pressure
flaking.
• The fire was used by the early people. They used fire as a source of
light, to cook meat and to scare away animals.
• Grasslands developed in many areas due to change in climate around

12000 years ago. Herding, and rearing animals and fishing became
common.
• Several grain-bearing panes of grass, like wheat, barley, rice grew

naturally in different parts of the subcontinent. The people also began
growing plants on their own.
• Many old caves have paintings on their walls. They show wild animals
and are drawn with great accuracy and skill. A painting from a rock
shelter.
• In Hunsgi, a number of early Palaeolithic sites have been found. A

large number of tools were also found, most of which were made of
limestone.
Factory-Sites: Places where the stone was found and where people made
tools are called Factory-sites.
Grasslands: Areas of land with high fertility and thus good for growing
crops are called Grasslands.
Habitation-Cum-Factory Sites: Factory-sites, where people lived for some

time, have been called Habitation-cum-factory sites.
Hunter-Gatherers: People who lived in the subcontinent about two million

years ago and who hunted wild animals, caught fish and birds, gathered
food to eat, were the Hunter-gatherers.
Palaeolithic: The part of history extending from 2 million years ago to about
12,000 years ago is called the Palaeolithic period.
Mesolithic: The part of history extending from about 12,000 years ago to
about 10,000 years ago is called the Mesolithic period.
Microliths: Stone tools of the Mesolithic period are called Microliths.
Dateline:
From Gathering to Growing Food Class 6 Notes Chapter 3
Farming developed as a consequence of the climate change of the world.

People observed plants and how they grow. Gradually, they also started
growing crops.
People also started taming animals. The dog was the first animal to be
tamed.
Animals like sheep, goat, cattle were also tamed and so people became
herders.
Grains were used as seeds, as food, and also as gifts. They were stored by
humans.
• Animals were also ‘stored’ since they can serve as a source of milk
and also provide meat. So, animals were used as a ‘store’ of food.
• The period of history after about 10,000 years ago is called the
Neolithic Age. Mortars and pestles and other tools of the Neolithic age
have also been found.
• People grew cotton by this time and so weaving of clothes had begun.
• Many farmers and herders lived in groups, which were known as
Tribes. Certain customs and practices were followed by them.
• Mehrgarh was situated in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass. Here,
people learnt to grow barley and wheat. It is one of the earliest villages.
• Different plants grow in different conditions. Different animals also

prefer different environments.
• Farming developed as a result of the climate change of the world.

People observed plants and how they grow. Gradually they also
started growing crops.
• People also got interested in taming animals. The dog was the first
animal to be tamed. Animals like sheep, goat, cattle were also tamed
and so people became herders.
• Grains were used as seeds, as food, and as gifts. They were stored by
humans.
• Animals were also ‘stored’ since they can serve as a source of milk
and also ready meat. So animals were used as a ‘store’ of food.
• Some sites have given evidence of farmers and herders. Plant remains
and animal bones have been found and studied.
• Archaeologists have found traces of huts or houses at some sites. Pit-

houses were built by digging into the ground.
• The period of history after about 10,000 years ago is called the
Neolithic Age. Mortars and pestles and other tools of the Neolithic age
have been found.
• People also grew cotton by this time and so weaving of clothes had
begun.
• Many farmers and herders lived in groups, which were called Tribes.
Certain customs and practices were followed by them.
• Mehrgarh was located in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass. Here,
people learnt to grow barley and wheat. It is one of the earliest villages.
• On excavation, levels are found which indicate chronology (order of

events).
• In Mehrgarh, remains of houses have been found. They had four or

more compartments.
• Several burial sites have been found in Mehrgarh.
• Stone tools, a stone called jadeite, etc. have been found in Daojali
Hading near the Brahmaputra Valley.
Domestication: The taming of animals for various purposes is referred to

as Domestication.
Fossil Wood: Ancient wood that has hardened into stone is called Fossil
Wood.
Levels: Layers of a mound formed by various waste material over hundreds

of years, are called Levels.
Neolithic Age: The part of history after about 10,000 years ago is referred
to as the Neolithic Age.
Tribes: Many farmers and herders lived in groups, which are called Tribes.
About 12,000 years ago: the beginning of Domestication.
About 10,000 years ago: the beginning of Neolithic Age.
About 8,000 years ago: the beginning of settlement at Mehrgarh.
In the Earliest Cities Class 6 Notes Chapter 4
Life in the City: Harappa was a busy place. Rulers planned buildings,
traders travelled to distant places to procure raw materials and scribes
prepared exotic seals.
The Story of Harappa: The cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation are known
as the Harappan cities. Rediscovered in the 1920s after excavations in
Sindh and Punjab in present-day Pakistan, these cities flourished since
3300 BC.
The layout of the Cities:
1. The Harappan cities were divided into two parts: the citadel and the
lower town. Walls were fortified with bricks in interlocking patterns.
2. Streets were laid out straight and cut each other at right angles.
3. Drains ran parallel to each other and had covered.
4. The citadel was located at a higher level and had special buildings.
5. The Great Bath in Mohenjodaro was a tank used for bathing rituals.
6. Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars where sacrifices may have been
performed.
7. The lower town was the residential area where houses were one or
two storeys high and built around a corridor.
About eighty years ago, remains of the site of a very old city called Harappa
were found in present-day Pakistan. The city is supposed to be about 4700
years old. More such cities were also discovered.
These cities were usually divided into two or more parts. The part to the
west was smaller but higher and the part to the east was larger but lower.
The first part has been called citadel and the second part, the lower town.
The bricks used were so well made that they have survived thousands of
years. The pattern of their use made walls strong.
A special tank, called the great bath, has been found in the city of
Mohenjodaro. Some cities had fire altars and storehouses.
The Grate Bath
Houses were 1- or 2-stories high. Wells supplied water. Cities had covered
drains.
Houses, drains and streets were planned and built at the same time.
A Harappan city was a very busy place Rulers planned the construction of
special buildings. Scribes helped prepare seals.
The Harappan seal
Crafts-persons made all kinds of Things

Archaeologists have found things made of stone,
shell and metal in addition to beads, weights and
blades. Seals and pots with wonderful designs
were also made. Cloth has also been found.
The Harapparts got row materials locally or from other places like
Rajasthan, Oman, Iran etc.
They grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, nee, sesame, linseed and mustard.
A tool called plough was used to dig the earth Irrigation was also employed.
Animals were reared by the Harappans.
In Dholavira in present-day Gujarat, a large open area for ceremonies, and

stones with engravements in Harappan script have been, discovered.
A storehouse has been found in the city of Lothal.
However, there was a major change 3000 years ago and much of the
Harappan cities perished. It may have been because of o- cams drying up,
or deforestation, or several other reasons
Bronze: The alloy of tin and copper is called bronze.
Citadel: The part to the west of most cities was small but high in
comparison to the eastern part. This part is called the citadel.
Crafts-Persons: Men and women who made all kinds of things-either in

their own homes or in special workshops were the crafts-persons.
Lower Town: The eastern part of the cities is referred to as the lower town.
Plough: A new tool in the Harappan cities which was used to dig the earth
for turning soil and planting seeds was the plough.
Raw materials: Substances that are either found naturally or produced by

farmers/ herders are called raw materials: Raw materials are used to
manufacture other materials.
Rulers: People who planned the construction of special buildings in the city
were the rulers.
Scribes: People who knew how to write were the scribes.
Around 2700 BC, i.e. 4700 years ago: Beginning of cities.
Around 1900 BC, i.e. 3900 years ago: Beginning of the end of these cities.
Around 500 BC, i.e. around 2500 years ago: Beginning of newer cities.
What Books and Burials Tell Us Class 6 Notes Chapter 5
Burial Spots of Families: Some burial chambers have more than one
skeleton, probably meaning that one chamber was used for many members
of the same family. A hole in the wall allowed the chamber to be used over
and over again. The burial sites were marked by stones.
Battles: Rig Veda tells us about battles fought for land and cattle. People
met in assemblies and discussed war and peace. Wealth obtained
thereafter was distributed amongst the leaders, priests and people.
Vedas: Initially, the Rigveda was not in written form, but was passed on
orally. Knowledge passed on in this way is known as ‘Shruti’. The Vedic
teachers took great care to teach students to pronounce words and
memorise hymns correctly.
Sanskrit and Other Languages: Scholars have discovered many

similarities between Sanskrit and European languages such as Latin,
English and German. Historians came to the conclusion that Sanskrit
belongs to the Indo-European group of languages. Other languages like
Hindi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, etc. also belong to the same group.
Skeleton Studies: Study of the bone structure helps to differentiate
between male and female skeletons. The hip or the pelvic area of a woman
is generally larger than a man.
Special Burial at Inamgaon: We find burials dated back to 3600 and 2700
years ago. Adults were generally buried in the ground. Special mention may
be made of a man who was found buried in a large, four-legged clay jar in
the courtyard of a five-roomed house.
Writing Evidence: First evidence of writing in China was found 3500 years
ago. These writings were on animal bones and were called oracle bones.
However, the Chinese did not know the use of iron.
Other languages: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the

Dravidian family and the languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of
Central India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family.
Megaliths: These literally mean big stones, which were used by early men
to spot burial sites.
There are four Vedas:
• Rigveda
• Samaveda
• Yajurveda
• Atharvaveda.
The oldest one is the Rigveda (3500 years ago). It contains over a thousand
hymns (“Suktas”). The Vedas are religious texts of Hinduism. The hymns
were composed by rishis and students memorised them. The Rigveda has
been written in old (Vedic) Sanskrit.
The Vedas were written down much later. Students learnt the hymns and
passed it on to other generations by memorising and not writing.
The Manuscript of rigveda
Rigveda contains prayers for cattle, children and horsesf Wealth was
distributed among the leaders, priests and other people, according to the
Rigveda. ‘Yajnas’ were performed. Most men took part in wars.
The Rigveda divides people in two groups on the basis of their work : the
‘brahmins’ and the ‘rajas’. People or the community as a whole have been
referred to as ‘jana’ or ‘vish’. The composers of hymns called themselves
‘Aryas’, and their opponents ‘Dasas’/ ‘Dasyus’.
Stone boulders as the one in figure are called Megaliths.
Megalith
They were used to mark burial sites. This practice was used in the Deccan
and Kashmir. Some megaliths are on the surface and some are
underground.
The dead were buried with distinctive pots, which are called Black and Red
Ware.
People were buried along with several objects. The objects were chosen
probably depended upon the status of the person dead.
Families were usually buried together.
In Inamgaon, people were buried with their head towards the north. Vessels
containing food and water were placed with them.
Aryas: The people who composed the hymns used the word ‘Aryas’ for
themselves.
Black and Red-Ware: The two distinctive pots, with which the dead were
buried, have been called the Black and the Red Ware.
Brahmins: The priests were referred to as the ‘Brahmins’. They performed

various rituals.
Dasyus/Dasas: The opponents of the ‘Aryas’ were referred to as

‘Dasas’/’Dasyus’ by them. This world later meant ‘slave’.
Megalith: A stone boulder, used to mark burial site, is referred to as a

megalith.
Sukta: The hymns of the Vedas were called ‘Suktas’, which translates into
‘well-said’.
About 3600 years ago – beginning of the settlement of Inamgaon.
About 3500 years ago (i.e. circa 1500 B.C.) – beginning of composition of
the oldest of the Vedas, the Rigveda.
About 3000 years ago (i.e. circa 1,000 B.C.) – beginning of the building of
megaliths.
Around 2700 years ago (i.e. circa 700 B.C.) – end of settlement at
Inamgaon.
Around 2000 years ago – Charaka wrote ‘Charaka Samhita’.
Less than 200 years ago (in the 19th century A.D.) – printing of the
Rigveda for the first time.
Kingdoms, Kings and an Early Republic Class 6 Notes Chapter 6
Janapadas: The powerful kings who performed big sacrifices and later
ruled larger territories termed as Janapadas. The term “Janapada” literally
means ‘foothold of a tribe’. A Janapada could be a republic like Vajji or a
monarchy like Magadha.
Vamas: Later, Vedic texts like Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda

mentioned certain rules about the society. There were different groups in
the society such as priests and warriors, farmers, herders, traders,
craftspersons and labourers.
Varna Hierarchy: The priests divided people into four groups called vamas.
Each varna had different sets of functions.
Selection of the Rulers: In ancient India, some of the rajas were probably
chosen by the Jana, the
people. Some changes regarding the election of the Raja took place around
3,000 years ago. Some men performed Ashvamedha sacrifice and came to
be recognised as rajas.
Gana: This was the method of rule in early centuries where members of
society met in assemblies and decided about administration through
discussions and debates.
Mahajanapadas: A Mahajanapada was usually ruled from its capital city.
There was intense rivalry among the Mahajanapadas, resulting in frequent
wars. Huge walls made of mud, stone, wood or bricks were used to fortify
these capital cities.
Taxes: Money was required by new rajas for building forts and armies. They
started collecting regular taxes from the people. The tax could be paid either
in cash or in kind.
Changes in Agriculture: Agriculture prospered in most of the

Mahajanapadas as they were located in fertile areas. Two major changes
came in agriculture. One was the increasing use of the iron plough.
Secondly, people began transplanting paddy which led to increased
production.
Around 3000 years ago, there were some new ways of choosing ‘rajas’.
Some men became ‘rajas’ by performing big sacrifices. One of such rituals
was ‘ASHVAMEDHA’ (horse sacrifice). The ‘raja’ was an important figure.
Kingdoms were usually called the ‘Janapadas’, which were ruled by the
‘rajas’. People lived in huts and kept animals. They grew a variety of crops.
Some ‘janapadas’ later became more important than others, and they were
called ‘Mahajanapadas’. The capital cities were fortified.
The new ‘rajas’ began maintaining armies. Payments were made using
punchmarked coins.
Coins
• The ‘rajas’ needed resources to build forts and to maintain armies.

Officials were supposed to collect taxes from people. Taxes were in
the form of crops, labour, animals and their produce, etc.
• There were changes in agriculture too. The use of Iron Ploughshares

increased, thus enhancing grain production. People started
transplanting paddy. This also increased production.
• Magadha became the most important ‘mahajanapada’ in about 200

years. Transport, water supplies, fertility, forests, elephants, mines,
etc. made Magadha important.
• The two powerful rulers of Magadha, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu used all
possible means to conquer other ‘janapadas’. Rajagriha was the
capital of Magadha. Later it was Pataliputra (now Patna).
• Vajji was another kingdom with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar). It had a
different form of government called ‘gana’/‘sangha’, which had not one,
but many rulers. These rulers performed rituals together and met in
assemblies. Buddhist books depict life in the ‘sanghas’.
• ‘Rajas’ of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the ‘sanghas’.
‘Ashvamedha’: (horse sacrifice) This was ritual in which a horse was let
loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the ‘rajas’ men. If the horse
entered other kingdoms, there would be a duel between the two kings.
‘Bhaga’: Taxes on crops (1/6 of the produce) was called ‘bhaga’.
‘Gana’/‘Sangha’: A form of government followed in the kingdom of Vajji.
‘Janapadas’: Kingdoms were referred to as ‘janapadas’. (‘jana’ – land,

‘pada’ – foot).
‘Mahajanapada’: The most important of the ‘janapadas’.
‘Varnas’: Each of the four categories of society, based on occupation and

decided by birth, was referred to as ‘Varnas’.
About 3000 years ago (around 1000 B.C.) – new kinds of ‘rajas’.
About 2500 years ago (around 500 B.C.) – formation of ‘mahaj’anapadas’.
About 2300 years ago (around 300 B.C.) – the invasion of Alexander the
Great.
New Questions and Ideas Class 6 Notes Chapter 7
The Sangha: Both Mahavira and Buddha felt that only those who gave up
worldly life and became monks could gain true knowledge. They set up
organisations called Sanghas where these monks spent much of their time
on religious studies and meditation.
Monasteries: fain and Buddhist monks went from place to place, and
therefore, the need for more permanent shelters was felt. As a result,
monasteries were built, which were known as Viharas.
Four Ashramas: In Upanishadic times, the life of an upper-caste man was

divided into four stages called Ashramas. These were Brahmacharya,
Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya men
were expected to lead their lives according to them, but this was not
followed rigidly.
Teachings of Mahavira: Mahavira believed that a person’s position in life

depends on the karma of his previous life. He preached ahimsa. He
instructed his followers not to lie, steal or kill. His followers were known as
‘Jains’, who led simple lives and begged for food.
Buddha: Gautama (Siddhartha), the founder of Buddhism, was born at
Lumbini about 2500 years ago. During those days, certain changes took
place in the society of the Mahajanapadas. Dissatisfied with such changes,
many thinkers gave up worldly life, went to forests for meditation and
Buddha sought the true meaning of life.
Buddha’s Enlightenment: He left home at the age of 30 and attained

enlightenment under a ‘peepal tree’ at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. Buddha
delivered his first sermon at Sarnath. He preached in Prakrit, the language
spoken by the common people.
Upanishads: Various thinkers tried to find answers to difficult questions.

These thinkers were of the view that there was the atman or the individual
soul and the Brahmin or the universal soul. Upanishads give much
importance to Brahmin, the universal soul.
Jainism: Jainism was founded by Vardhamana Mahavira of the Vajji Gana-

sangha. He left home at the age of 30 and went to live in the forest. For
many years, he led a hard and lonely life but finally attained enlightenment.
Siddhartha (Gautama), who founded Buddhism, was born about, 2500

years ago. He belonged to a ‘gana’ called the Sakya ‘gana’.
He left his home in search of knowledge. He meditated and got enlightened

in Bodh Gaya in Bihar. He preached for the first time in Sarnath. He
preached of sufferings and unhappiness in life. He taught in the language of
the ordinary people, Prakrit.
Other thinkers also wanted to know about life after death and about
sacrifices. Their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads, part of the later
Vedic texts.
Gargi was a woman thinker. Satyakama Jabala was a slave thinker.
The founder of Jainism was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was in the Vajji

‘sangha’. He also led a life similar to that of Buddha. He said that those who
wish to know the truth must leave their homes. He spoke of ‘ahimsa’. He
taught in Prakrit
Jainas had to lead very simple lives, begging for food, being honest and
men had to shed their clothes. The Jainism teachings were written for the
first time about 1500 years ago.
The rules for the Buddhist ‘Sangha’ were written down in a book called the
Vinaya Pitaka.
Monks of Buddhism and Jainism started living in monasteries known at

‘Viharas’. The earliest ‘Viharas’ were made of wood and then brick.
Ahimsa: The Jain rule of ‘ahimsa’ means not hurting or killing living beings.
According to Mahavira, each living being “longs to live”.
Atman: The individual soul which remains permanent in the universe even
after we die was called ‘atman’ by the thinkers.
Buddhism: The religion founded by the Buddha (Gautama/Siddhartha) was

Buddhism.
Jainism: The religion founded by Vardhamana Mahavira is called Jainism.
Karma: Our actions have been referred to by Buddha as ‘Karma’. Buddha

said our ‘Karma’ – good or bad – affect us both in this life and the next life.
Tanha: The desire for more things have been described by the Buddha as
thirst or ‘tanha’.
Upanishads: The Upanishads were part of the later Vedic texts. The word
literally means ‘approaching and sitting near’.
Viharas: The monasteries where monks lives were called ‘Viharas’.
Around 2500 years ago (about 500 BC) – Upanishadic thinkers preached.
Around 2500 years ago (about 500 BC) – Mahavira and the Buddha
preached.
Around 1500 years ago (about 500 AD) – the Jaina texts were written
down.
Ashoka,The Emperor Who Gave Up War Class 6 Notes Chapter 8
Ashoka, a Unique Ruler: Ashoka was the first ruler in the history of the
world, who gave directions to the people through inscriptions. Most of
Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in Brahmi script.
Ashoka’s views on Kalinga: Ashoka tried to conquer Kalinga. However,

the violence and bloodshed led him. to decide not to fight any more wars.
Ashoka’s Dhamma: These were the set of instructions given by Ashoka to

his subjects, which were inspired by Buddha’s teachings. He appointed
officials and Dhamma Mahamatta, who taught people about ‘dhamma’,
which was one of the ways to make the society a better one.
The Capital City: We come to know about the capital through

Megasthenes, who was an ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta
by the Greek ruler of West Asia, Seleucus Nicator.
Ashoka’s Messages to his Subjects: Ashoka got his messages inscribed
on rocks and pillars. He also sent messengers to spread the Dhamma to
other lands such as Syria, Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka.
The First Empire: Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire

about 2300 years ago. He was supported by Chanakya or Kautilya whose
ideas were written down in a book called Arthashastra.
Chandragupta Maurya founded an empire more than 2300 years ago. His
grandson Ashoka ruled the empire later.
Chandragupta was supported by a wise man called Chanakya or Kautilya

who wrote a book Arthashastra.
The Mauryan empire had several important cities like the capital Pataliputra,
Taxila, Ujjain, etc.
The area adjacent to the capital was under the direct control of the emperor.
Officials were used to collecting taxes. There were other areas or provinces
which had their own provincial capitals. According to Arthashastra, the
northwest was important for blankets, and south India for gold and precious
stones.
The most famous of the Mauryan emperors was Ashoka. He sent his
message to the general public through inscriptions written in Prakrit (in
Brahmi script).
Ashoka fought a war in the quest to conquer Kalinga (present-day Orissa).

But the violence and bloodshed in the war touched him and he became the
only king who gave up conquest forever after winning a war.
Ashoka believed he had a responsibility to instruct his subjects, which he

did through his ‘DHAMMA’. He was a Buddhist. He appointed officials called
as ‘DHAMMA MAHAMATTA’ who went to places teaching people about
‘DHAMMA’. He got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars as well.
Brahmi: It was a script used to write inscription in Ashoka’s time.
Dhamma: Ashoka’s ideas which he wanted to use to instruct his subjects

were called
the ‘dhamma’.
Dhamma Mahamatta: The officials Ashoka sent from place to place to

teach the people his ‘dhamma’ were called ‘dhamma mahamatta’.
The Arthashastra: Chanakya’s book ‘Arthashastra’ contains his ideas. The

word means ‘economics’.
Around 2300 years ago (about 300 B.C.) – Chandragupta Maurya
founded the Maurya empire.
273 B.C. – Ashoka’s region began.
232 B.C. – Ashoka’s death.
185 B.C. – the end of the Mauryan empire.
Vital Villages, Thriving Towns Class 6 Notes Chapter 9
Iron Tools and Agriculture: Iron came into use around 3000 years ago.
About 2500 years ago, the use of iron tools increased. These included axes
for clearing forests and expanding land and iron ploughshare in increasing
production.
Landowners and Labourers: In the south, large landowners (Vellalar),

ploughmen (Ezhava), landless labourers and slaves (kadaisiyar and adimai)
were amongst the main community members. In the northern parts, the
village headman (grama bhojaka) was hereditary, who was the biggest
landowner and used to collect taxes for the King.
The Earliest Tamil Compositions: Sangam literature was composed 2300

years ago. It was called as Sangao because it was written and compiled in
Assemblies known as Sangams of Poets which were held in the city of
Madurai.
Findings Of Cities: Jatakas were stories composed by ordinary people, but
written and preserved by Bud chest monks. Other kinds of evidence to find
out about life in some of the early cities are sculptors’ carved scenes
depicting people’s lives.
Cities and Travel Accounts: Another way of finding out about early cities
is from the accounts of sailors and travellers who visited these cities and
kingdoms.
Coins: Punch marked coins, which were in use for about 500 years, were
called so because the designs were punched on to the metal- silver or
copper.
Cities and its Functions: Mathura was important because it was located
on the crossroads of two major routes of travel and trade from the North-
West to the East and from the North to South. Mathura was also a
production centre of fine sculptures.
Crafts and Craft persons: Extremely fine potteries known as the Northern
Black Polished ware were produced. There were famous centres such as
Varanasi in the North, and Madurai in the South.
Arikamedu: Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal
settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick
structure, which may have been a warehouse, was found at the site.
In the Indian subcontinent, use of iron began about 3000 years ago. It
developed more and more 2500 years ago. Axes and the iron ploughshare
became popular.
New tools and the system of transplantation increased production, and

irrigation also came into use.
In the Tamil region, there existed three kinds of people—the large

landowners, the ordinary ploughmen and the landless labourers (including
slaves).
In northern India, the village headman, independent farmers, workers, etc.
lived in villages.
The Jatakas were stories that were composed presumably by ordinary

people and written down and preserved by Buddhist monks.
These tales give light on the life of people in these times.
Ring wells (rows of pots or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other)
have been found in several cities. They were probably used as toilets or
drains and garbage dumps.
Accounts of sailors and travellers depict life in early cities. The account of
an unknown Greek sailor tells about Bharuch.
Archaeologists have found several coins belonging to this period. Designs

were punched onto the metal to prepare them.
Mathura, an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was located
at the crossroads of two important travel and trade routes. It became the
capital of the Kushanas about 2000 years ago. It was also a religious
centre.
Archaeologists have also found evidence for crafts, like the extremely fine
pottery called Northern Black Polished Ware. There were famous cloth
centres at Varanasi and Madurai. Craftspersons and merchants formed
associations called ‘shrines’, that helped them in their work.
Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement.
Ring Wells: Rows of pots, or ceramic rings arranged one over the other is
known as ring wells.
Sangam’ Literature: Ancient Tamil texts that were composed in assemblies

called ‘Sangams’ have been referred to as the ‘Sangam’ literature.
Shreni’: An association of craftspersons and merchants was called ‘shreni’.
‘Shrenis’ provided training, raw material, etc. They also served as banks.
The Jatakas: These were stories probably composed by ordinary people

and then written down and preserved by Buddhist monks.
About 3000 years ago. (around 1000 B.C.) – beginning of the use of iron
in the Indian subcontinent.
2500 years ago (around 500 B.C.) – increase in the use of iron,
development of cities and the punch-marked coins.
2300 years ago (around 300 B.C.) – the ‘Sangam’ literature.
Between 2200 and 1900 years ago between C.100 B.C. and C.100 A.D.)
– settlement in Arikamedu (in Puducherry).
Traders, Kings and Pilgrims Class 6 Notes Chapter 10
Traders and The Black Gold: South India was known for its gold, spices,
especially pepper and precious stones. South Indian pepper was very
popular in the Roman Empire and was known as the Black Gold.
Exploring Sea Routes: In the course of their trading activities, traders

explored many sea routes. Other traders reached the western coast of the
subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, sailing during the South-West
monsoon.
Muvender-Three Chiefs: The Sangam Literature talks about Muvender,

meaning three Chiefs—the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. They were
powerful around 2300 years ago.
The emergence of the Satavahanas: The Satavahana dynasty emerged

after 200 years and was powerful in Western India. An important ruler of this
dynasty was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni.
The Silk Route: Techniques of making silk were first invented in China
around 7000 years ago. The Chinese went to distant lands carrying silk with
them. The paths they followed came to be known as the Silk Route.
Controlling the Silk Route: Some of the rulers of the earlier times tried to
control the Silk Route for collecting taxes, tributes and gifts brought by the
traders. The Indian rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas.
Buddhist Council: The Kushana ruler Kanishka, who ruled around 1900
years ago organised a Buddhist Council. Ashvaghosha, a poet, composed a
biography of the Buddha known as Buddhacharita.
Spread of Buddhism: A new form of Buddhism, ‘Mahayana Buddhism/

developed and spread throughout Western and Southern India and
southeastwards to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
Buddhist Pilgrim: Traders journeyed to distant lands in caravans and

ships. With them, pilgrims often travelled. Well-known Chinese Buddhist
pilgrims are Fa Xian, Xuan Zang and I-Qing. They left accounts of their
journeys.
The Beginning of Bhakti: The word Bhakti (Sanskrit term ‘bhaj’) means ‘to
divide or share.’ It suggests an intimate, two-way relationship between the
deity and the devotee. Bhakti is directed towards Bhagwat.
The Northern Black Polished ware was fine pottery which included bowls
and plates. They were carried by the traders from the places where they
were made and were sold at other places.
South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper and precious
stones. Pepper was in great demand in the Roman empire. It was valued as
black gold there. Traders carried these goods to Rome in ships and in
caravans.
Traders discovered several sea routes. They took advantage of the

monsoon winds to make their journeys quick, easy and comfortable.
New Kingdoms developed along the coasts of the southern half of the sub-
continent.
The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas became powerful in south India around
2300 years ago.
Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port or the Cholas and Madurai, the capital of
the Pandyas were two important cities.
The chiefs of the three ruling families demanded and received gifts from the
people. They also collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept
some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supports.
Around 200 years later the Satavahanas gained power in western India.
Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni was the most important ruler of the
Satavahanas.
China invented the technology of making site around 7000 years ago. While
the methods were kept a secret for many years, some people from China
who went to distant lands carried silk with them. The paths they followed
came to be known as the Silk Route.
The knowledge of silk spread far and wide. Rulers and rich people in Rome
began to wear silk.
The Kushanas rulers controlled the Silk Route. They ruled over central Asia
and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of
power were Peshawar and Mathura. They also ruled Taxila.
The credit of the spread of Buddhism goes to Kanishka, a Kushan ruler. He

organized a Buddhist council where scholars met to discuss various
matters.
A new form of Buddhism, i.e. Mahayana Buddhism developed. Now Statues

of the Buddha were made.
Bodhisattvas were supposed to be people who had attained enlightenment.
Buddhism spread throughout Central Asia, China and later to Korea and
Japan. It spread to western and southern India too. It also spread to Sri
Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, etc.
Along with travellers pilgrims also travelled. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrims
such as Fa Xran, Xuan Zang and l-Qing became very popular.
The worship to Shiva, Vishnu and goddesses like Durga became popular
with Hinduism. These deities were worshipped through Bhakti, which means
a person’s devotion to his or her chosen deity. No one was barred from
following the path of Bhakti.
Muvendar: It is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of
three ruling families, the Cholas, Choras and Pandyas.
Dakshina path: Literally it means the route leading to the south.
Silk Route: The paths through which the traders carried silk are known as
silk routes.
Bodhisattvas: These were supposed to be persons who had attained

enlightenment.
Bhakti: It means a person’s devotion to his/her chosen deity.
Pilgrim: Man and woman who undertake journeys to some sacred places to
offer prayers.
Around 2300 years ago – the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas became
powerful in south India.
Around 2500 years ago – the Satavahanas became powerful in western

India.
Around 7000 years ago – techniques of making silk were first invented in
China.
About 2000 years ago – wearing silk became a fashion among rulers and
wealthy people in Rome.
Around 1900 years ago – Kanishka, the most famous Krishna ruler ruled.
About 1600 years ago – Fa Xian, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim came to the
subcontinent.
Around 1400 years ago – Xuan Zang, another Chinese Buddhist pilgrim
came.
New Empires and Kingdoms Class 6 Notes Chapter 11
Mamallapuram: Mamallapuram is known for its monolithic temples of the
Pallavas.
The Harshacharita: In the early seventh century, Harshavardhan became

the ruler of Thanesar. Information about Harsha’s reign is also available in
Harsha’s biography Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta. The Chinese
pilgrim Xuan Zang spent a lot of time in the court of Harsha.
Rulers in South India: After the decline of the Satavahanas, there arose
smaller kingdoms in the South. Of these, the Chalukyas and the Pallavas
were the important ones.
Prashasti of Samudragupta: Samudragupta was a famous ruler of the

Gupta dynasty. Allahabad pillar inscription is a Prashasti on
Samudragupta’s military achievements. The poem was composed in
Sanskrit by the Court Poet, Harishena. The poet praised the King as a
warrior and equal to God.
Prashastis and Different Rulers: The Prashasti described four different

kinds of rulers and Samudragupta’s policies towards them. These are :
• The rulers of Aryavarta.

• The rulers of Dakshinapatha.
• Neighbouring states like Assam, Coastal Bengal and Nepal.
• States ruled by the descendants of the Kushanas.
Prashastis: Prashasti is a Sanskrit word, meaning ‘in praise of’. Prashastis

are long inscriptions, written in praise of the kings. From the time of the
Guptas, Prashastis became very important.
The Chalukyas: The Chalukya kingdom was centred at the Raichur Doab.
The Raichur Doab is located between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.
Their capital was at Vatapi. Pulakeshin II was a famous king of this dynasty.
We know about him from a poem composed by his court poet Ravikirti.
The Pallavas: The kingdom of the Pallavas was in the far South. They ruled
between the mid 6th to the 8th century. The capital of the Pallavas was
Kanchipuram, around the Kaveri delta in present Tamil Nadu.
Fa Xian: Fa Xian was a Chinese pilgrim. He visited India and Sri Lanka. He
is the most known for his pilgrimage to Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord
Buddha.
A Prashasti is a Sanskrit word which means ‘in praise of. Although

composition of prashastis was not a new thing, it became popular only from
the time of the Guptas.
In Samudragupta’s prashasti the poet described the king as equal to the

gods.
Most prashastis also mention the ancestors of the ruler. For example, there
is one prashasti that mentions Samudragupta’s great grandfather,
grandfather, father and mother.
Chandragupta, Samudragupta’s father, was the first ruler of the Gupta
dynasty who adopted the grand title of maharaj-adhiraj. This title was also
used by Samudragupta.
Harshavardhana ruled Thanesar about 1400 years ago. He also began to

rule over Kanauj after this brother-in-law was killed.
At the beginning of his rule, he remained successful but finally, his success
did not last long.
The’Pallavas and Chalukyas were important ruling dynasties in South India.
Pulakeshin II was the famous Chalukya ruler. His court poet Ravikirti
composed poems in his praise. It was Pulakeshin II who checked the
advance of Harsha.
Land revenue remained important for the rulers.
A new kind of army developed. Kings maintained a well-organised army with

elephants, chariots, cavalry and foot-soldiers along with military leaders.
Local assemblies which included the Sabha (an assembly of brahmin

landowners) were there. Ur was a village assembly that existed in areas
where the landowners were not brahmins Nagaram was an organisation of
merchants.
The condition of ordinary people was not good.
Untouchables were not treated well.
Dakshinapatha: It literary means the route leading to the south. The term
also referred to the entire southern region.
Genealogy: It means a list of ancestors.
Kumar-amatya: It referred to an important minister.
Maha-danda-nayaka: It referred to the chief judicial officer.
Nagara-shreshthi: It was the term used for the chief banker or merchant of
the city.
Prashasti: It is a Sanskrit word which means ‘in praise of. The court poets
used to praise their rulers in glowing terms.
Prathama-kulika: It was referred to the chief craftsman.
Sandhi-Vigrahika: It meant a minister of war and peace.
Sarbhavaha: The term used for the leader of the merchant caravans.
Ur: It was a village assembly.
About 1700 years ago – beginning of the Gupta dynasty.
About 1400 years ago – the rule of Harshavardhana.
Buildings, Paintings and Books Class 6 Notes Chapter 12
Writing Books: During this period, epics were composed and compiled.
Epics are grand and long compositions about the heroic men, women and
God.
Building Temples: During this period, many temples for deities such as
Vishnu, Shiva and Durga were built.
Iron Pillar in Delhi: The Iron pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi is the best example
of the skill of Indian craftspersons. It is 1500 years old. Till today, the iron
pillar has not rusted.
Paintings: Ajanta is a famous place for several caves and monasteries with
paintings. Paintings were drawn inside caves in the light of torches. All
paintings are 1500 years old and the artists are unknown.
Silappadikaram: A poet Ilango composed the Silappadikaram, a Tamil

epic, around 1800 years ago. The Silappadikaram is about the story of a
merchant and his wife, Kannagi. This epic mentions about the incident that
happened in Madurai.
Writings of Kalidasa: During this period, Kalidasa contributed a lot to

Sanskrit literature. Malavikagnimitra, Abhigyan Shakuntalam,
Vikramorvasiya, Raghuvansham and Kumarasambhava were some of the
popular works of Kalidasa.
Writing Puranas: Purana means ‘old’. Many Puranas such as the

Mahabharata and Ramayana were written during this period. The Puranas
contain stories about Gods and goddesses such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga,
Parvati.
Stupa: Stupa means ‘mound’. The common features of the stupa are round,
tall, big and small. At the centre of a stupa, there is a small box known as a
relic casket, which contains bodily remains such as teeth, bone and ashes.
Books on Science: During this period, Aryabhatta, a mathematician and an

astronomer, wrote a book of science, “Aryabhatiyam”. He also developed a
scientific explanation for eclipses. Zero was invented in India during this
period only.
Madurai: Madurai is one of the cities in Tamil Nadu known for its temples.
In this city, Tamil Sangam (Assembly) emerged and contributed for the
development of Tamil literature and it was the first Sangam assembly in the
sequence of the three Sangams.
The Great Stupa: It is located at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh. It dates back

to the period of Ashoka and is the best architectural evidence for Buddhist
history.
Monolithic Temples: Monolithic Temples are the temples that were carved
out of a huge single rock. These temples can be seen in Mahabalipuram
near Chennai city in Tamil Nadu.
• The famous Iron Pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi is a remarkable example of

the skill and art of the Indian crafts people.
• The pillar was made about 1500 years ago.
• The buildings such as stupas and temples also show the skill of
country’s crafts persons. These buildings were made of brick and
stone.
• The great stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, was built over several
centuries.
• Amaravati was also a place where a magnificent stupa once existed.
• Some finest stone temples were built in towns like Mahabalipuram and
Aihole.
• Building stupas and temples was an expensive affair. Therefore, only

Kings and queens decided to build them. They spent money from their
treasury to pay the crafts people who worked to build these splendid
buildings.
• The paintings of Ajanta are world famous. This is a place where

several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries. Most of
these were monasteries and some of them were decorated with
paintings.
• Some best-known epics were written during this period. For example—
the Silappadikaram and the Manimekalai. These were Tamil epics
written by llango and Sattanar respectively.
• Writers like Kalidasa wrote in Sanskrit. His best-known poem is the

Meghaduta.
• The puranas which contained religious stories were also written during
this time. These were written in simple Sanskrit verse and were meant
to be heard by everybody including women and shudras.
• The Mahabharata and Ramayana, famous epics in Sanskrit had been

popular for a long time.
• The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and

Pandavas, who were cousins.
• The Ramayana is about Rama, who was the prince of Kosala but was
sent into exile for fourteen years.
• The Jatakas were collections of stories which were told by ordinary

people.
• Books on science were also written during this period. Aryabhatta, a
mathematician and astronomer wrote a book in Sanskrit called
Aryabhatiyam. He stated that day and night were caused by the
rotation of the earth on its axis. He also developed a scientific
explanation for eclipses.
Epic: It is a grand, long composition about heroic men and women and
includes stories about gods.
Garbhagriha: It was an important part of the temple where the image of the
chief deity was placed.
Jatakas: These were stories told by common people.
Mandapa: It was a hall like structure built in the temple for the people to
assemble.
Painting: It is an art of laying on colours.
Purana: It literary means old. The Puranas contained stories about Hindu
gods and goddesses.
Stupa: It is a word that means a mound.
Temple: It is a religious place for the Hindus.
Shikhara: It refers to the tower of a temple.
2300 years ago – Beginning of Stupa building
2000 years ago – Amaravati
1600 years ago – Kalidasa
1500 years ago – Iron pillar, Temple at Bhitragaon, Paintings of Ajanta and
Aryabhatta
Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years Class 7 Notes Chapter 1
The period from the second half of the 8th century up to first half of the 18th
century is known as the “medieval period” of Indian history.
The maps by Arab geographer Al-Idrisi (1154) and French cartographer

(1720) give a large sketch of the Indian subcontinent as known as earlier
times.
Science of cartography, however, was different in two time periods.
New and Old Terminologies
• Historical records exist in a variety of languages.

• The term Hindustan was coined by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a chronicler who
wrote in Persian for areas around Punjab, Haryana,
• and the lands between the Ganga and the Yamuna.
• Babur used Hindustan to describe the flora and fauna and the culture
of the inhabitants of the subcontinent.
• Fourteenth-century poet Amir Khusrau used the word, Hind.
• In Hindi, the term ‘pardesi’ was used to describe an alien. In Persian, it
was called ‘ajnabi’.
Historians and their Sources
• The information about the medieval period is derived from two sources:
Archaeological and Literary.
• Archaeological sources available to us include monuments, temples,
coins, tombs, ornaments and paintings.
• Since paper became available in good quantum, a lot of written
accounts in the form of chronicles, autobiographies,
• farmaans and accounts of foreign travellers are available from this
period in Persian and Arabic.
New Social and Political Group
• The study of the thousand years between 700 and 1750 is a huge
challenge to historian largely because of the scale and variety of
developments that occurred over the period.
• It was a period of great mobility. One such group of people was
Rajputs. Other groups of warriors were Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms
and Kayasthas.
• Throughout the period there was a gradual clearing of forests and the
extension of agriculture. Challenges in their habitat forced many forest-
dwellers to migrate.
• As society became more differentiated people were grouped into jatis
or sub-castes and ranked on the basis of their backgrounds and their
occupations.
• Ranks were not fixed permanently and varied according to the power,
influence and resources controlled by the members of the jati.
• A major development of this period was the emergence of the idea of
bhakti.
• The teachings of the Holy Quran was also brought to India in the
seventh century.
• Followers of Islam were divided into two sub-sects—’Shias’ and
‘Sunnis’.
• At different moments in this period, new technologies made their
appearance, like Persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in
weaving and firearms in combat. New foods and beverages also
arrived in the subcontinent in this period.
Regions and Empires
• Large states like those of the Cholas, the Tughlaqs, or the Mughals
encompassed many regions.
• A Sanskrit prashsti that praises Delhi Sultan Balban tells that he was
the ruler of a vast empire that stretched from Bengal in the east to
Ghazni in Afghanistan in the west and included all of South India
(Dravida).
• There were considerable conflicts between various states.
• When the Mughal Empire declined in the 18th century, it led to the re-
emergence of regional states.
Old and New Religions
• Religion was often closely associated with the social and economic
organization of local communities.
• It was during the period that important changes occurred in religion. It
included the worship of new deities, construction of temples by royalty
and the growing importance of Brahmanas in the Hindu religion.
• Knowledge of Sanskrit helped Brahmins to earn respect.
• Islam was patronized by many rulers.
Historical Periods
• The British historians divided the history of India into three periods:
Hindu, Muslim and British.
• Most historians look to economic and social factors to characterize the
major elements of different moments of the past.
• The life of hunter-gatherers, early farmers and early empires were
called early societies.
• The growth of imperial state formations, development of Hinduism and
Islam as major religions and the arrival of
• European trading companies were called the medieval period.
• The last era was called the modem period which carried a sense of
material progress and intellectual development.
• Prosperity during this period brought European trading companies to
India.
Maps are the sources through which we can trace out the historical changes
and contexts.
• Cartographers were the skilled artists who recorded these

chronological effects in Maps.
• The mode of presentation and the contexts vary through time. The
maps of 1154 CE are not the same as the maps of the 1720s, e.g. one
can see the maps given in NCERT Textbook on pages 1 and 2. Both
the maps show the same location but with a lot of variations. Even the
names of the places are spelt differently.
• Historical records are available in different languages. Differences are
also traced in the use of grammar and vocabulary, change in meaning
also occurred over time, e.g., the term Hindustan is now ‘India’.
• The term Hindustan was first used by Minhaj-i Siraj, a Persian
chronicler, in the 13th century.
• Minhaj-i Siraj’s Hindustan constituted the areas of Punjab, Haryana
and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna. The term was used in
a political sense for lands forming the parts of the dominions of the
Delhi Sultan. South India was not included in this map.
• Babur, in the early 16th century, used the term Hindustan in order to
describe the geography, the fauna and the culture of the inhabitants of
the subcontinent. Amir Khusrau used the term Hind in a similar sense
in the 14th century.
• With the change of time, we observe that the idea of a geographical
and cultural entity like ‘India’ did exist but the term Hindustan did not
carry the political and national meanings which we associate with it
today.
• We trace out many changes in the use of words with the change of
time. For example, the word ‘foreigner’ is used in the sense of one who
is not an Indian, whereas it was, in the medieval period, used in the
sense of one who was a part of the same village but not a part of a
particular society or culture. The synonymous words for ‘foreigner’ in
Hindi and Persian are ‘pardesi and ‘ajnabi’ respectively.
• Historians use different sources to study the past depending upon the
period of their investigation. Coins, inscriptions, architecture and
textual records are still the basic sources.
• During the period of 700 to 1750, we trace out a dramatic increase in
the variety of textual records. Its basic reason was that paper gradually
became cheaper and more widely available. It was extensively used in
writing the holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of
saints, petitions and judicial records, and for registers of accounts and
taxes.
• Manuscripts collected from wealthy people, rulers, monasteries and
temples were placed in libraries and archives. These manuscripts and
documents helped the historians with several detailed information
though it is difficult to use them.
• As there was no printing press in those days scribes used to copy
down manuscripts by hand. Hence they were somewhere not very
legible. Some changes in words and sentences were also made, in fact
not knowingly, in the manuscripts while copying. This brought the
same manuscripts copied presented differently by different scribes. It
poses a serious problem to determine which the original one was.
• The authors used to revise their chronicles from time to time. Ziyauddin
Barani, a 14th century author revised his chronicle for the first time in
1356 followed by another version two years later. In fact, the two
versions differed from each other but as the original one was traceless,
nobody could claim for the difference.
• The period between 700 and 1750 was a phase of transition as a lot of
developments took place. The Persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning
wheel in weaving and firearms in combat were some of the examples
of developments.
• The subcontinent saw new food like potatoes, corn, chillies, tea and
coffee.
• The new technologies and crops came along with the migrants who
also brought other ideas with them.
• It was a period of economic, political, social and cultural changes and
also of great mobility.
• People travelled to far off lands to make their fortune.
• Rajputs, i.e. Rajputs, one of the prominent communities were the
group of warriors between the eighth and fourteenth centuries. They
were the ‘kshatriyas’ by caste status. They included the rulers,
chieftains, soldiers and commanders serving in the armies of the
different monarchs all over the subcontinent. Extreme valour and a
great sense of loyalty were the prominent qualities of this community.
• Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms and Kayasthas (a caste of scribes and
secretaries) were the other prominent classes of people.
• This period witnessed a gradual clearing of forests and the extension
of agriculture. It caused changes in people’s ‘habitat’ which forced
many of the forest-dwellers to migrate.
• Some others adopted tilling the land and became peasants and soon
became part of large complex societies. They were also put under tax
cover as per their status which gave rise to many jatis i.e. sub-castes.
• The divisions of sub-castes were made on the basis of their
backgrounds and occupations. Ranks were variable as per the change
in power, influence and resources controlled by members of the jati.
This status of the same jati varied from area to area.
• Jatis had their own system of ruling. They framed rules and regulations
in order to manage their own people. An assembly of elders called Jati
Panchayat was responsible for enforcing the regulations.
• Jatis were bound to follow the rules of their villages. Villages
constituted only one small unit of a state and were governed by a
chieftain.
• The subcontinent was divided into several regions which were ruled by
empires of different dynasties. By 700 several regions developed their
distinct geographical dimensions and their own cultural characteristics.
• During the period of 700 and 1750 (the thousand years of history that
we are exploring here) there were significant developments in religious
traditions.
• The changes were seen in people’s beliefs. Hinduism saw a great
many changes which included the worship of new deities the
construction of temples by royalty and growing dominance of
Brahmanas and the priests.
• For their knowledge of Sanskrit texts Brahmanas earned great respect
in society. The new rulers were their patrons.
• The most significant development of the period was the rise of the idea
of bhakti which also paved the rise of many new religions in the
subcontinent.
• The teachings of the holy Quran was brought to India in the seventh
century by the migrants.
• Quran is the most prominent holy book of the Muslims which
delineates the idea of one God, Allah and His love, bounty and mercy
for those who believe in Him.
• Islam and the Ulema—the learned theologians and jurists were
patronized by many rulers.
• Like Hinduism, Islam was also interpreted in many ways and the
followers of Islam were divided in two sub-sects—Shias and Sunnis.
• For historians, time reflects changes in social and economic
organization, in the persistence and transformation of ideas and
beliefs. Hence for the historians, it becomes convenient to study time
by dividing it into segments—periods—that possess shared
characteristics.
• In the middle of the nineteenth century, the history of India was divided
into three periods —Hindu, Muslim, and British. It was done so
because there was no significant historical development other than
religion.
• This periodisation is followed by some of the historians even today.
Cartographer: The artist who is skilled in drawing or making maps. .
Chronicler: One who writes history or pens down the events of the time
from the historical point of view.
Archives: A collection of historical documents or records of the

government, a family, a place or an organization; the place where these
records are stored.
Manuscripts: The original script written by the Author in his/her own

handwriting.
Habitat: The living condition of specie.
Patron: A person with influence and affluence who provides support with
money and mental boost up to an artist, a craftsman, a learned man, or a
noble, or some other persons of such categories.
Jati: The sub-caste which was defined or identified on the basis of one’s
profession, status and influence.
Region: The particular area designated or occupied by a certain group or

empire.
Periodisation: Division of time into different segments for the purpose of

study from the historical point of view. It was done on the basis of dominant
factors of the time. In the middle of the nineteenth century, British historians
divided the history of India into three periods—Hindu, Muslim, and British.
Seventh century AD – The teachings of the holy Quran brought to India.
1154 – Map of the Indian Subcontinent made by al-ldrisi.
1266-1287 – Reign of the Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban.
1356 – Ziyauddin Barani wrote his first chronicle. He wrote another version
two years later.
New Kings and Kingdoms Class 7 Notes Chapter 2
Several major ruling dynasties emerged in different parts of the
subcontinent bet ween the seventh and twelfth centuries.
The Emergence of New Dynasties
• By the 7th century, there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different
regions of the subcontinent.
• Existing kings often acknowledged them as their samantas or
subordinates.
• They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords and
provide them with military support.
• The main ruling dynasties were Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas,
Rashtrakutas and Chahamans in North India and the Chola, Pandyas
and
• Chalukyas in South India.
Administration in the Kingdoms
• The kings at apex adopted big titles like Maharaja-adhiraja.

• The kings shared power with their samanras, and with an association
of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.
• Resources were obtained from the producers who were persuaded to
surrender part of what they produced.
• These resources were used to finance the king’s establishment and
construct temples and forts.
• Functionaries for collecting revenue were recruited from influential
families.
Prashashtis and Land Grants
• Prashashtis tells us how rulers wanted to depict themselves as valiant

and victorious warriors.
• The kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These were
recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the
land.
Warfare for Wealth
• For centuries Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala’s dynasties

fought for control over Kannauj.
• The long drawn conflict is known as a tripartite struggle as three parties
were involved in it.
• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni raided the subcontinent seventeen times
between AD 1000—AD 1025. His sole purpose was to plunder the
wealth of India. He looted temples like Somnath, Gujarat, Mahmud
entrusted a scholar named al-Biruni to write an account of the
subcontinent.
• Other kings engaged in warfare were Chauhan, who ruled over the
region around Delhi and Ajmer.
• Chauhans were engaged in conflict with Chalukyas of Gujarat and the
Gahadavalas of western UR
Prithviraj III was a popular Chauhan ruler who defeated Afghan ruler
Ghori in 1191 but lost to him in 1192.
The Cholas
• Cholas were from a small family of Uraiyur. The successors of

Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in
size and power.
• Rajaraja I was considered the most powerful Chola ruler and expanded
control over most of these areas.
• His son Rajendra I, conquered Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast
Asia.
• Cholas were big temple builders. Two famous temples were in
Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram.
• Agriculture was well developed along with various methods of irrigation.
• Settlements of peasants called or became prosperous with the spread
of irrigation in agriculture. The village council and the Nadu performed
several administrative functions
• Association of traders known as nagarams also performed
administrative functions in the town.
• Inscriptions also mention about sabha. The Sabha had separate
committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc.
During the period of seventh and twelfth centuries, many new dynasties
emerged in different parts of the subcontinent.
The new rulers were previously the big landlords or warriors working under
the existing kings as subordinates or samantas. They gradually gained
power and wealth and thereafter declared themselves to be maha-Samanta,
maha-mandleshwar (the great lord of the circle or region). They were now
independent lords.
Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and

performed a ritual known as hiranya-garbhk (literally, the golden womb). It
was done in order to transform one’s identity as kshatriya, even if one was
not one by birth.
Some other lords like Kadamba Mayurashrman and Gurjara-Pratihara

Harichandra, brahmanas by birth, used their military skills to establish their
kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan.
Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titles like maharaja-

adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the
three worlds), though they shared power with their samantas as we!! as with
associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.
The producers—the peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans—were the main

feeders to these states. The land was owned by the lords and so the
producers were compelled to pay rent to the owners whereas traders were
to pay revenue to the lords.
These resources were used to finance the establishment of the king,

construction of temples and forts, and also for fighting wars which were also
done to expand resources through plundering, acquiring land and finding
trade routes.
The revenue functionaries were recruited from influential families, and

positions were
often hereditary. Similar was the case with army positions. In most cases,
such posts were held by the close relatives of the king.
Prashastis were composed by learned Brahmanas in praise of the rulers. It

used to depict the rulers as valiant, victorious warriors.
Brahmanas were also rewarded by grants of land.
Kalhana’s long poem in Sanskrit recorded the history of kings who ruled
over Kashmir. He usually used a variety of sources, including, inscriptions,
documents, eyewitness accounts, and earlier histories, in order to present
his accounts.
Ruling Dynasties were based in a particular region.
Kanauj was a prized area in the Ganga valley. There was a tripartite
struggle among Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties over
Kanauj.
Rulers used to build large temples in order to demonstrate their power and
resources. So temples were the first target of when one ruler attacked over
the other. One prominent reason for this was that the temples were often
very rich.
Sultan Mahmud Ghazni of Afghanistan (997—1030) extended his control

over parts of Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of the
subcontinent. During his attacks he targeted wealthy temples, of which the
temple of Somnath in Gujarat was the most prominent.
Al-Baruni’s Kitab al-Hind, an Arabic work written on the request of Sultan, is

an important source for historians. al-Baruni also consulted the Sanskrit
scholars while preparing this book.
Some other notable kings engaged in war were Chahamanas, later known
as Chauhans, ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer and made
efforts to expand their control to the west and the east. They were opposed
by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and Gahadavalas of Uttar Pradesh.
Prithviraja III (1168-11 §2), who defeated an Afghan ruler Sultan
Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year, in 1192, was
the most popular of the Chahamanas.
Muttaraiyar, the subordinates to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram, held

power in the Kaveri delta.
Vijayalaya, a member of the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiur,
captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century.
The town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there
were some of his major creations.
Vijayalaya’s successors expanded their kingdom in size and power adding

the Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north to their
kingdom.
Rajraja I was the most famous and powerful Chola ruler who became king in
985 and thereafter expanded control over most of these areas. He was
known also for his reorganization of the administration of his empire. His
son Rajendra I also added to the glory of his father.
The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, built by

Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural marvels.
The temples of Cholas were the nuclei of settlements that grew around
them. They were
also centres of craft production and were also endowed with land by rulers
as well as others. .
The produce of the land were spared to maintain the specialists working at
the temple and usually lived near it. They were the priests, garland makers,
cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers etc.
Temples were not only the place of worship but they were the hub of
economic, social and cultural life as well.
The making of bronze images of the deities was the most distinctive of the
crafts associated with the temples. Chola bronze images are still considered
the best in the world.
The development of agriculture contributed much to the achievements of the

Cholas.
Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it

was only from the fifth or sixth century that this area was opened up for
large scale cultivation.
Forests had to be cleared in some areas while land had to be levelled in

some other regions.
Embankments were built to prevent flood and canals were constructed to

carry water to the fields. In many areas two crops were grown in a year.
A variety of methods like digging of wells, placing huge tanks were used for
irrigation.
Most of the new rulers, as well as people living in villages, were actively
involved in these activities.
The administration of the empires was also well organized. Ur, the
settlement of peasants grew prosperous with the spread of irrigation
agriculture. Groups of such villages formed larger units called nadu
performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and
collecting taxes.
Rich peasants of the Vellala caste controlled over the affairs of the nadu
under the supervision of the central Chola government. Some rich
landowners were honoured with the titles like Vendavelan (a velan or
peasant serving three kings) Araiyar (chief) etc. and they were also
entrusted with important offices of the state at the centre.
As Brahmanas often received land grants or brahmadeya, a large number of

Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of
south India. Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of
prominent Brahmana landholders which worked efficiently. Their decisions
were recorded in detail in inscriptions on the stone of walls of temples.
Associations of traders known as nagarams also occasionally performed

administrative functions in towns.
Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, tell us the

way in which the sabha was orgsanised. There were separate committees
to look after different works like that of irrigation, temples, etc. The allocation
of work was decided through a lottery system.
Samantas: The subordinates of kings or overlords who used to bring gifts

for their kings or overlords.
Maha-Samanta or Maha-mandaleshwara: The Samantas who gained

power and wealth declared themselves Maha-Mahabaleshwar or Maha-
samantas i.e. the great lord of a circle or region.
Maharaja-adhiraja: A high sounding title used for great king, overlord.
Tribhuvan-chakravartin: Lord of the three worlds.
Rent: The part of the product that the producers—the peasants, cattle-
keepers, artisans- were compelled to pay to the lords.
Revenue: The tax traders had to pay to their lords.
Prashastis: A literary composition often in verse written in praise of the

ruler depicting him as a valiant, victorious warrior. It was mainly done by the
Brahmanas who were often rewarded by grants of land for such jobs. This
reward was recorded on copper plates and given to those who received the
land.
Sultan: An Arabic term used for the ruler.
Ur: Settlements of peasants.

Nadu: Group of Urs i.e. villages formed a large unit called Nadu.
Brahmadeya: The land given to the Brahmanas as a grant.
Vellanvagai: The land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.
Shalabhoga: The land for the maintenance of a school.
Devadana/Tirunamattukkani: The land gifted to temples.
Pallichchhandam: The land donated to Jaina institutions.
Nagarams: Associations of traders.
Sabha: The assembly of Brahmanas.
7th century – Rise of the new dynasties.
Mid-eighth century – Rise of Rashtrakuta chief as Kshatriya.
1168-1192 – Prithviraja III ruled over the regions around Delhi.
1191 – Prithviraja III defeated Muhammad Ghori.
1192 – Prithviraja III lost a battle and was finished by Muhammad Ghori.
985 – Rajaraja I became a great Chola ruler.
5th/6th century – The area of Tamil Nadu was opened up for large-scale
cultivation.
The Delhi Sultans Class 7 Notes Chapter 3
Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who
were defeated by Chauhan (also called Chahamanas) of Ajmer.
The transformation of Delhi into a capital that controlled a vast area of the
subcontinent started with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate at the
beginning of the 13th century.
Rulers of Delhi
Tomars: Early 12th century 1165.
Chauhans: 1165-1192 Prithviraj Chauhan: 1175-1192

Under the Tomaras and Chauhans, Delhi became an important commercial
centre.
Slave Dynasty: 1206-1290

In 1236, Razia, the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, became the Sultan of Delhi.
She was removed from the throne in 1240.
Khilji Dynasty: 1290-1320
External frontier was the next phase of expansion which started with
Alauddin Khilji in southern India. Alauddin Khilji, the most important ruler of
Khilji dynasty, introduced the system of market control and administrative
measures in order to maintain a large standing army.
Tughlaq Dynasty: 1320-1414

External frontier culminated with Muhammad-bin-Tughluq and he introduced
three projects – Shifting of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, the introduction
of token currency, raising the land tax in the Doab region to fifty per cent—
all of which failed and weakened his position.
Sayyid Dynasty: 1414-1451 (It was the only Shia dynasty)
Lodi Dynasty: 1451-1526
Finding out about the Delhi Sultans
• Inscriptions, coins and architecture provide a lot of information.

• Further valuable sources are ‘histories’, Tarikh (singular)/tawarikh
(plural), written in Persian, the language of administration under the
Delhi Sultans.
• The authors of tawarikh were learned men; secretaries administrators,
poets and courtiers who both recounted events and advised rulers on
governance, emphasizing the importance of the just rule.
From Garrison Town to Empire
• In the early 13th century the control of the Delhi Sultans rarely went
beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons.
• Delhi’s authority was challenged by Mongols and by governors who
rebelled at any sign of the Sultan’s weakness.
• The expansion of Delhi Sultanate took place under the reign of Balban,
Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad- Bin-Tughlaq.
Administration and Consolidation
• To have reliable governors the early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish’

favoured their special slaves purchased for military service called
‘Bandage’ in Persian.
• The Khiljis and Tughluqs continued to use Bandage and also raised
people of humble birth, who were their clients, to high positions like
governors and generals.
• The Khiljis and Tughluqs appointed military commanders as governors
of territories of varying sizes.
• These lands were called iqta and their holder was called muqti or
iqtadar. The duty of muqtis was to lead military campaigns and
maintain law and order in their iqtas.
• In return, muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments as salary.
They also paid their soldiers from this revenue.
• Under Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad, Tughluq accountants were
appointed to check the amount collected by the muqtis.
• As Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of the cities under their control,
they forced the samants and the rich landlords to accept their authority.
• The attack of Mongols under Genghis Khan forced Khiljis and Tughluqs
to mobilise a large standing army in Delhi.
The Sultanate in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries
• The Tughluq, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra
until 1526.
• By then Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and entire South
India had Independent rulers who had established flourishing states
and prosperous capitals.
• New ruling dynasties like the Afghans and Rajputs also arose during
the period.
• In 1526, Mughals established their empire.
• Sher Shah Suri challenged and defeated the Mughal emperor
Humayun. He captured Delhi and established his own dynasty.
Although, he ruled for only fourteen years (1540-1555) but his
administration became the model followed by the great Mughal
emperor Akbar (1556-1605), when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.
Delhi became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs.
It was only under the rule of the Tomars and Chauhans that Delhi flourished
as an important commercial centre.
The city was inhabited by many Jaina merchants who also constructed a
number of temples.
Coins, known as dehliwal, were minted here and had a wide circulation.
Delhi Sultanate played the most vital role in the transformation of Delhi into
a capital which controlled vast areas of the subcontinent.
Inscriptions, coins and architecture provide a lot of information but

especially significant are “histories”, Tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural),
written in Persian, the language of administration under Delhi Sultan.
Tawarikh were written by learned men, secretaries, administrators, poets,

and courtiers who lived in cities (mainly Delhi). They were written for the
Sultans with anticipation of rich rewards. They also advised rulers on
governance, emphasizing the importance of just rule based on birthright and
gender distinctions, not shared by everyone.
Raziyya, the daughter of Sultan lltutmish, became the Sultan of Delhi in

1236 but she was dethroned only in 1240 only for being a woman and was
unacceptable to the nobles. Even a.famous chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i
Siraj, recognized her as more able than all her brothers but was not
comfortable with her, only for her being a lady.
In the early thirteenth century, there was no significant expansion of Delhi

beyond heavily fortified town occupied by garrisons, it was only during the
reigns of Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq that
Delhi saw expansion for the first time.
The expansion was initiated with the internal frontier. Forests were cleared
in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and hunter-gatherers and pastoralists expelled
from their habitats and these lands were given to the peasants in order to
promote agriculture. Regional trades were also promoted.
External frontier was the next phase of expansion which started with
Alauddin Khalji in southern India and culminated with Muhammad Tughluq.
The armies of Delhi Sultanate had marched across a large part of the
subcontinent till the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. They defeated rivals,
seized cities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantry.
The early Delhi Sultans favoured the appointment of their slaves purchased
for military service as governors to control the administration of the vast
empire. These slaves were totally dependent upon their master and so they
were more reliable and trustworthy. They were called bandagan in Persian.
The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued the use of bandagan and also raised
people of humble birth, usually their clients, to high positions and appointed
them as generals and governors. However, this also gave rise to political
instability as there was often a conflict for succession.
This system was criticised by the elites and authors of tawarikh, because for
them the new high class people were in fact ‘low and base-born’.
Khalji and Tughluq monarchs, like their predecessors, appointed military

commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes. These territories
were called iqta and their holders were called iqtadar or muqti.
Muqtis were responsible for leading their military campaigns and

maintaining their iqtas.
Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue

collected by muqtis who were not allowed to collect revenue more than that
prescribed by the state nor were they allowed to keep soldiers more than
the number prescribed by the state.
Delhi Sultans had complete control over the hinterland of the cities, and so
the samanta aristocrats were forced to accept their authority. During
Alauddin Khalji’s regime the state brought the assessment and collection of
land revenue under its control.
There were three types of taxes : (1) on cultivation called kharaj and
amounting to about 50 per cent of the peasant’s produce; (2) on cattle; and
(3) on houses.
As the large part of the subcontinent was outside the control of Delhi Sultan,
it was difficult to control distant provinces like Bengal from Delhi. Hence,
soon after annexation of southern India, the entire region became
independent. The local chieftains established their rule in these regions.
The Mongols led by Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in north-east Iran

in 1219. Such attacks frequented during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and in
the early days of Muhammad Tughluq’s rule. This forced the two rulers to
mobilize a large standing army in Delhi. It posed a huge administrative
challenge.
After Tughluqs the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra
until 1526. By that time Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and
entire south India had independent rulers who established flourishing states
and prosperous capitals. It was during this period that some new ruling
groups like the Afghans and the Rajputs emerged.
Some small but powerful and extremely well-administered states also

emerged. Sher Shah Sur (1540—1545) was the most powerful of them all.
He even challenged the Mughal emperor Humayun and captured Delhi. In a
very short period of fifteen years (1540-1555), he introduced many reforms
and a lot of welfare works. His administration became the model followed by
the great emperor Akbar (1556—1605) when he consolidated the Mughal
Empire.
The Rulers of Delhi
Dhaliwal: The place where coins were minted.
Tarikh: History.
Tawarikh: Plural of Tarikh.
Birthright: It refers to the privileges claimed on account of the birth.
Gender distinctions: Social and biological differences between men and

women.
Hinterland: It refers to the land adjacent to a city or port that supply it with
goods and services.
Garrison town: It refers to a town which is fortified with soldiers.
Mosque: It is called a masjid in Arabic, and literarily means a place where a

Muslim prostrates in reverence to Allah.
Namaz: It refers to the prayer offered by a Muslim.
Imam: The spiritual leader of the Muslims.
Khutba: Sermon.
Client: Someone who is under the protection of another, a dependent or

hanger-on.
Iqta: The territories under the military commanders were known as iqta.
Kharaj: The tax on cultivation was known as Kharaj.
Bandagan: The early Delhi Sultans especially lltutmish favoured their

slaves purchased for military service. These slaves were known as
bandagan in Persian.
Early twelfth century – 1165: Reign of Tomara Rajputs.
1175-1192: Reign of Prithviraj Chauhan.
1206-1210: Reign of Qutbuddin Aybak.
1236: Raziyya became Sultan.
1240: Raziyya was dethroned.
1296-1316: Reign of Alauddin Khalji.
1324-1351: Reign of Muhammad Tughluq.
1351-1388: Reign of Firuz Shah Tughiuq.
1414-1421: Reign of Khizr Khan belonging to Sayyid dynasty.
1451-1489: Reign of Bahlul Lodi.
1540-1555: Sher Shah ruled over Delhi.
The Mughal Empire Class 7 Notes Chapter 4
Babur (1526-1530) was the first Mughal emperor, who became the ruler of
old Delhi by defeating Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526. From the latter half
of the 16th century, the Mughals expanded their kingdom from Agra and
Delhi, until in the 17th century they controlled nearly all of the subcontinent.
The legacy left by them stands unparalleled.
Who were the Mughals?

The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. From their
mother’s side, they were descendants of Genghis Khan and from the
father’s side, they were the descendants of Timur.
Mughal Military Campaigns
• Babur, the first Mughal emperor, captured Delhi in 1526 by defeating

Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat.
• Humayun captured Delhi back in 1555.
• Akbar captured Chittor (1568), Ranthambor (1569), Gujarat, Bihar,
Bengal, Kashmir, Berar Khandesh, etc. (1585-1605).
• Jahangir took campaign against Sikhs and Ahoms.
• Shah Jahan captured Ahmadnagar and Bijapur.
• Aurangzeb waged a long battle in the Deccan.
Mughal Traditions of Succession
• The Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture, where the
eldest son inherited his father’s estate.
• They followed the custom of coparcenary inheritance or a division of
the inheritance amongst all the sons.
Mughal Relationships with other Rulers
• The Mughal rulers campaigned constantly against rulers who refused

to accept their authority.
• But as the Mughals became powerful many other rulers also joined
them voluntarily. The Rajputs served the Mughals voluntarily.
• Mughals gave mansab and jagirs which helped them to expand their
territories.
• The main source of income available to Mughal rulers was tax on the
produce of the peasantry.
Akbar’s Policies
• Akbar’s works are found in the book Akbarnama written by Abul Fazal.
• Akbar divided his kingdom into provinces called subas governed by a
Subedar.
• Akbar’s nobles commanded large armies and had access to large
amounts of revenue.
• While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri, he started a discussion on religion
with the ulemas, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics
and Zoroastrians.
• The discussions took place in the ibadat khana.
• It led Akbar to the idea of Sulh-i-kul or universal peace.
• Shah Jahan and Jahangir also followed this principle.
• Akbar realized those religious scholars emphasized rituals and dogmas
were often bigots.
• Abul Fazl, one of the Akbar’s friends and courtiers wrote a three-
volume history of Akbar’s reign, titled Akbar-nama.
The Mughals Empire in the 17th Century and After
• The administrative and military efficiency of the Mughal Empire led to

great economic and commercial prosperity.
• The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spent a great deal of their
income on salaries and goods.
• Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called
jagirs.
• The main source of income to Mughal rule was the tax received on the
produce of the peasantry.
• The wealthier peasantry and artisanal groups, the merchants and
bankers profited in this economic world.
• Primary producers, however, lived in poverty.
• By the end of the 17th century, the authority of the Mughal Empire
declined which gave rise to many independent provinces like
Hyderabad and Awadh.
The Mughals were great rulers. They created a huge empire. From the latter
half of the 16th century, they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi,
until in the 17th century they controlled nearly all the subcontinent.
The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. From their
mother’s side they were descendants of Genghis Khan, ruler of the Mongol
tribes, China and Central Asia. From their father’s side they were the
successors of Jimur, the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern day Turkey.
However, the Mughals were proud of their Jimurid ancestry.
Babur was the first Mughal emperor, He became the ruler of Delhi by
defeating Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526. He also established his control
over Agra. But he could not rule for a long time. After his death in 1530, his
son Humayun became the second Mughal emperor.
Sherkhan defeated Humayun at Chausa in 1539 and Kanauj in 1540 forcing

him to flee to Iran. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 with the help of Safarid
Shah but died soon afterwards.
Akbar became the emperor of Delhi at the age of 13. He was very
competent and soon began to handle the entire empire successfully. In
1568 he seized the Sisodiya capital of Chittor and in 1569 Ranthambhor.
During the period 1570-1585 he started military campaign in Gujarat which
was followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar. Bengal and Orissa. During
the period 1585-1605 to Akbar expanded his empire.
Jahangir became the emperor in 1605. He continued the military campaigns

started by Akbar.
After Jahangir Shah Jahan took the control of the Mughal Empire. He
continued Mughal campaigns in the Deccan.
Aurangzeb’s reign ranges from 1658 to 1707. His campaign against

Maratha Chieftain Shivaji was very important. Initially, Aurangzeb got
success. But soon Shivaji declared himself an independent king after being
insulted by Aurangzeb. He also resumed his campaigns against the
Mughals.
From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns in the Deccan

against the Marathas who started guerrilla warfare. Aurangzeb also faced
the rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis.
The Mughals followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of Loparcenary

inheritance or a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons.
One of the major policies of the Mughals was to campaign constantly

against rulers who refused to accept Mughal authority. However, several
rulers joined them voluntarily. Many Rajputs married their daughters into
Mughal families to gain high positions. But at the same time there were
many Rajputs such as the Sisodiya Rajputs, who resisted the Mughal
authority.
The Mughai Empire was expanding to different regions. Hence, the Mughals
recruited diverse bodies of people. Those who joined Mughal service were
enrolled as mansabdars. These mansabdars held a mansab, meaning a
position or rank. Rank and salary of the mansabdars were determined by a
numerical value called zat.
Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs.
In Akbar’s reign these jagirs were carefully assessed so that their revenues
were roughly equal to the salary of the mansabdar. By Aurangzeb’s reign
this was no longer the case. The actual revenue collected was often less
than the granted sum.
The main source of income available to Mughal rule was tax on the produce
of the peasantry.
Akbar’s revenue minister was Todar Mai. He carried out a carefully survey
of crop yields, prices and areas cultivated for a 10-year period, i.e. 1570-
1580. On the basis of this data, tax was fixed on each crop in cash. Each
province, was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue
rates for individual crop. This revenue system was known as zabt.
Abul Fazl, one of the Akbar’s friends and courtiers wrote a three-volume
history of Akbar’s reign, titled Akbar Nama.
Abul Fazl explained that the empire was divided into provinces called subas,
governed by a subadar.
The subadar carried out both political and military functions. Each province
also had a financial officer or diwan.
Akbar’s nobles commanded large armies and had access to large amounts
of revenue. By the end of the 17th century these nobles became
independent..
During the 1570 Akbar started discussions on religion at Fatehpur Sikri with
the ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman catholics and
Zoroastrians. These religious discussions led Akbar to the idea of Sulh-i Kul
or ‘universal peace ’
Akbar’s son Jahangir followed his father’s policy of Sulh-i kul.
Mehrunuiza married the Emperor Jahangir in 1611 and received the title Nur
Jahan. She was very suppertive to the monarch.
The Mughal Empire exercised a great deal of influence and power. But by
the end of the 17th century the authority of the Mughal Empire declined
which gave rise to many independent provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh.
Genealogy: History of generations of one’s family in sequence. ‘
Mansabdar: An individual who holds a mansab meaning a position or rank.
Zat: Ranks and salary were determined by a numerical value called Zat.
Jagir: Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called

Jagirs. Zamindars. The headmen or the local chieftain.
Zabt: Each province during Mughals was divided into revenue circles with
its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. This revenue system
was called as Zabt. Suba and Subadar. The empire was divided into
provinces called Subas which were governed by a Subadar who carried
both political and military functions.
Diwan: The financial officer of a Suba was called as Diwan.
1237: Genghis Khan died.
1404: Jimur died.
1526-1530: Reign of Babur. He captured Delhi in 1526 by defeating Ibrahim
Lodi and laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire.
1539: Sher Shah defeated Humayun at Chausa.
1540: Sher Shah again defeated Humayun, this time at Kanauj.
1555: Humayun recaptured Delhi
1556: Akbar became the Mughal Emperor at the age of 13.
1568: Akbar seized Sisodiya capital of Chittor
1569: Akbar seized Ranthambhore
1605-1627: Jahangir ruled over Delhi as the Mughal emperor
1627-1658: Shah Jahan reigned over Delhi.
1632: Ahmadnagar was annexed by Shah Jahan
1658-1707: Aurangzeb reigned over Delhi.
1685: Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur
1687: Aurangzeb annexed Golconda
1698: Aurangzeb campaigned in the Deccan against the Marathas.
Rulers and Buildings Class 7 Notes Chapter 5
In medieval period rulers built private and public buildings like forts, palaces,
tombs, temples, mosques, tanks, etc
Engineering Skills and Construction
• Monuments provide an insight into the technologies used for

construction.
• Between the seventh and tenth centuries, architects started adding
more rooms, doors and windows to buildings.
• Roofs, doors and windows were made by placing a horizontal beam
across two vertical columns, a style of architecture called ‘trabeate’ or
‘corbelled’.
• Two technological and stylistic developments from the twelfth century
are ‘arcuate architectural’ form and use of limestone mixed with stone
chips that led to faster construction.
• Assimilation of Indian style with Persian style of architecture was
prominent.
Buildings, Temples, Mosques and Tanks
• Temples and mosques were beautifully constructed because they were

places of worship and meant to demonstrate the power, wealth and
devotion of the patron.
• The largest temples were all constructed by kings. The other, lesser
deities in the temples were gods and goddesses of the allies and
subordinates of the ruler.
• Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of God
but Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of
God’.
• As each new dynasty came to power, kings wanted to emphasise their
moral right to be rulers.
• It was widely believed that the rule of a just king would be an age of
plenty when the heavens would not withhold rain.
Why Were Temples Destroyed?
• Since kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God and

their power and wealth, they attacked and targeted these buildings
when they attacked one another’s kingdoms.
• In the early 11th century, when the Chola king Rajendra I built a Shiva
temple in his capital he filled it with prized statues seized from defeated
rulers.
Gardens, Tombs and Forts
• Under the Mughals, architecture became more complex. Babur,

Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan were personally interested
in literature, art and architecture.
• Babur got gardens called Chahar Bagh (four gardens) built in Kabul.
They were further constructed in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi by Akbar,
Jehangir and Shah Jahan.
• Akbar’s architecture is visible in his father, Humayun’s tomb.
• Under Shah Jahan, Mughal architecture was fused together in a grand
harmonious synthesis.
• The ceremonial halls of the public and private audience (diwan-i-Khas;
diwan-i-am) were carefully planned.
• Shah Jahan adapted the Chahar Bagh technique in the layout of the
Taj Mahal, the grandest architectural accomplishment of his reign.
Region and Empire
• As construction activity increased between the eighth and eighteenth

centuries, there was also a considerable sharing of ideas across
regions.
• In Vijayanagar, for example, the elephant stables of the rulers were
strongly influenced by the style of architecture found in the adjoining
Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
• In Vrindavan, near Mathura, temples were constructed in architectural
styles that were very similar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.
• The creation of large empires that brought different regions under their
rule helped in this cross¬fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural
styles.
• The Mughals adopted the ‘Bangla dome’ in their architecture.
Between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries kings and their officers
built two kinds of structures—the first were forts, palaces, garden
residences and tombs and the second was structures meant for public
activity including temples, mosques, tanks, bazaars, etc.
Merchants and others also carried out construction activity. They built
temples, mosques and wells.
The technologies used in the monuments are unique. It requires

sophisticated skills in making a large room with an elaborate superstructure.
Between the seventh and tenth centuries, architects started adding more
rooms, doors and windows to building.
Between the eighth and thirteenth centuries, the trabeate style (a style of
architecture in which roofs, doors and window were made by placing a
horizontal beam across two vertical columns) was used in building temples,
mosques, etc.
The early eleventh century temples were decorated with elaborately carved
sculptures. The temples had shikhara too.
From the twelfth century, two technological and stylistic developments came
to be noticed—firstly, the weight of the superstructure above the doors and
window was sometimes carried by arches. This architectural form was
known as ‘arcuate’, secondly, limestone cement was increasingly used in
construction.
Temples and mosques were built to demonstrate the power, wealth and
devotion of the patron.
According to an inscription the Rajarajeshvara temple was built by King

Rajarajadeva for the worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram. Here, it is worth
mentioning that the name of the ruler and the god are very similar. The king
took the god’s name because it was auspicious and he wanted to appear
like a god.
But Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god.
However, Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of
God’.
Rulers offered patronage to the learned and pious people.
Rulers also built tanks and reservoirs and got praise. Sultan lltutmish won
universal respect for constructing a large reservoir just outside Delhi-i
Kuhna. It was called the Hanzi Sultani or the king’s Reservoir.
Kings built temples but they often looted them while attacking one another’s
kingdoms.
In the early 11th century when the Chola King Rajendra I built a Shiva
temple in his capital he filled it with prised statues seized from defeated
rulers.
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the temples of defeated kings and

looted their wealth and idols.
Under the Mughal rulers, gardens, tombs and forts were built.
Babur was interested in planning and laying out formal gardens, placed
within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by
artificial channels. These gardens were called Chahar Bagh, four gardens,
because of their symmetrical division into quarters.
During Akbar’s reign tomb architecture became important. His architects

turned to the tombs of his central Asian ancestors, Timur. The central
towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) were important aspects of
Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.
During Shah Jahan’s reign, huge construction activity was carried on in

Agra and Delhi.
Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a

mosque.
He adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal. Here, the
white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river
and the garden was to its south. Shah Jahan developed this architectural
form as a means to control the access that nobles had to the river.
In the new city of Shahjahanabad that he constructed in Delhi, the imperial

palace commanded the river-front. Only especially favoured nobles were
given access to the river.
The Mughal rulers were particularly skilled in adapting regional architectural

styles in the construction of their own buildings.
In Bengal, the local rulers had developed a roof that was designed to
resemble a thatched hut. The Mughals liked this ‘Bangla dome’.
In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri, many of the buildings show the

influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.
Superstructure: It refers to the part of a building above the ground floor.
Baolis: They were large stepped-wells.

Shikhara: The top-most point of the temple.
Arcuate: An architectural form in which the weight of the superstructure

above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches.
Chahar Bagh: Four gardens.
Pishtaq: The tall gateway.
Pietra dura: Coloured, hard stones placed in depressions carved into

marble or sandstone creating beautiful ornate patterns.
Diwan-i Khas or am: The ceremonial halls of public and private audience.
Hasht bihisht or Eight paradises: A central hall surrounded by eight

rooms.
Towns, Traders and Craft persons Class 7 Notes Chapter 6
One of the most interesting aspects of the medieval period in the 17th
century was the growth of urbanization. In medieval India, there were three
types of towns—a temple town, an administrative town and a commercial
town or a port town.
The Arabs, Turkish and Afghans settled in many parts of the country leading
to the evolution of towns and cities.
Sources of Knowing about the History of this Period
• The sources of history are travellers’ accounts.

• Monserrate, Flitch, Thomas Roe, Domingo Paes, Nicolo Conti and
Abdul Razzaq Samarqandi wrote about the life of this period.
Court Towns
• Some of the important court towns were Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri
and Delhi.
• Fatehpur Sikri was the new capital founded by Akbar.
• Delhi was known as Shahjahanabad and was built by Shah Jahan in
1639.
Port and Trading Towns
• Some towns developed as ports due to their proximity to the seashore.

• Some major ports were Cambay, Surat, Broach, Masulipatanam,
Nagapattinam, etc.
Administrative Towns
• Some towns were capital cities. They were centres of administration.

• Thanjavur and Uraiyur were important centres.
Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres
• Temples towns were important centres of urbanization and led to the

development of cities, economy and society.
• Pilgrims gave huge donations to temples. This wealth was used by
temple authorities to finance their trade and banking.
• Important temple towns were Bhillasvamin in Madhya Pradesh,
Somnath in Gujarat, Kanchipuram and Madurai
How Important was Bronze
• Bronze is an alloy compound of copper and tin.

• Chola rulers used this metal to make statues through the Tost wax’
technique.
The Emergence of Small Towns
• From the 8th century onwards, small towns emerged in India. They
emerged from large villages. They had a ‘mandapika’ where villagers
sold their produce.
• Likewise, there were market streets, called ‘hatta’, full of shops.
• Many villagers came to buy local articles and sell products like horses,
camphor, saffron, betel nut, spices, salt, etc.
• Normally a Samanta was appointed who fortified the palaces and gave
the right to collect taxes from traders, artisans, etc.
Name of Traders
• Many kinds of traders existed.

• Trader travelled in caravans by forming guilds.
• Trade was done on a regular basis within the peninsula and with
South-east Asia and China.
• Some other important traders were the Chettiars, Marwari, Banjaras,
Baniyas, Muslim Bohras, etc.
Crafts in Towns
• Craftwork was famous by the name of Bidri in the region.

• The goldsmith, bronzesmith, blacksmith, masons and carpenters were
together called as the ‘Panchalas’ or ‘Vishwakarma’.
• Some other crafts were cotton cleaning, spinning and dying.
• Surat in Gujarat was a cosmopolitan city. The textiles of Surat were
famous for their gold lace borders known as zari and had a market in
West Asia, Africa and Europe.
There were three types of medieval towns—a temple town, an

administrative centre, and a commercial town or a port town.
Thanjavur, the capital of the Cholas a thousand years ago, emerged as an

administrative centre as well as a temple town.
The perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautiful town. The famous
Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajarja Chola lies here.
As Thanjavur was an administrative centre, Kings held courts in the

mandapas, which were parts of palaces, issuing orders to their
subordinates.
Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the

process by which cities develop. – ‘
Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities.
Important temple towns were Bhillasvamin in Madhya Pradesh, Somnath in

Gujarat, Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu and Tirupati in Andhra
Pradesh.
Pilgrimage centres also developed into townships. Examples—Vrindvan in

Uttar Pradesh and Tiruvannamalai in Tamil Nadu.
Small towns emerged from large villages. They usually had a mandapika or
mandi of later times to which nearly villages brought their produce to sell.
They also had market streets called hatta or heat of later times lined with
shops.
Different kinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy
makers, smiths, etc. also lived in these towns.
There were many kinds of traders. They usually travelled in caravans and
formed guilds to protect their interests.
There were also communities like the Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal.
Gujarati traders traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian
Gulf, East Africa, South-east Asia and China.
Indian spices such as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc. became very popular
in European homes. Indian cotton cloth was also in great demand. This
eventually drew European traders to India.
The craftspersons of Bidar were very famous. Their inlay work in copper
and silver came to be known as Bidri.
The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths,

bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters contributed a lot in the
building of temples.
The weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars also donated to temples.
Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire. The architecture of

Hampi was distinctive. It bustled with commercial and cultural activities
during the 15-16th centuries.
Moors, Chettis and agents of European traders thronged the markets of

Hampi.
Temples were the hub of cultural activities.
Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the
Deccani Sultans.
Surat in Gujarat was a cosmopolitan city. People of all castes and creeds
lived there.
The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders known as zari
and had a market in west Asia, Africa and Europe.
The Kathiawad seths or mahajans had huge banking houses at Surat. The
Surat hundis were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra
in Iraq and Antworp in Belgium.
Surat began to decline towards the end of the 17th century.
The town of Masculipatnam was a centre of intense activity in the 17th

century. As it became the most important port on the Andhra coast both the
Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control it.
The Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda decided to prevent the attempts of the
various East India Companies. As a result fierce competition among various
trading groups made the city populous and prosperous. However, Golconda
was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686-1687.
This caused the European Companies to look for the alternatives. The
Company traders moved to Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. This caused the
decline of Masulipatnam in the 18th century.
The English emerged as the most successful commercial and political

power in the subcontinent.
Indian textiles were in great demand in Europe and west Asia. More and
more people began to engage themselves in the crafts of spinning, weaving,
bleaching, dying, etc. But the craftspersons were no more independent.
They now began to work on a system of advances which meant that they
had to weave cloth which was already promised to European agents.
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras became important cities in the 18th century.
The Europeans established Black Towns in these new cities and merchants
and artisans were made to move there.
The ‘white’ rulers occupied the superior residences of Fort St George in

Madras or Fort St William in Calcutta.
Administrative town: A town from where the administration is carried on.
Temple town: A town with a number of famous temples.
Commercial town: A town which is the centre of sale and purchase of

commodities.
Emporium: A place where goods from diverse production centres are

bought and sold.
Hundi: It is not recording a deposit made by a person. The amount
deposited can be claimed in another place by presenting the record of the
deposit.
Factor: It referred to an official merchant of the East India Company.
Sthapatis: Sculptors who made beautiful bronze idols and tall, ornamental
bell metal lamps.
Pilgrimage Centres: Religious places where people go for pilgrimage.
1336: Vijayanagara Empire was founded.
1565: Vijayanagara Empire was defeated.
1704: Murshidabad became the capital of Bengal.
At the end of the 17th Century: Surat began to decline.
In the 17th Century: The town of Masalipatnam was a centre of intense

activity.
The 18th century: Rise of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.
Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities Class 7 Notes Chapter 7
During the Medieval Age, several social, economic and political

development took place.
The Indian society was divided on the basis varnas. During the medieval
period, gap between the rich and poor increased.
There were, however, several communities which did not follow rules laid
down by the Brahmins. These included the tribes, nomads and settled
communities.
Tribal Societies
• Tribes are people who do not follow norms laid down by society.
• Most of the tribes were dependant on agriculture. Others were herders
or hunter-gatherers.
• Tribes were even nomadic and moved from one place to another.
• Many tribes lived in forests, hills, deserts and other places which were
difficult to reach. They preserved their culture and heritage through oral
tradition.
• There were even clashes between tribes and powerful caste-based
societies.
• Contemporary historians and travellers from medieval India hardly give
any information about the tribes.
• Many of the tribes emerged as politically powerful groups through their
areas of influence and activities varied.
• Some of the powerful tribes were Khokhar tribe in Punjab; Langahs and
Arghuns in Multan; Gaddis in the Himalayas;
• Kolis and Berads of Gujarat; Gonds of Chhattisgarh, Bhil tribe in
Central India, etc.
• The tribal societies underwent a change as a result of interaction with
the Hindu and Islamic societies.
Pastoral Nomads
• The pastoral nomads moved from one place to another with their herd
of animals.
• They survived on milk products and exchanged ghee, wool, etc. with
farmers for grains, cloth, utensils, etc.
• The most important trader nomads were Banjaras. Their caravan was
called ‘tanda’. Sultan Alauddin Khilji used Banjaras to move grain to the
city markets.
• Pastoral tribes thus basically reared and sold animals like horses and
cattle to the prosperous people.
Changes in Caste Structure of India
• In the fields of trade and agriculture, there emerged a multi-caste

population in many villages on account of the spread of Islam.
• Sufi and Bhakti movement preached equality between different castes
and religious groups.
• Inter-caste marriages started between Rajputs and Muslim nobles.
• With the growth of the economy, new jatis and varnas emerged.
• Many tribes became part of rule changes.
The Gonds
• Gonds were sometimes referred to by their tribal dialect, Gondi. They

practised shifting cultivation.
• The Gonds rose when Delhi Sultanate declined.
• The Gond kingdom Gondwana in southeastern Madhya Pradesh was
founded in the 15th century.
Ahoms
• The Ahom tribe is traced to some tribes living in south-east Asia who
had travelled overland through the forests of Assam.
• The religion and culture of Assam is a fusion of the local traditions and
of migrant tribes.
• The Ahoms belonged to a warrior class and built roads and irrigation
system even before establishing their rule.
• The Ahoms formed the new kingdom by suppressing the older political
system of Bhuiyans.
Tribal societies were absolutely different from those which existed in big
cities.
Tribal societies did not follow the social rules and rituals, prescribed by the
Brahmanas, because they divided societies into numerous unequal classes.
These societies were known as tribes.
There was a unique bond of kinship among the members of each tribe.
Their main source of livelihood was agriculture. However, hunter-gatherers

or herders were also there.
Some tribes were nomadic and kept on moving from one place to another.
A tribal group controlled land and pastures jointly and divided these
amongst households as per its own rules.
Many large tribes lived in forests, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach.
Tribal people did not keep written records. But they preserved rich customs
and oral traditions which help historians to collect knowledge about them.
Tribal people were spread in almost every region of the subcontinent. Some
powerful tribes controlled large territories.
In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very influential during the 13th and 14th
centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important.
In Multan and Sind, the Languages and Arghuns dominated extensive

regions.
The Balochis were found in the north-west.
The Shepherd tribe of Gaddis lived in the western Himalayas.
The north-eastern part of the subcontinent was dominated by the Nagas,

Ahoms and many others.
The Mundas and Santals were important tribes found in Bihar, Jharkhand,
Orissa and Bengal.
The Kolis were found in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Gujarat.
The Bhils were spread across western and central India.
The Gonds lived in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and

Andhra Pradesh.
Nomadic pastoralists lived on milk and other pastoral products. The

Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads.
Smaller castes or jatis emerged with the growth of society. Smiths,

carpenters and masons were recognised as separate jatis.
Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became powerful by the 11th and
12th centuries. They belonged to different lineages such as Hunas,
Chandelas, Chalukyas, etc. Some of these had been tribes earlier. Many of
these clans came to be regarded as Rajputs.
The rise of Rajput clans to the position of rulers set an example for the tribal
people to follow.
The Gonds lived in a vast forested region known as Gondwana. They

practised shifting cultivation. The large Gond tribe was further divided into
many smaller clans. Each clan had its own raja or rai. About the time that
the power of the Delhi Sultans was declining, a few large Gond kingdoms
were beginning to dominate the smaller Gond chiefs. The Akbar Nama
mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga.
Garha Katanga was a rich state. However, it was defeated by the Mughals.
Despite that, the Gond kingdoms survived for some time.
The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar

in the 13th century. They created a new state by suppressing the older
political system of the bhuiyans (landlords).
During the 16th century, they annexed the kingdoms of the Chhutiyas and of
Koch-Hajo and subjugated many other tribes. Thus, they built a large state.
However, they faced many invasions from the south-west and finally, they
were defeated by the Mughals.
Ahom society was divided into clans or Khels. The society was very
sophisticated.
The Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods. However, in the reign of Sib
Singh Hinduism became the predominant religion. But the Ahom kings did
not completely give up their traditional beliefs.
Clan: A clan is a group of families or households claiming descent from a

common ancestor. The tribal organisation is often based on kinship or clan
loyalties.
Nomads: People who keep on moving from one place to another.
Nomadic pastoralists: People who move over long distances with their
animals.
Tanda: The caravan of the Banjaras was called tanda.
Itinerant Group: This group consists of craftspersons, peddlers and

entertainers who travel from place to place practising their different
occupations.
Shifting Cultivation: Trees and bushes in a forest area are first cut and
burnt. The crop is then sown in the ashes. After some time when this land
loses its fertility, another patch of land is cleared and planted in the same
manner.
1591 – Cheros were defeated.
1523 – The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of the Chaityas.
1581 – The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of Koch-Hajo.

1662 – The Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahonri kingdom.
1714-1744 – Sib Singh reigned the Ahom kingdom.
Devotional Paths to the Divine Class 7 Notes Chapter 8
In the eighth century, two new religious movements Sufism and Bhakti
emerged.
Devotion to God without discrimination on the basis of caste was taught by

the Bhakti and Sufi saints.
Both Sufism and Bhakti movements had several common traits and spread
as popular movements at about the same time.
The Idea of a Supreme God
• Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people worshipped

their own Gods and Goddesses. As people were brought together
through the growth of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to
develop.
• The idea that all human beings are not equal at birth gained ground
during this period.
• The idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from bondage
through devotion or bhakti emerged.
• Gods and goddesses worshipped in different areas came to be
identified with Shiva, Vishnu or Durga.
A New Kind of Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars
• The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of a new religious

movement, led by Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars
(saints devoted to Vishnu).
• They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached
ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
• The Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing
exquisite poems of praise of the deities enshrined in the village they
visited and set them to music.
• The Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many of
the shrines.
Philosophy and Bhakti
• Shankara, a philosopher, of Kerala advocated Advaita or the doctrine

of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the
ultimate reality.
• Ramanuja of Tamil Nadu advocated that the best means of attaining
salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
Basavanna’s Virashaivism
• Virashaivism movement was initiated by Basavanna and his

companions Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi in Karnataka in the
mid-12 century.
• They argued strongly for equality of all human beings, opposed
Brahmanical ideas on caste and treatment of women.
The Saints of Maharashtra
• Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Sakkubai and the family of

Chokhamela focused on the bhakti of Vitthala (a form of Vishnu).
• Some of these belonged to lower castes. They rejected all forms of
ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis
• A number of religious groups that emerged during this period criticized

the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social
order, using simple, logical arguments.
• Among them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhcharas and Yogis.
Islam and Sufism
• Islam propagated monotheism or submission to one God. ‘

• It also rejected idol worship. Muslim scholars developed a holy law
called Shariat.
• The Sufis rejected the elaborate codes of behaviour demanded by
Muslim religious scholars.
• The sought unison with God, as a lover seeks his beloved with a
disregard for the world.
• Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
• Sufism introduced many popular orders or silsilas of which the most
widespread was the Shariat and Chisti Silsilas.
• The Chisti silsila was among the most influential orders. A long line of
teachers included Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti of
• Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab,
Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of
Gulbarga.
New Religious Developments in North India
• The period after the 13th century saw a new wave of bhakti movement
in North India.
• This wave was led by scholars like Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir and Baba
Guru Nanak
• This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and
Mirabai. Mirabai was devoted to Lord Krishna.
• A unique feature of most of these saints is that their works were
composed in regional languages and could be sung.
• Kabir ridiculed idol worship and believed in one formless Supreme God
with devotion as the path of salvation.
• Guru Nanak emphasized on the importance of one God and nam-
japna, kirti-kama and vand- chhakna.The number of
• Baba Guru Nanak’s followers increased through the 16th century under
his successors.
• Shankara was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of
the individual soul and the Supreme God.
Various kinds of Bhakti and Sufi movements evolved since the eighth
century.
Before the emergence of large kingdoms, different groups of people

worshipped their own gods and goddesses.
Several people also showed their interest in the teachings of the Buddha or
the Jainas.
Others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God. Such people sought the
path of Bhakti to approach this Supreme God. As a result, Shiva, Vishnu
and Durga came to be recognised as supreme deities. People began to
worship them through elaborate rituals.
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of new religious

movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars
(saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including
untouchables.
They criticised the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva
or Vishnu as the path of salvation.
Elaborate temples were built by the Chola and Pandya kings between the
tenth and twelfth centuries. Thus, the Bhakti tradition got strongly linked with
temple worship.
Shankara, a Bhakti saint, was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the
oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate
Reality. He preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of
knowledge.
Ramanuja, another Bhakti saint, was deeply influenced by the Alvars.

According to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense
devotion to Vishnu.
Virashaiva movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions. This

movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas
were against all forms of ritual and idol worship.
The saint-poets of Maharashtra such as Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and

Tukaram inspired people through their songs in simple Marathi. These
saints rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social
differences based on birth. They also rejected the idea of renunciation and
preferred to live with their families.
Several other religious groups such as Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis also
criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social
order. They advocated renunciation of the world. They inspired people to lay
in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of oneness
with it. They gave importance to yogasanas.
Sufis were Muslim mystics. They rejected outward religiosity and

emphasized love and devotion to God and comparison towards all fellow
human beings.
Islam propagated monotheism i.e. submission to one God. It rejected idol

worship,
Muslim scholars developed a holy law called Shariat. The Sufis rejected the
elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious
scholars.
The Sufis too composed poems like the saint-poets. Some of the great Sufis
were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
The Sufi saints developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting
of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama (singing), rags
(dancing), discussion of parables, breath control etc. under the guidance of
a master or pir. Thus, emerged the silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers.
The Chishti silsila is worth-mentioning in this regard.
The Sufi teachers held their assemblies in their Khanqahs or hospices

(houses of rest for travellers). Here, they discussed spiritual matters.
Sufi shrines are visited by devotes of all backgrounds.
A new wave of Bhakti movement began in north India after the 13th century.
This was an age when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various
strands of Bhakti and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced one
another.
Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions. Others like
Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to
make these accessible to all. Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas,
written in Awadhi, is important both as an expression of his devotion and as
a literary work.
Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna.
Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai were some other important saints of this
tradition.
The works of these saints were composed in regional languages and

therefore they became very popular.
We come to know about Kabir through his sakhis and pads, Kabir’s
teachings were based on complete rejection of the major religious traditions.
He believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to
salvation was through Bhakti or devotion.
Guru Nanak emphasised the importance of the worship of one God. He
insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation. He
used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teachings which
actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.
Words that Matter
Virashaivism: It was popular in Karnataka during the mid-twelfth century.

Its followers argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against
Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women.
Hagiography: Writing of saint’s lives.
Vilthala: A form of Vishnu.
Hospice: House of rest for travellers, especially one kept by a religious

order.
Khanqah: It literarily means hospice.
Dargah: It is a tomb of a religious saint in Muslim community recognised as
a pilgrimage.
Langer: A common kitchen where people of all backgrounds eat together.
Dharamsala: A sacred space created by Baba Guru Nanak.
Khaba Panth: The community of the Sikhs.
Bhakti: It means devotion to God.
Sufi: He was a Muslim mystic.
Silsila: A genealogy of Sufi teachers.
Salvation: Getting freedom from the cycle of birth and death.
Shariat: Holy law made by Muslim Scholars.
Gurmukhi: A new script introduced by Guru Nanak.
1469-1539 – The period of Baba Guru Nanak.
1539 – Baba Guru Nanak died.
1604 – Guru Arjan compiled all the compositions written by the three
successors of Guru Angad.
1606 – Guru Arjan was executed.
1699 – The Khalsa was instituted by Guru Gobind Singh.
The Making of Regional Cultures Class 7 Notes Chapter 9
The medieval period saw the emergence of several regional languages and
the associated literature. It is quite common for us to identify a region with
its language.
Every region is identified with a certain distinct type of food, clothing, poetry,
dance, painting and music.
The Chera empire of Mahodayapuram, which was established in 9th century

in the southwestern part of Kerala introduced the Malayalam language.
Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult
• In several regions, regional cultures developed around religious

traditions.
• The local people made a wooden image of the deity which, originally a
local God, came to be identified with Vishnu.
• Temple became the centre of pilgrimage.
The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism
• In the 19th century, the Rajasthan of today was called Rajputana by the
British.
• There are many groups who call themselves Rajputs in Northern and
Central India.
• Prithviraj Chauhan was one such ruler.
• Women had been given a heroic image since they committed sati or
self-immolation.
Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak
• The heroic traditions of various regions also helped in the evolution of

dance in several regions.
• One such dance was Kathak, which was evolved in Northern India. The
Kathaks initially were a caste of story-tellers in North Indian temples.
• The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays known as
rasalila.
• It integrated folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-
tellers.
• Music also developed into various forms like qawwali and khayal and
new instruments like Sitar were invented.
Paintings for Patrons: The Traditions of Miniatures
• During this period, one more tradition which deserves our attention is
the miniature painting. Miniatures are small sized paintings done in
watercolour on cloth or paper.
• Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan hired highly skilled painters to
illustrate their manuscripts in the Kitab Khana containing their accounts
and poetry.
• When the Mughal empire started declining, new artistic tastes
developed in the regional court of Deccan and Rajput rulers.
• One bold style of miniature painting was called Basohli.
• One of the most popular paintings of the Himalayas region was
Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari.
• The Kangra artists by mid-18th century infused a new life into miniature
painting.
The Growth of a Regional Language: Bengal
• Regional language is the language which a person speaks in a region.

• It is generally assumed that the Bengali language is spoken by people
of Bengal.
• Bengali originated from Sanskrit but later on developed its own identity
and literature.
• Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories—The first
includes translations from Sanskrit epics and the
• the second includes Nath literature.
Pirs and Temples
• From the 16th century, people migrated in large numbers from less
fertile western Bengal to the forested and marshy of south-eastern
Bengal.
• With Mughal control over Bengal, the capital shifted to Dhaka. Officials
received land grants. Mosques were set up.
• The early settlers got help from teachers called Pirs. They included
saints or Sufis and prominent religious personalities.
Regional cultures today are often the product of complex processes of

intermixing of local traditions with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent.
The Chera Kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth

century in the south-western part of the peninsula, part of present-day
Kerala. The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their
inscriptions.
The Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of
Kerala borrowed stories from the Sanskrit epics.
In other regions, regional cultures grew around religious traditions. The best
example of this process is the cult of Jagannath at Puri, Orissa. The word
Jagannath literarily means the lord of the world, a name for Vishnu.
Anantavarman, the ruler of the Ganga dynasty in the 12th century, built a
temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.
The Rajputs contributed a lot to the distinctive culture of Rajasthan. From

about the eighth century, most of the present-day state of Rajasthan was
ruled by various Rajput families. Prithviraj was one such ruler.
Rajput rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, often
choosing death on the battlefield rather than face defeat.
Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs. Women
were also focused on these stories. They are depicted as following their
heroic husbands in both life and death. They often chose to become sati on
the funeral pyre of their husbands.
Not only heroic traditions are found in different regions in different forms, but
dance too. Just take the history of one dance form, Kathak.
The term kathak is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other
languages for a story.
The Kathaks was originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India,

who beautified their performances with gestures and songs.
Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the 15th and 16th
centuries.
Under the Mughals, it developed in two traditions or gharanas—one in the

courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Slowly and steadily it
took root in Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir etc.
Kathak was recognised as one of six classical forms of dance in the country
after independence. Other classical dances are—Bharatnatyam (Tamil
Nadu), Kathakali (Kerala), Odissi (Orissa), Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) and
Manipuri (Manipur).
The tradition of miniature painting is also noteworthy. Miniatures are small-

sized paintings, generally done in watercolour on cloth or paper. The
earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood.
The Mughal emperors patronised highly skilled painters.
With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the
courts of the emerging regional states.
By the late 17th century a bold and intense style of miniature painting called
Basohli got developed in the Himalayan foothills around the modern-day
state of Himachal Pradesh. Here, the Mughal artists founded the Kangra
school of painting.
Soft colours, including cool blues and greens, and lyrical treatment of
themes distinguished Kangra painting.
Now we will see how Bengali, a regional language, grew in the course of
time.
From the eighth century, Bengal became the centre of a regional kingdom
under the Palas. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Bengal was ruled by
Sultans. In 1586, Akbar conquered Bengal while Persian was the language
of administration, Bengali developed as a regional language.
Although Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several stages

of evolution.
Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories. The fist includes
translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangala Kavyas and Bhakti literature
such as biographies of Chaitanyadeva, the second includes Nath literature
such as songs of Maynamati and Gopichand, stories concerning the
worship of Dharma Thakur and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads.
The cult of ptr (a spiritual guide) became popular in Bengal and their shrines
can be found there.
A number of temples got constructed in Bengal. Now local deities began to

be worshipped in temples.
Bengal, being in a riverine plain, produces abundant rice and fish. These
two items are important foods of the Bengalis. The Bengal Brahmanas too
eat fish.
Fishing has been a major occupation of the Bengalis.
Bengali literature contains several references to fish.
Lilatilakam: A fourteenth-century text of Sanskrit that deals with grammar

and poetics.
Rajputana: The region that constitutes most of present-day Rajasthan was

called Rajputana by the British during the 19th century.
Sati: The immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands.
Kathak: The term is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other
languages for the story.
Rasa Lila: The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays known
as rasa Lila.
Gharana: Tradition of classical dance, music.
Classical: Old and memorable having permanent value.
Miniature: It is small-sized painting, usually done in watercolour on cloth or

paper.
Basohli: It refers to the bold and intense style of miniature painting.
Per: It is a Persian word that means a spiritual guide.
Animism: Attribution of living soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural

phenomena.
Kolu: Oil pressures.
Kansari: Bell metal workers.
Dochala: Double-roofed structure.
About 12th Century – First Literary works in Malayalam.
14th Century Lilatilakam – a text dealing with grammar and poetics

combining two languages Sanskrit and regional languages was published.
12th Century – Anantavarman, a ruler of Ganga dynasty decided to erect a

temple for Purushottam Jagannatha at Puri.
1230 AD – King Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and
proclaimed himself as the ‘deputy’ of the God.
19th Century – The region of Rajputana constituted by the British.
3rd quarter of the 19th Century – ‘Kathak’ was firmly entrenched as a

dance form in many regions.
1739 AD – Nadar Shah invaded and conquered Delhi.
Mid-18th Century – Kangra artists developed a style of miniature painting

for their survival.
Eighteenth-Century Political Formations Class 7 Notes Chapter 10
By 1765, the British had captured major chunks of Indian territory in eastern
India.
After Aurangzeb’s death, the Mughal Empire started to decline because of

weak and inefficient rulers.
States like Hyderabad, Awadh, Bengal and states under the control of Sikhs
and Marathas declared independence.
The declining power of the Mughals also gave rise to the regional powers
like the Jats, Sikhs and Marathas.
The Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals
• After reaching its zenith, Mughal empire started declining under

Emperor Aurangzeb. This was because of Aurangzeb’s military and
religious policy which depleted the financial resources of the Mughals.
• Under his succession, the efficiency of the imperial administration
broke down. It became difficult to check governors and mansabdars.
• In the midst of this crisis, Nadir Shah’s invasion in 1739 and invasions
of Afghan ruler Ahmed Shah Abdali between 1748-1761, weakened the
Mughal empire.
• The nobility was divided into two major groups Iranis and Turanis. For a
long time, the later Mughal emperors were puppets in the hands of
either one or the other of these two powerful groups.
The emergence of New States
• With the decline of Mughal authority, the governors consolidated their

authority.
• Broadly speaking, the states were divided into three overlapping
groups; old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and
• The Hyderabad States which enjoyed consideration independence like
Watan Jagirs and several Rajput principalities and the last group
included states like Marathas, Sikhs and the Jats.
The Old Mughal Provinces
• These included the states of Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.

• Hyderabad state was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah. The state
was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas.
• Awadh was founded by Burhan-ul-Mulk Saadat Khan in 1722.
• The rich alluvial plains allowed the development of the region.
• Bengal was founded by Murshid Quli Khan. He commanded revenue
administration of the state. Under Alivardi Khan the state became
prosperous.
The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs
• Many Rajput Kings, particularly those belonging to Amber and Jodhpur

had served under the Mughals with distinction.
• They got considerable autonomy and thus were called Watan jagir.
• Maratha expansion after the 1740s put a restriction on the growth of
Rajput expansion.
Seizing Independence
The Sikhs
• The Sikh arose as a power under Guru Gobind Singh who inspired the
Khalsa with the belief that their destiny was to rule.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh reunited the Sikhs as a powerful group and
established his capital at Lahore in 1799.
The Marathas
• The Maratha kingdom rose under Shivaji. After Shivaji’s death, Peshwa
led the Maratha empire to its zenith.
• Marathas collected huge revenue from taxes of church and
Sardshmukhi in the entire kingdom.
• Maratha chiefs included Peshwa, Sindhia, Gaekwad and Bhonsle.
Their territory touched near Delhi in its peak stages.
The Jats
• Jats were powerful in areas near Delhi under the leadership of

Churaman.
• They were prosperous agriculturalists.
• Under Suraj Mai, the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.
• Jats even built a garden palace at Dig.
With the decline of the Mughal Empire, new political groups began to
emerge in the sub-continent during the first half of the 18th century.
The Mughal Empire lost its glory and started facing a variety of crises
towards the closing years of the 17th century.
Emperor Aurangzeb is held responsible for this. He had depleted the

military and financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in the
Deccan.
Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial administration broke

down. Nobles appointed as governors became more powerful. They began
to control the offices of revenue and military administration. This created a
political and economic crisis.
The attack of Nadir Shah the ruler of Iran, on Delhi in 1739 aggravated the
crisis. He plundered the city of Delhi and took away immense amounts of
wealth.
Soon Ahmad Shah Abdali became active. He invaded north India five times
between 1748 and 1761.
The competition amongst different groups of nobles further weakened the

empire. These were two major groups or factions—the Iranis and Taranis
(nobles of Turkish descent). For a long time, the later Mughal emperors
were puppets in the hands of either one or the other of these two powerful
groups.
Through the 18th century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a
number of independent, regional states.
The states of the 18th century can be divided into three overlapping groups.
States that were old Mughal provinces such as Awadh, Bengal and
Hyderabad.
States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughal as

Watan jagirs,
States under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats.
Hyderabad state (1724-1748) was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah. He

was one of the most powerful members at the court of the Mughal Emperor
Farrukh Siyar. He was given the change of the Deccan. Soon he became
powerful there and declared himself the actual ruler of that region. Although
he was still a servant of the Mughal emperor, he ruled independently.
The state of Awadh was founded by Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan in the

year 1722. He did not like the Mughal influence in the Awadh region and
therefore reduced the number of officeholders or jagirdars appointed by the
Mughals. He also reduced the size of jagirs and appointed his own loyal
servants to vacant positions.
Murshid Quli Khan took control of Bengal and began to command the
revenue administration of the state. He transferred all Mughal jagirdars to
Orissa in order to reduce the Mughal influence in Bengal. He ordered a
major reassessment of the revenues of Bengal. Revenue was collected in
cash with great strictness from all zamindars.
The Rajput Kings, of Amber and Jodhpur, were given permission by the
Mughals, to enjoy considerable autonomy in their water jagirs. Soon, these
rulers began to extend their control over adjacent regions.
Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of Gujarat and Sawai Raja
Jai Singh of Amber was governor of Malwa. They also tried to extend their
territories by seizing portions of imperial territories neighbouring their
watans. Nagpur was conquered and annexed to the housed of Jodhpur
while Amber seized large portions of Bundi.
In the 18th century, the Sikhs organised themselves into a number of bands
called jathas and later on mils. Their combined forces were known as the
grand army (dal Khalsa).
Guru Gobind Singh had inspired the Khalsa with the belief that their destiny
was to rule. Their well-knit organisation enabled them to put up a successful
resistance to the Mughal governors first and then to Ahmad Shah Abdali
who had seized the rich province of the Punjab and the Sirhind from the
Mughals. The Khalsa declared their sovereign rule by striking in 1765.
The Sikh territories extended from the Indus to the Jamuna in the late 18th
century but they were divided under different rulers such as Maharaja Ranjit
Singh.
Shivaji carried out the Maratha Kingdom. He built a powerful Maratha army
and challenged the Mughals in the peninsula.
After the death of Shivaji, Peshwas took control of the Maratha Kingdom.
Poona became its capital.
Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire expanded and gradually
chipped away at the authority of the Mughal Empire. Malwa and Gujarat
were seized from the Mughals by the 1720s. By the 1730s the Maratha King
was recognised as the overlord of the entire Deccan peninsula.
After raiding Delhi in 1737, the frontiers of Maratha domination expanded
rapidly into Rajasthan and Punjab in the north, into Bengal and Orissa in the
east and into Karnataka and the Tamil and Telugu countries in the south.
The jats consolidated their power during the late 17th and 18th centuries.
Under their leader, Churaman, they acquired control over territories situated
to the west of the city of Delhi, and by the 1680s they had begun dominating
the region between the two imperial cities of Delhi and Agra.
Subadar: Government of a province or state.
Diwani: The offices of revenue.
Faujdari: Military administration.
The Iranis and Taranis: Nobles of Turkish descent.
Coffers: Treasury.
Nayaks: Telugu warrior chiefs.
Jagirdari: Land ownership.
Ijaradars: Revenue farmers.
Watan Jagirs: States that had enjoyed considerable independence under

the Mughals. Jathas. Bands
Misls: Small political groups of Sikh warriors.
Peshwa: Principal minister.
Chauth: 25% of the land revenue claimed by zamindars.
Sardishmukhi: 9-10% of the land revenue paid to the head revenue

collector in the Deccan. Subahdar Governorship of a province or state.
Later Mughals: The Mughal emperors who succeeded after Aurangzeb.
Kunbis: Maratha peasant-warriors.
1707 – Aurangzeb died.
1739 – Nadir Shah invaded Delhi.
1713-1719 – Farrukh Siyar reigned the Mughal Empire.
1754-1759 – Alamgir 11 reigned the Mughal Empire.
1724-1748 – Asaf Jah remained the Nizam of Hyderabad.
1722 – Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan was appointed Subadar of Awadh.
1699 – The year in which Khalsa was instituted.
1708 – Guru Gobind Singh died.
1715 – Banda Bahadur was captured
1716 – Banda Bahadur was executed.
1799 – Maharaja Ranjit Singh established his capital at Lahore.
1627-1680 – The period of Shivaji.
1761 – Third battle of Panipat.
How, When and Where Class 8 Notes Chapter 1
In 1817, James Mill, a Scottish economist and political philosopher,

published a massive three-volume work—A History of British India. In this,
he divided Indian history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim and British. This
periodization came to be widely accepted.
We try and divide history into different periods to capture the characteristics
of time and its central features as they appear to us.
Moving away from British classification, historians have usually divided

Indian history into ‘Ancient’, ‘Medieval’ and ‘Modern’.
One important source of Indian history is the official record of the British
administration. The Britishers believed that the act of writing was important.
Every instruction, plan, policy, decision, agreement and investigation had to
be clearly written up.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, along with the spread of printing,
multiple copies of these records were printed as proceedings of each
government department.
The practice of surveying also became common under the colonial
administration.
These records tell us what the officials thought, what they were interested
in, and what they wished to preserve for posterity. These records always
help us understand what other people in the country felt, and what lay
behind their actions.
As printing spread, newspapers were published and issues were debated in

public. Leaders and re¬formers wrote to spread their ideas; poets and
novelists wrote to express their feelings.
History is about the changes that occur over time. It is about the finding out
of how things were in the past and how things have changed in the present.
As soon as we compare the past with the present we refer to time, we talk
of ‘before’ and ‘after’.
If someone asks you when people began to drink tea or coffee, you would
fail to answer this question. It is because people did not begin drinking tea
on a one fine day, they developed the taste for it over time. Thus, you can
only refer to a span of time, an approximate period over which particular
changes became visible.
Still, we have enough reason why we associate history with a string of

dates. There was a time when history was an account of battles and big
events. It was about rulers and their policies. Historians wrote about the
year when a king was crowned, the year he married, the year he fought a
particular battle, etc. For such events, specific dates were fixed.
How do we determine that a particular set of dates is important? The dates

we select, the dates around which we compare our story of the past, are not
important on their own. They became important because we focus on a
particular set of events as important.
The histories written by British historians in India, the rule of each Governor-
General was important. These histories began with the rule of the first
Governor-General Warren Hastings and ended with the last Viceroy Lord
Mountbatten.
James Mill was a Scottish economist and political philosopher. In 1817, he

wrote a three-volume book, A History of British India. In this he divided
Indian history into three periods-Hindu, Muslim and British.
We divide history into different periods in order to capture the characteristics

of a time, its central features as they appear to us. So the terms through we
periodise, i.e. demarcate the differences between periods, become
important.
Mill was of the opinion that all Asian societies were of the lower level of
civilisations than Europe. According to his telling of history, before the
British came to India, Hindu and Muslim despots ruled the country.
Religious intolerance and caste taboos dominated the social life of Indian
people. British rule, as Mill thought, could civilise India.
The British were absolutely prejudiced in classifying the Indian history. So

the British classification of the Indian history cannot be justified. It is
because a variety of faults existed simultaneously along with Hindus and
Muslims in these periods.
Apart from the British classification, historians have divided Indian history
into ancient, medieval and modern. This division to has problems. It is a
periodisation that is borrowed from the West where the modern period was
associated with the growth of all the forces of modernity such as science,
reason, democracy, etc. Medieval was the term used to describe a society
where these features of modern society did not exist. But the features of
modern period were not visible in India during the British rule. Many
historians, therefore, refer to this period as colonial.
The British established their control over India and made it a colony.
Colonisation is a term that refers to a process in which one country

subjugates another and thus brings political, economic, social and cultural
changes.
Historians use different sources in writing about the last 250 years of Indian
history. One important source is the official records of the British
administration. The British believed that the act of writing was important.
Easy instruction, plan, policy, etc. had to be clearly written up. The British
also felt that all important documents and letters needed to be carefully
preserved. So, they set up record rooms attached to all administrative
institutions. Specialised institutions like archives and museums were also
set up to preserve important records.
The practice of surveying also became common under the colonial

administration.
By the early 19th century detailed surveys were being carried out to map the
entire country.
In villages, revenue surveys were conducted.
From the end of the 19th century, Census operations were held at the
interval of every ten years. It prepared all the detailed records of the number
of people in all the provinces of India, noting information on castes, religions
and occupation.
All these are official records. These records do not always help us
understand what other people in the country felt and what lay behind their
actions.
To know about these things we have diaries of people, accounts of pilgrims

and travellers, autobiographies of important personalities, etc.
All these sources were produced by those who were literate. From these we
will not be able to understand how history was experienced and lived by the
tribals, and the peasants, the workers in the mines or the poor on the
streets.
Historian: One who writes about the events of the past, i.e. how things
were and how they changed.
Debate: Discussion on an important topic of public interest.
Periodisation: Ponding any event into periods.
Ancient: Very old.
Medieval: It refers to the period in which features of modem society did not
exist.
Colonization: Colonization is a process in which one country subjugates

another and thus brings political, economic, social and cultural changes.
Subjugation: Gaining control over a country.
Calligrapher: One who is specialised in the art of beautiful writing.
Survey: The act of examining and recording the measurements, features

etc. of an area of land to prepare a map or plan for it.
Archives: A place where historical documents or records of a government,
an organisation, etc, are stored.
1773 – Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General of India.
1782 – First map produced by James Rennel.
1817 – James Mill published a massive three-volume work, A History of

British India.
1920 – The National Archives of India came up.
From Trade to Territory Class 8 Notes Chapter 2
East India Company Comes East: In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted a

charter to East India Company for a monopoly of trade with nations in the
east. Trading companies made efforts to maximise profit by eliminating
rivals in trade.
East India Company Begins Trade in Bengal: The first factory of East
India Company, which worked as a warehouse and base for the workers of
the company, was established in 1651. The workers were known as
‘factors’. As trade expanded, the company persuaded merchants to settle
near the factory.
The Battle of Plassey: Sirajuddaulah succeeded Ali Vardi Khan. He faced

the armies and the naval fleet of the East India Company at Plassey in the
year 1757. The British army was led by Robert Clive who managed to crush
the forces of the Nawab, thus winning the first major battle and making it a
historic landmark.
The Battle of Buxar: Mir Jafar became the new Nawab, and in return, he
gave huge amounts of revenue to East India Company and its officials. East
India Company felt it as the best way of earning profits and started
exchanging with nawabs regularly. Mir Kasim was made the Nawab after
Mir Jafar, and when he posed danger to their existence, East India
Company replaced him again by Mir Jafar.
Tipu Sultan-The Tiger of Mysore: The company engaged in a direct

conflict only when a native state became detrimental to the company’s rule
in the subcontinent. Mysore emerged as a potential threat under Haidar Ali
and his son, Tipu Sultan.
War with the Marathas: The Third Battle of Panipat shattered the dreams
of the Marathas to rule India from Delhi. It also led to the division of Maratha
confederacy. Four chiefs ruled from four centres under a Peshwa based in
Pune.
Subsidiary Alliance: A policy introduced by Lord Wellesley through which

Indian states were to accept a British resident and had to disband their
army. East India Company deployed its troops and their maintenance was
borne by Indian rulers.
The doctrine of Lapse: A law introduced by Lord Dalhousie which stated

that if any ruler of a subsidiary state dies without having a natural heir, his
state would lapse into East India Company empire. The states annexed
were Satara, Sambhalpur, Udaipur, Nagpur and Jhansi.
The British power began to emerge in India from the second half of the 18th
century.
The British originally came to India as a small trading company and were
reluctant to acquire territories. Ultimately, they became the masters of the
vast territory. This did not happen overnight. It took a long time.
In 1600, the East India Company acquired a Charter from the ruler of
England, Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade with the East.
The Royal Charter, however, could not prevent other European powers from
entering the eastern markets. The Portuguese established their presence in
the western coast of India and got their base in Goa. By the early 17th
century, the Dutch too were exploring the possibilities of trade in the Indian
Ocean. Soon, the French traders arrived.
All the companies wanted to buy the same things such as fine qualities of
cotton, silk, pepper, cloves, cardamom and cinnamon from the Indian
market.
Competition amongst the companies pushed up the prices at which these

goods could be purchased and this reduced the profits that could be earned.
The only way trading companies could flourish was by eliminating rival
competitors.
The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli in 1651.
Soon, the trade expanded and the East India Company persuaded
merchants and traders to come and settle near the factory.
By .1696 it began building^a fort around the settlement. It also bribed

Mughal officials into giving the company zamindari rights over three villages.
One of these was Kalikata which later became the city of Calcutta or
Kolkata as it is now called.
It also persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman

granting the company the right to trade duty-free.
The officials of the Company who were carrying on private trade, were
expected to pay duty. But they refused to pay which angered the Nawab of
Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan. This led to fierce battles.
After the death of Aurangzeb, the Bengal Nawabs (Murshid Quli Khan,
Alivardi Khan and Sirajuddaulah) one after another refused to grant
concessions to the Company.
In such a situation the Company began to think about replacing

Sirajuddaulah with a puppet ruler who would willingly give trade
concessions and other privileges. They began helping one of
Sirajuddaulah’s rivals become the Nawab. Sirajuddaulah got infuriated. This
finally led to the Battle of Plassey in which Sirajuddaulah got defeated.
One of the main reasons for the defeat of the Nawab was that the forces led
by Mir Jafar, one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, never fought the battle.
For the Company, it was the first victory in India.
Mir Jafar who had deceived Sirajuddaulah was made the new Nawab of
Bengal.
But Mir Jafar could not prove himself a puppet ruler for a long time. Hence,
the Company deposed him and installed Mir Qasirifi in his place. When Mir
Qasim complained, he in turn was defeated in the Battle of Buxar in 1764,
driven out of Bengal and Mir Jafar was reinstalled, who died the next year,
i.e. 1765. In the same year the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as
the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal. The Company now began to exploit
the vast revenue resources of Bengal.
After the Battle of Buxar the Company appointed Residents in Indian states.
These Residents were political or commercial agents and their job was to
serve and further the interests of the company. Through the Residents, the
Company began interfering in the internal matters of Indian states. Soon the
Company forced the states into a subsidiary alliance. According to the terms
of this alliance, Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent
armed forces.
They were to be protected by the company, but had to pay for the
‘subsidiary forces’ that the Company was supposed to maintain for the
purpose of this protection. If the Indian rulers failed to make the payment,
the part of their territory was taken away. Awadh and Hyderabad, for
example, were forced to cede territories on this ground.
Whenever the Company saw a threat to its political or economic interests, it

resorted to direct military confrontation. In this regard we can give example
of Mysore.
Mysore had become powerful under rulers like Haider Ali and his son Tipu
Sultan.
Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar coast where the
company purchased pepper and cardamom. In 1785. Tipu Sultan stopped
the export of Sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the parts of his
kingdom, and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company.
This infuriated the Company.
The Company, for this reason, fought four wars with Mysore. Only in the last
the Battle of Seringapatam did the company ultimately win a victory. Tipu
Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam.
The Company also subdued the Marathas in a series of wars.
From the early 19th century the Company pursued an aggressive policy of
territorial expansion.
Under Governor-General Lord Hastings (1813-1823) a new policy of

paramountcy was initiated. The Company now claimed that its authority was
paramount or supreme. Following this policy, the Company annexed several
states.
Under Governor-General Lord Dalhousie annexations were at the peak. He

devised a policy that came to be known as the Doctrine of Lapse. The
doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom
would become the part of Company territory.
Satara, Sambalpur, Udaipur, Nagpur and Jhansi were annexed by applying

this doctrine.
In 1856, the Company also took over Awadh.
When Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General of India he

introduced several administrative reforms, especially in the sphere of
justice.
In the early 19th century, the British developed a uniform military culture.
Soldiers were increasingly subjected to European-style training, drill and
discipline that regulated their life for more than before.
Thus, the East India Company was transformed from a trading company to
territorial colonial power.
Mercantile: The word refers to a business enterprise that makes profit
primarily through trade, buying goods cheap and selling them at higher
prices.
Factor: The Company traders were known at that time as factors.
Farman: A royal order during the Mughal period.
Puppet: The term here is used to refer to a person who is controlled by

someone else.
Negotiation: A formal discussion between people in order to find a solution.
Charter: An official order or resolution.
Nabob: The British called the nawab as nabob, who was the symbol of
power and authority.
Subsidiary alliance: As per the terms of this alliance, Indian rulers were
not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They were to be
protected by the company.
Injunction: Instruction.
Subservience: The act of being submissive.
Confederacy: Alliance.
Paramountcy: Being paramount or supreme.
The Doctrine of Lapse: This was a policy of the Company to annex

kingdoms. As per this policy if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his
kingdom would become the part of the Company territory.
Qazi: A judge.
Mufti: A jurist of the Muslim community responsible for expounding the law
that the Qazi would administer.
Impeachment: A trial by the House of Lords in England on charges of

misconduct brought against a person in the House of Commons.
Sawar: Men on horses.
Dharmashastra: Sanskrit texts prescribing social rules and codes of

behaviour. These were begun to compose from C. 500 BCE onwards.
Musket: A heavy gun u§ed by infantry soldiers.
Matchlock: An early type of gun in which the powder was ignited by a

match.
1498 – Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, discovered the sea-route to

India.
1600 – The East India Company acquired a Charter from the ruler of
England, Queen Elizabeth I granting it the sole right to trade with the East.
1651 – The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli.
1696 – The Company began building a fort around the settlement.
1756 – Alivardi Khan died and Sirajuddaulah became the Nawab of Bengal.
1757 – The Battle of Plassey took place.
1764 – The Battle of Buxar took place.
1765 – The Mughal Emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the
provinces of Bengal.
1782-99 – Tipu Sultan was the ruler of Mysore.
Ruling the Countryside Class 8 Notes Chapter 3
Britain turns to India: As the demand for Indigo grew in Europe, East India
Company turned to India for its supply by extending the cultivated area
under it. Many of the company officials found it so profitable that they left
their jobs.
Demand of Indian Indigo: India had better weather conditions for the
growth of the Indigo plant and the French and Italian manufacturers used
Indian Indigo for dying the cloth. The cloth manufacturers favoured Indigo
against the Wood plant.
Cultivation of Indigo: There were two popular systems in practice—Nij and
Ryoti. In the Nij system, cultivators grew Indigo on their own land. In the
Ryobi system, it was grown on rented land by hired labourers.
Problem with Nij cultivation: The problem with Nij was that the expansion
of area was not possible. Scattered small plots wTere available. Mobility of
labour was low. Growing season of Indigo clashed with that of rice
cultivation season.
Indigo on the land of Ryotis: Planters extended loans and pressurized

peasants or headmen to produce Indigo. The planters provided seeds and
drill. These contracts never came to an end and the vicious cycle continued.
The Blue Rebellion: In March 1859, crippled by the circumstances and

suffering, cultivators rose in revolt against indigo planters and their Indian
agents. They were supported by zamindars and headmen.
Collapse of Indigo production: The rebellion left the government worried.

It set up the Indigo Commission to inquire into the system of Indigo
production. The Commission held the planters guilty and criticised them for
their coercive methods. It declared that Indigo production was not profitable
for Ryots.
After the assumption of Diwani in 1765, the Company began to use the vast
revenue resources of Bengal. Now the revenues from India could finance
company’s expenses. These revenues could be used to purchase cotton
and silk textiles in India.
This caused a huge loss of revenue for Bengal. The Bengal economy fell
into deep crisis. Artisans began to desert villages because they were being
forced to sell their goods to the Company at low prices. Peasants were also
worried. Agriculture cultivation showed signs of collapse. Then in 1770 a
terrible famine killed ten million people in Bengal.
Now the Company felt the need of improvement in the field of agriculture
because only then its revenue income was sure.
Finally, the Company introduced the Permanent Settlement in 1793. The
rajas and talukdars were asked to collect rent from the peasants and pay
revenue to the Company. The amount to be paid was fixed permanently.
It was felt that this would ensure a regular flow of revenue into the
Company’s treasury and at the same time encourage the zamindars to
invest in improving the land.
But the zamindars were not capable of investing in the improvement of land.
The revenue that had been fixed was so high that they found it difficult to
pay.
By the first decade of the 19th century, the prices in the market rose and
cultivation slowly expanded. This meant an increase in the income of the
zamindars but no gain for the Company since it could not increase a
revenue demand that had been fixed permanently.
The Permanent Settlement was oppressive for the cultivators. The rent they
paid to the zamindars was high and their right on the land was insecure.
Finding the Permanent settlement a failure, Holt Mackenzie, an Englishman,

devised a new system called Mahalwari Settlement which came into effect
in 1822. The collectors were asked to visit villages, inspect the land,
measure the fields and record the customs and right of different groups. The
estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to calculate
the revenue that each village or mahal had to pay. This demand was to be
revised periodically.
In the British territories in the south ryotwar (or ryotwari) system was
devised. It was initiated by Captain Alexander Read and developed
by.Shomas Munro. This system was gradually extended all over South
India.
The Ryotwari Settlement was made directly with the cultivators (ryots).
All the new systems proved to be failure. The Company had imposed these
systems in order to increase the income from land, but its purpose was not
solved becuase the revenue demand was very high.
By the late 18th century the Company was trying to expand the cultivation of
opium and indigo.
Indian indigo was in great demand in Europe. Hence, the Company in India
looked for ways to expand the area under indigo cultivation.
From the last decades of the 18th century Bengal indigo came to dominate
the world market. In 1788 only about 30% of the indigo imported into Britain
was from India. By 1810 the proportion had gone up to 95%.
As the indigo trade grew, commercial agents and officials of the Company
began investing in indigo production.
Indigo cultivation was done under two systems known as nij and ryoti.
Within the system of nij cultivation, the planter produced indigo in lands that
he directly controlled.
But it was difficult for planters to expand the area under nij cultivation.
Indigo could be cultivated only on fertile lands and these were all already
densely populated.
Labour was also not easily available.
Ni cultivation on a large scale also required several ploughs and bullocks.

Investing on purchase and maintenance of ploughs was a big problem.
Therefore, planters showed reluctance towards expanding the area under
nij cultivation.
Under the ryoti system, planters forced the ryots to sign a contract, an
agreement, also known as satta. Those who signed the contract got cash
advances from the planters at low rates of interest to produce indigo. But
this system was not in favour of the cultivators because they were not given
fair prices after the harvest was ready. Thus, indigo cultivators were highly
dissatisfied.
Several ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo. Soon they became violent.
They got support of the local zamindars and village headmen in their
rebellion against the planters.
This worried the government. It brought in the military to protect the planters
and set up the Indigo Commission to enquire into the system of indigo
production.
The Commission held the planters guilty.
It declared that indigo production was not profitable for ryots. Hence, they
were not needed to produce indi§o in future.
Ultimately indigo production collapsed in Bengal. The planters then shifted

their operation to Bihar.
Countryside: Rural areas.
Permanent Settlement: Under this settlement it was decided that the rates
of revenues once fixed would not be changed.
Mahal: In British revenue records Mahal is a revenue estate which may be

a village or a group of villages.
Mahalwari Settlement: Under this system, the rates of revenues were to be

revised periodically, not permanently fixed.
Ryobi: Cultivator.
Indigo: A plant that produces a rich blue colour.
Plantations: A large farm operated by a planter employing various forms of
forced labour. Plantations are associated with the production of coffee,
sugarcane, tobacco, tea and cotton.
Woad: A plant that produces violet and blue dyes.
Slave: A person who is owned by someone else, i.e., the slave owner. A
slave enjoys no freedom and is compelled to work for the master.
Bigha: A unit of measurement of land.
Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age Class 8 Notes Chapter 4
Affect of Colonial rule: The tribal life was disrupted in many ways by the
colonial rule. There was a significant change experienced by the tribal
people after they came into contact with the colonial rule and the outsiders
whom they described as ‘Dikus’.
Some of them were hunters and gatherers: These people managed their
livelihood by hunting wild animals and by gathering forest products such as
fruits, roots and medicinal shrubs. They also sold the forest products in the
local markets and supplied sal and mahua flowers.
Impact of Forest Laws: Tribals were intimately connected with the forests.
British regulations made them vulnerable as some forests were declared
reserve forest and declared as the property of the state.
Affect on shifting cultivators: The Britishers wanted the tribal groups to

settle down to bring them under the ambit of revenue assessment.
Therefore, the measurement of land took place. Some peasants were
declared landowners and others as their tenants.
What happened to tribal chiefs: The privileges enjoyed by the tribal chiefs
were lost as soon as the Britishers arrived. They were forced to pay tributes.
They lost the administrative powers that were enjoyed by them previously.
Search for work: The tribals who went far away from their respective
homes were the major sufferers. Plantation agriculture began in the late
19th century and they were employed in this industry. Their position became
pathetic, as they were not allowed to go home.
The problem with trade: Moneylenders and traders frequently visited the
tribal areas. Their motive was to make profit by exploiting the tribals as per
their wish. Soon the tribals understood their interest and started maintaining
distance from them.
Some were Jhum cultivators: Some tribal communities practised Jhum

cultivation, i.e. they cleared a patch of the forest and cultivated it for few
years and when it lost its fertility, they moved to other sites. It is also called
slash and burn technique.
Herded animals: There were some groups who lived the life of pastoral
nomads. They migrated from one place to another with the change in
season along with their livestock in search of fodder.
Birsa Munda: Birsa Munda was born in mid-1870s in a poor family. His
family was moving in the search of work. Since his childhood, he had seen
the elder members of the tribes urging the younger members to rebel
against the exploitation.
Settled cultivation: Some tribal communities settled down and cultivated

the same field year after year. They started using plough and cleared the
fields around the Chhotanagpur plateau; thus they became the first settlers.
These were the people of Munda tribes.
The customs and rituals of tribal societies differ from those laid down by the
Brahmans. Unlike the caste societies, the societies of tribals did not have
the sharp social divisions. Those who belonged to the same tribe shared
common ties of kinship. But, this did not mean that there were no social and
economic differences within tribes.By the 19th century, tribal people in
different parts of India were involved in a variety of activities.
Some tribal people engaged in jhum or shifting cultivation. In this type of

cultivation, small patches of land were made cleared off trees. The
cultivators burnt the vegetation and spread the ash from the firing, which
contained potash to fertilise the soil. They used equipments like axe and
hoe for preparing the soil for cultivation. They did not plough the land and
sow the seeds. Instead they used to scatter the seeds on the field. Once the
crop was ready and harvested, they moved to another field.
Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested tracts of north-east
and central India.
Some tribal groups earned their livelihood by hunting animals and gathering
forest produce. They saw forests as essential for survival. The Khonds were
such community living in the forests of Orissa. They ate fruits and roots
collected from the forest. They used many forest shrubs and herbs for
medicinal purposes and sold forest produce in the local markets.
At times they exchanged goods—getting what they needed in return for their
forest produce. Some of them were engaged in some odd jobs in villages
such as carrying loads or building roads, etc.
But a time came when supplies of produce shrank. As a result, more and
more tribal people began to wander around in search of work.
However, Baigas remained in the forest. They did not go anywhere.
Several tribal groups were engaged in heeding and rearing animals. They
were pastoralists who moved with their herds of cattle or sheep according to
the seasons. The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills and the Labadis of Andhra
Pradesh were cattle herders, the Gaddis of Kulu were shepherds and the
Bakarwals of Kashmir reared goats.
Many tribal groups preferred to settle down instead of moving from one
place to another. They began to use plough, and gradually got rights over
the land they lived on.
The British officials found the settled tribal groups like the Gonds and
Santhals more civilised than hunter-gatherers or shifting cultivators.
The British rule, however, changed the life of the tribal people.
The tribal chiefs were considered important people because it is they who
controlled their territories. Under the British rule they lost their administrative
power and were forced to follow law made by British officials in India.
The British never liked those tribal groups who moved about and did not
have a fixed home. They wanted these tribal groups to settle down. Settled
peasants were easier to control and administer than people who were
always on move.
The British also wanted a regular revenue income for the state. Hence, they
introduced land settlements—that is, they measured the land, defined the
rights of each individual of that land and fixed the revenue demand for the
state.
The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not very successful.
The British brought several changes in forest laws. This affected the tribal
lives. The British extended their control over all forests and declared that
forests were state property. Some forests were classified as Reserved
Forests for they produced timber which the British wanted. In these forests
people were not allowed to move freely and practise jhum cultivation. As a
result, several jhum cultivators moved to other areas.
Now, the British faced a problem of shortage of labour. Hence, they decided
that they would give jhum cultivators small patches of land in the forests and
allow them to cultivate these on the condition that those who lived in the
villages would have to provide labour to the Forest Department. After this
forest villages were established around the Forest Department.
Many tribal groups reacted against the colonial forest laws.
During the 19th century, traders and moneylenders began to come into the
forests. They offered cash loan to the tribal people and asked them to work
for wages.
The case of the silk growers is worth-mentioning in this regard. In the 18th
century, Indian silk was in great demand in European markets. Hence, the
East India Company officials tried to encourage silk production to meet the
growing demand.
The Santhals of Hazaribagh reared cocoons. The silk traders sent in their
agents who gave loans to them to collect the cocoons. The growers were
paid three to four rupees for a thousand cocoons. These were then exported
to Burdwan or Gaya where they were sold at five times the price. Thus, the
silk-growers earned very little.
The plight of the tribals ^ho had to go far away from their homes for work
was even worse.
Finally, the tribal groups in different parts of the country rebelled against the
changes in laws, the restrictions on their practices, the exploitation by
traders and moneylenders, etc. The movement that Birsa Munda led is
worth-mentioning here.
Birsa Munda himself declared that God had appointed him to save his
people from trouble, free them from the slavery of dikus (outsiders). Soon,
thousands became the followers of Birsa. They all were unhappy with the
changes they were experiencing and the problems they were facing under
British rule. They wanted to recover their golden past.
A movement began under the leadership of Birsa Munda. The political aim
of the Birsa Movement was to drive out missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu
landlords and the government and to set up a Munda Raj with Birsa at its
head.
As the movement spread, the British officials arrested Birsa in 1895.
In 1897, he was released. Afterwards, he toured the villages to gather
support. He urged people to destroy ‘Ravana’ (dikus and the Europeans)
and establish a kingdom under his leadership.
Birsa died in 1900 and the movement initiated by him faded out, but its
significance cannot be undermined.
Dikus: Outsiders or foreigners
Jhum Cultivation: In this type of cultivation, the cultivators clear off a patch
of land, burn the vegetation and spread the ash from the firing, which
contains potash to fertilise the soil. Then they prepare the soil for cultivation.
They scatter the seeds on the field. Once the crop is ready they move to
another land.
Fallow: A field left uncultivated for a while so that the soil recovers fertility.
Mahua: A flower that is eaten or used to make alcohol.
Bewar: It is a term used in Madhya Pradesh for shifting cultivation.
Sleeper: The horizontal planks of wood on which railway lines are laid.
Akhara: Wrestling ground
Sirdars: Leaders
Vaishnav: Worshippers of Vishnu
Satyug: The age of truth
When People Rebel Class 8 Notes Chapter 5
Nawabs lose their power: Nawabs and Rajas lost their powers to the East
India Company. Residents stationed at Indian states worked effectively so
that Indian states didn’t join against the East India Company. Negotiations
were put down by the East India Company, which was aiming to rule Delhi.
Peasants and Sepoys: Peasants and zamindars lost their lands to the
moneylenders as rate of revenue was excessively increased due to the new
land revenue measures and they could not pay it. Indian sepoys were ill
paid; their religious sentiments were hurt.
From Meerut to Delhi: Mangal Pandey was hanged on 29th April, 1857 for
attacking his officer. On 9tn May, 1857 sepoys at Meerut were imprisoned
as they refused to use the infield rifle. On 10tnMay, 1857 army sepoys
released their sepoy companions and killed British officers. The sepoys then
captured guns and ammunitions and marched towards Delhi. The sepoys
stationed at Delhi garrison welcomed the sepoys from Meerut. British
officers were murdered. The victorious sepoys declared Bahadur Shah
Zafar as the emperor of India. Zafar unwillingly blessed the rebels and
appealed the rulers to form a confederacy against the British.
The rebellion spread: The rulers of the states saw it as an opportunity to
settle their scores from the company and rose in revolt for the fulfilment of
their selfish aims of regaining their territory from East India Company.
The Company fights back: The Company was determined to suppress the
revolt with all its might. It passed laws to demoralise rebels and mobilised
troops from all the states and reinforcement arrived from England. Delhi was
recaptured and gradually other rebel states were also recaptured.
Aftermath: By 1859, British regained control over the rebels. Parliament put
an end to the East India Company rule in India. Office of Secretary of State
was created, which was to be advised by the Indian council. Thus,
government took the responsibility directly.
Since the mid-18th century, Nawabs and Rajas had gradually lost their
power and authority. Their freedom reduced, their armed forces disbanded
and their revenues and territories taken away. The company adopted
policies to end the Mughal dynasty and thus paved the way for the British
government to rule India.
Many ruling families such as Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi tried to negotiate

with the company to protect their interest but they did not get success.
Now the Company began to plan to bring an end to the Mughal dynasty. To
make this plan successful the Company took several measures.
The name of the Mughal king was removed from the coins minted by the
Company.
In 1849, it was announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the
family of the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort and given another
place in Delhi to reside in.
In 1856, the Company decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last
Mughal king, and after his death his descendants would be called princes.
In the countryside peasants and zamindars resented the high taxes and the
rigid methods of revenue collection.
The Indian sepoys were unhappy about their pay, allowances and condition
of sen/ice. Some of the Company’s rule even violated their religious
sentiments. Thus, everywhere there spread discontentment.
The responses to the reforms brought in the Indian society by the British
were also not positive, although some reforms were essential.
The Company passed laws to stop the practice of sati.
English language education was promoted.
In 1850, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier.
Some Indians thought that the British were destroying their religion and their
social customs while some wanted to change existing social practices.
By and by people began to view the British as their common enemy and,
therefore, they rose up against this enemy at the same time.
In May 1857, a massive rebellion started that threatened the Company’s

very presence in India.
Sepoy mutinied in several places beginning from Meerut and a large

number of people from different sections of society rose up in rebellion.
On 29 March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a young soldier, was hanged to death
for attacking his officers in Barrackpore. This was too much for the sepoys.
They refused to do the army drill using the new cartridges, which were
suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs. Thus, tension grew
between the Company and sepoys.
The sepoys were determined to bring an end to the Company’s rule. From
Meerut they rushed to Delhi.
As the news of their arrival spread, the regiments stationed in Delhi also
rose up in rebellion. They killed several British officers, seized arms and
ammunitions, set buildings on fire.
They met the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar and proclaimed him as
their leader.
The Mughal emperor got support from the rulers and chiefs of the country
and together they rose against the British power.
After the British were routed from Delhi, there was no uprising for a few
days. Then, a spurt of mutiny began.
Regiment after regiment mutinied and took off to join other troops at nodal
points like Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow. After them, the people of the towns
and villages also rose up in rebellion and rallied around local leaders,
zamindars and chiefs who were prepared to fight the British. Thus, a
widespread revolt shook the British confidence over ruling India.
The Company had no way out except supressing the revolt with all its might.
It brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws so that the rebels
could be convicted with ease, and then moved into the storm centres of the
revolt.
The Company recaptured Delhi from the rebel forces in September 1857.
Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment.
He along with his wife were sent to prison in Rangoon.
But people in other areas still continued to resist and battle the British. The
British had to fight for two years to suppress the massive forces of popular
rebellion.
The British had regained control of the country by the end of 1859 but they
could not carry on ruling the land with the same policies any more.
The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the
powers of the East India Company to the British Crown in order to ensure a
more responsible management of Indian affairs.
The Governor-General of India was given the title of Vicerory, that is, a
personal representative of the Crown. In this way the British government
took direct responsibility for ruling India.
All ruling chiefs of the country were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to
their heirs, including adopted sons. However, they were made to
acknowledge the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount.
Sepoy: Soldier
Mutiny: When soldiers together begin to disobey their officers in the army.
Firangis: Foreigners, Here, the term has been used for the Englishmen.
Ghazis: Religious warriors
Paramount: Supreme
1849 – Governor-General Dalhousie announced that after the death of

Bahadur Shah Zafar, the family of the king would be shifted out of the Red
Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in.
1856 – (i) Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar

would be the last Mughal king and after his death his descendants would be
recognised as princes.
(ii) The Company passed a new law which stated that every new person
who took up employment in the Company’s army had to agree to serve
overseas if required.
29 March 1857 – Mangal Pandey, a young soldier, was hanged to death for
attacking his officers in Barrackpore.
May 1857 -Sepoys mutinied in several places.
10 May 1857 – Sepoys rushed to Delhi from Meerut.
September 1857 – Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar along with his wife
was sent to prison in Rangoon.
October 1858 – A new Act passed by the British Parliament transferred the
powers of the East India Company to the British Crown.
1858 – Bahadur Shah Zafar died in Rangoon jail.
Colonialism and the City Class 8 Notes Chapter 6
In the late 18th century, Presidency cities were developed by the British—
Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.
De-urbanisation took place as a result of British economic policies. The old

manufacturing towns of India such as Dacca, Murshidabad, Surat, etc. lost
their glory.
Delhi became the hub of political parties.
The period from 1830 to 1857 is referred to as the period of the Delhi
Renaissance.
The British wanted Delhi to forget its Mughal past and got the area around
the forts cleared off, gardens and mosques for security reasons.
New Delhi was constructed as a 10-square mile city on Raisina Hill.
Two architects Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker designed New Delhi and
its buildings.
The British considered overcrowded places as unhealthy and unhygienic

and thus wanted a new city that had better water supply, sewage disposal
and drainage facilities than the old city.
In most parts of the western world modern cities grew with industrialisation.
In Britain industrial towns like Leeds and Manchester grew rapidly in the
19th and 20th centuries.
In India Calcutta, Bombay and Madras emerged in importance as

Presidency cities in the late 18th century.
These Presidency cities became the centre of British power in the different
regions of India.
At the same time cities like Machlipatnam, Surat and Seringapatam

declined.
The historic imperial city of Delhi became a dusty provincial town in the 19th
century before it was rebuilt as the capital of British India.
Delhi has been a capital for more than a 1,000 years, although with some
gaps. As many as 14 capital cities were founded in a small area of about 60
square miles on the left-bank of the river Jamuna of these, the most
important are the capital cities built between the 12th and 17th centuries.
Shah Jahan built the most splendid capital of all. Shahjahanabad was
begun in 1639 and consisted of a fort-palace complex and the city adjoining
it. The Red Fort contained the palace complex.
Delhi during Shah Jahan’s time was also a centre of Sufi culture. It had
several dargahs, khanqahs and idgahs.
Even this was no ideal city and its delights were enjoyed only by some.
There were sharp differences between the rich-and the poor.
In the first half of the 19th century the British lived along with the wealthier
Indians in the Walled City. They learned to enjoy Urdu/Persian culture and
poetry and participated in local festivals.
But things did not remain the same after 1857. During the Revolt Delhi
remained under rebel control for four months. When the British regained it
they embarked on a campaign of revenge and plunder. They began to
demolish everything that was associated with the Mughals. In fact, the
British were very much annoyed with the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah
Zafar to see his active participation in the revolt.
They either demolished mosques or put to other uses. For example, the
Zinat-al-Masjid was converted into a bakery. No worship was allowed in the
Jama Masjid for five years. One-third of the city was demolished and its
canals were filled up.
In the 1870s, the western walls of Shahjahanabad were broken to establish

the railway and to allow the city to expand beyond walls.
The British now began living in the sprawling Civil Lines area that came up
in the north, away from the Indians in the Walled city.
Delhi college was turned into a school, and shut down in 1877.
Delhi emerged into the modern city only after 1911 when it became the
capital of the British India.
New Delhi was constructed as a 10-square-mile city on Raisina Hill, south of

the existing city.
Two architects, Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker, were called on to
design New Delhi and its buildings. It was kept in mind that the new
buildings must assert British importance.
New Delhi took nearly 20 years to build. The idea was to build a city that
was a stark contrast to Shahjahanabad. There were to be no crowded
mohallas, no mazes of narrow by-lanes. In New Delhi, there were to be
broad, straight streets lined with sprawling mansions set in the middle of
large compounds. The architects wanted New Delhi to represent a sense of
law and order in contrast to the chaos of old Delhi.
In 1947, India got independence but at the same time it was partitioned into
India and Pakistan. This led to a large migration from Punjab that changed
the social background of Delhi. An urban culture largely based on Urdu was
overshadowed by new tastes and sensibilities, in food, dress and the arts.
Inside the old city, the excellent system of water supply and drainage was
neglected in the 19th century. The system of wells or baolis also broke
down and channels to remove household waste were damaged.
The population of Delhi was continuously growing at this time. The broken-
down canals could not serve the needs of this ever-growing population.
At the end of the 19th century a new system of open surface drains was
introduced. But this system too was soon overburdened. The Delhi
Municipal Committee was not willing to spend money on a good drainage
system.
At the same time, millions of rupees were being spent on drainage systems
in the New Delhi area.
The havelis or grand mansions in which the Mughal aristocracy lived in the
17th and 18th centuries also declined gradually. In fact the Mughal amirs
were unable to maintain these large establishments under conditions of
British rule. Havelis therefore began to be subdivided and sold.
The colonial bungalow was quite different from the haveli. It was a large
single-storeyed structure with a pitched roof and usually set in one or two
acres of open ground.
The Census of 1931 revealed that the Walled City area was crowded with
as many as 90 persons per acre while New Delhi had only about 3 persons
per acre.
The poor conditions in the Walled City did not stop it from expanding. In
1888 an extension scheme called the Lahore Gate Improvement Scheme
was planned by Robert Clarke for the Walled City residents. Streets strictly
followed the grid system and were of identical width, size and character.
Land was divided into regular areas for the construction of neighbourhoods.
But even this scheme could not decongest the old city.
The Delhi Improvement Trust was set up in 1936, and it built areas like
Daryaganj South for wealthy Indians. Houses were grouped around parks.
Within the houses, space was divided according to new rules of privacy.
Presidency: colonial India was divided into three Presidencies—Bombay,

Madras and Calcutta for administrative purposes.
Urbanisation: It is a process by which more and more people began to

reside in towns and cities.
Dargah: It refers to a tomb of a sufi saint.
Khanqah: It refers to a sufi lodge often used as a rest house for travellers
and a place where people came to discuss spiritual matters, got the
blessings of saints and hear sufi music.
Idgah: It refers to an open prayer place of Muslims primarily meant for id

prayers.
Cul-de-sac: Street with a dead end.
Gul Farosan: A festival of flowers
Renaissance: Literary rebirth of art and learning. It is a term often used to

describe a time when there is great creative activity.
Baolis: The system of wells
Haveli: A grand mansion
Amir: A nobleman during the Mughal period
1639 – Shahjahanabad was begun.
1792 – Delhi College was established.
1830-57 – A period of Delhi renaissance.
1877 – Viceroy Lytton organised a Durbar to acknowledge Queen Victoria

as the Empress of India.
1888 – An extension scheme called the Lahore Gate Improvement Scheme

was planned by Robert Clarke for the Walled City residents.
1911 – The capital of India was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
1936 – The Delhi Improvement Trust was set up.
Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners Class 8 Notes Chapter 7
The industrialization of Britain had a close connection with the conquest and
colonization of India.
From the 16th century, European trading companies began buying Indian
textiles for sale in Europe.
Printed cotton clothes were called chintz, cossies or khassa and bandanna.
The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) began producing steel in 1912.
The industrialisation of Britain had a close connection with the conquest and
colonisation of India.
English East India Company’s interest in trade led to the occupation of

territory and the pattern of trade changed over the decades.
In the late 18th century the Company was buying goods in India and
exporting them to England and Europe; making profit through the sale.
With the growth of industrial production, British industrialists began to see

India as a vast market for their industrial products and very soon
manufactured goods from Britain began flooding India. This badly affected
Indian crafts and industries.
Just take the example of Indian textiles. Needless to say that Indian textiles
were world famous for their quality and craftsmanship.
From the 16th century, European trading companies began buying Indian
textiles for sale in Europe.
Here it is worth mentioning that Indian textiles were famous in western

markets under different names such as muslin, calico, etc.
Printed cotton cloths were called chintz, cossies or khassa and bandanna.
From the 1680s there started a craze for printed Indian cotton textiles in
England and Europe mainly for their beautiful floral designs, fine texture and
to relative cheapness.
The popularity of Indian textiles during the early 18th century worried the
wool and silk makers in England. They began protesting against the import
of Indian cotton textiles.
In fact, textile industries had just begun in England at this time. Unable to
compete with Indian textiles, English producers wanted a secure market
within the country by preventing the entry of Indian textiles. The first to grow
under government protection was the calico printing industry. Indian designs
were now imitated and printed in England on white muslin or plain
unbleached Indian cloth.
Competition with Indian textiles led to a search for technological innovation

in England. The invention of Spinning Jenny in 1764 and Steam Engine in
1786 revolutionised cotton textile weaving. Cloth could now be woven in
large quantities and cheaply too.
However, Indian textiles continued to dominate world trade till the end of the
18th century. European trading companies made huge profits out of this
flourishing trade.
In India, textile production was concentrated in four regions in the early 19th
century — Bengal, Dacca in Eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh), regions
along the Coromandel Coast and Gujarat.
However, Indian textiles began to decline with the development of cotton

industries in Britain and by the beginning of the 19th century, English-made
cotton textiles successfully ousted Indian goods from their traditional
markets in Africa, America and Europe.
This badly affected the weavers of India. They lost their employment.
Bengal weavers were the worst hit.
English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods.
The situation became worse by the 1830s when British cotton cloth flooded
Indian markets. This affected both specialist weavers and spinners.
Thousands of rural women who made a living by spinning cotton thread
became jobless.
However, handloom weaving continued to exist to some extent. This was
because some types of cloths could not be supplied by machines. Machines
failed to produce saris with intricate borders or cloths with traditional woven
patterns.
Many weavers and spinners who lost their livelihood now became
agricultural labourers. Some migrated to cities in search of work and yet
others went out of the country to work in plantations in Africa and South
America.
Some handloom weavers got employment in the new cotton mills that were
established in different parts of India.
The first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay in 1854.
Afterwards, mills came up in other cities too, for example, Ahmedabad and
Kanpur.
The textile factory industry faced various problems in the beginning.
The first major spurt in the development of cotton factory production in India
was during the First World War when textile imports from Britain declined
and Indian factories were called upon to produce cloth for military supplies.
Indian Wootz steel which was produced all over South India, fascinated
European scientists. However, the Wootz steel making process was
completely lost by the mid- 19th century. The reason behind this was that
when the British conquered India, the imports of iron and steel from England
began to displace the iron and steel produced by the crafts people in India.
As a result, several iron smelters lost their job. The demand for iron
produced by them inevitably lowered.
By the early 20th century, the artisans producing iron and steel faced a new
competition with the coming of iron and steel factories in India.
The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) began producing steel in 1912.
Soon in 1914 First World War broke out. Steel produced in Britain now had
to meet the demands of war in Europe. So imports of British steel into India
declined and the Indian Railways, that was expanding at that time, turned to
TISCO for supply of rails.
It was the best moment for the TISCO to flourish.
The war dragged on for several years and TISCO had to produce shells and
carriage wheels for the war.
By 1919 the colonial government was buying 90% of the steel manufactured
by TISCO. Over time TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the
British empire.
Chintz: It is derived from the Hindi word chintz which is a cloth with small
and colourful flowery designs.
Bandanna: The word refers to any brightly coloured and printed scarf for
the neck or head. Originally, the term derived from the word ‘bandhna’ and
referred to a variety of brightly-coloured cloth produced through a method of
tying and dying.
Spinning Jenny: A machine by which a single worker could operate

several spindles on to which thread was spun. When the wheel was turned
all the spindles rotated.
Charkha and takli: Household spinning instruments. The thread was spun
on the charkha and rolled on the takli.
Rangrez: The dyer who dyed the thread.
Chhipigar: Block printer
Aurang: A Persian term for a warehouse—a place where goods are

collected before being sold.
Smelting: The process of obtaining a metal from rock or soil by heating it to
a very high temperature, or of melting objects made from metal in order to
use the metal to make something new.
Bellows: A device or equipment that can pump air.
Slag heaps: The waste left when smelting metal.
1720 – The British government enacted legislation banning the use of

printed cotton textiles—chintz.
1764 – Spinning Jenny was invented.
1786 – Steam engine was invented.
1854 – The first cotton mill in India was established in Bombay.
1912 – The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) began producing steel.
Civilising the “Native”, Educating the Nation Class 8 Notes Chapter 8
The Tradition of Orientalists: Orientalists needed Indian scholars to teach

them vernacular languages, local customs and laws and help them translate
and interpret ancient texts. They believed that the ancient customs of the
country and oriental learning ought to be the basis of the British rule in India.
Education for Commerce: It was believed that Indians would be able to

understand the advantages of trade and commerce through European
learning. Western influence would change the lifestyle of educated Indians
so that they would readily accept British goods.
What Happened to Local Schools: Earlier, local schools or pathshalas

were allowed to function without much interference. But after 1854, the
British standardized the curriculum, imposed routines, established rules and
ensured regular inspections of these schools.
New Routines, New Rules: The Britisher’s government-appointed officials

who were made in-charge of four to five schools. Teaching was now
according to a regular timetable. Students wrote examinations, paid a
regular fee and obeyed the new rules of discipline.
Agenda for National Education: In the 19th century, Indian thinkers were
impressed with the developments in Europe. They felt that western
education would help in modernization of India. They urged the British to
open more schools, colleges and universities and spend more money on
education.
Gandhi’s View on Western Learning: Gandhi argued that colonial

education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of Indians and
destroyed the pride they had in their own culture.
Tagore’s ‘Abode of Peace’: Tagore felt that creative learning could be

encouraged only within a natural environment. Therefore in 1901, he set up
his school, Shanti Niketan, in a rural setting where children lived in harmony
with nature and cultivated their natural creativity.
The British in India established their rule over the entire country. But their
task was not completed with the establishment of control. They felt that they
had a cultural mission. They had to civilise the natives by giving them proper
education and by changing their customs and values.
For this it was necessary to study Indian history, philosophy and law.
William Jones, an expert in law and a linguist, took this task. He began to
study ancient Indian texts on law, philosophy, religion, politics, morality,
arithmetic, medicine and the other sciences.
Englishmen like Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed were also
busy
discovering the ancient Indian heritage, mastering Indian languages and
translating Sanskrit and Persian works into English.
Jones and Colebrooke shared a deep respect for ancient cultures. Both of
India and the West Indian civilisation, they felt, had attained its glory in the
ancient past but had subsequently declined. In order to understand India it
was necessary to discover the sacred and legal texts that were produced in
the ancient time.
Jones and Colebrooke went about discovering ancient texts, understanding

their meaning, translating them and making their findings known to others.
Several company officials got influenced by these ideas. They felt that the
Hindus and the Muslims ought to be thught what they were already familiar
with, and what they valued and treasured, not subjects that were alien to
them.
It was thought that this was the only way the British could win the hearts the
‘natives’, and could get respect from them.
A madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic,

Persian and Islamic law. In 1791, the Hindu College was established in
Benaras to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts that would be
useful for the administration of the country.
Not all Company officials shared these views. They began to criticise the
Orientalist
vision of learning. They strongly disapproved the British effort to encourage
the study of Arabic and Sanskrit language and literature.
James Mill was one of those who attacked the Orientalists. He was of the
opinion that Indians should be made familiar with the scientific and technical
advances that the West had made, rather than with the poetry and sacred
literature of the Orient.
Thomas Babington Macaulay, another critic of Orientalists, saw India as an

uncivilised country that needed to be civilised. He emphasized the need to
teach Indians the English language.
Finally, the English Education Act of 1835 was introduced. The decision was
to make English the medium of instruction for higher education, and to stop
the promotion of Oriental institutions like the Calcutta Madrasa and Benaras
Sanskrit College.
In 1854, an educational despatch, popularly known as Wood’s Despatch,

was sent to India. Outlining the educational policy that was to be followed in
India. It emphasised once again the practical benefits of a system of
European learning.
Wood’s Despatch argued that European learning would enable Indians to
recognise* the advantages that flow from the expansion of trade and
commerce and make them see the importance of developing country’s
resources. European learning would also improve the moral character of
Indians. It would make them truthful and honest and thus supply the
company with civil servants who could be trusted.
The British took several measures to uplift the Indian’s educational system.
They set up education departments of the government. Universities were
established in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. Upto the mid-19th century,
the company’s primary concern was to improve higher jeducation.
Afterwards, it also took steps to improve the condition of local schools.
In 1830s William Adam, a Scottish missionary, was given the charge by the
Company to tour the districts of Bengal and Bihar. He was asked to report
on the progress of education in local schools.
Adam found that the system of education in the local schools, known as
pathshalas, was flexible. There were no fixed fee, no benches or chairs, no
system of separate classes, no annual examinations, etc. In some places
classes were held under a banyan tree, in other places in the corner of a
village’s shop or temple, or at the guru’s home. Teaching was oral and the
guru decided what to teach.
After the Company got Adam’s report, it immediately took decision to

improve the system of vernacular education.
It appointed a number of government pandits, each in charge of looking

after four to five schools. The task of the pandit was to visit the pathshalas
and try to improve the standard of teaching.
New routines and rules were introduced. Teaching was now to be based on
textbooks and learning was to be tested through a system of annual
examination. Students were asked to pay regular fee, attend regular
classes, sit on fixed seats and obey the new rules of discipline.
Not only the British officials but several Indians too wanted to spread
English education in the country. The Indians felt that Western education
would help modernise India. Hence, they urged the British to open more and
more schools, colleges and universities.
At the same time, there were other Indians too, such as Mahatma Gandhi
and Rabindranath Tagore, who were dead against western education.
Mahatma Gandhi argued that coloured education created a sense of

inferiority in the minds of Indians. It would enslave Indians. He felt that
Indian languages ought to be the medium of teaching. Education in English
crippled Indians, distanced them from their own social surroundings and
made them strangers in their own land.
With the spread of nationalist movement, other thinkers also began thinking
of a system of national education which would be different from that one set
up by the British.
Rabindranath Tagore started Shantiniketan in 1901. He was of the view that

creative learning could be encouraged only within a natural environment. So
he chose to set up his school 100 kilometres away from Calcutta, in a rural
setting. He saw it as an abode of peace, i.e. Shantiniketan, where living in
harmony with nature, children could cultivate their natural creativity.
Linguist: One who knows and studies several languages.
Native: Original inhabitant of the land.
Orientalists: Those with a scholarly knowledge of the language and culture

of Asia.
Munshi: A person who can read, write and teach Persian.
Vernacular: It refers to a local language or dialect as distinct from the

standard language.
Minute: A short note on a subject.

Despatch: A message or report.
Pathshala: Local school.
Guru: Teacher.
1781 – A madrasa was set up in Calcutta.
1791 – The Hindu College was set up in Benaras.
1835 – The English Education Act was enacted.
1854 – Wood’s Despatch was issued.
1901 – Rabindranath Tagore established Shantiniketan.
Women, Caste and Reform Class 8 Notes Chapter 9
Till the 19th century, the condition of Indian women was deplorable. Their
condition was pathetic, which was manifested in various social evils such as
child marriage, female infanticide, sati system, etc.
Raja Rammohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj were pioneers in championing
the emancipation of women.
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Keshab Chandra Sen, Rabindranath Tagore,

Derozio, Begum Rokeya Shekhawat Hossain, all worked for the
emancipation of women.
A number of women associations were formed which created social

consciousness and also voiced public opinion on certain important issues
related to women.
About two hundred years ago our society was not as it is now. It had
imposed many barriers on women. They could not go to school, they could
not marry according to their wilt etc. In some parts of the country, sati pratha
existed and widows were praised if they chose death by burning themselves
on the funeral pyre of their husbands.
The society that existed in those days was also caste-based. People were
divided along lines of caste. Brahmans and Kshatriyas were considered as
upper caste. After them traders and moneylenders were placed. Then came
peasants and artisans. At the lowest rung were those whose job was to
keep cities and villages clean. There were also untouchables, who were
considered inferior by the so called upper-caste people.
Things have been greatly changed now. Women are now enjoying better
position in every field. They are getting high education, and are doing jobs
after that. Though caste-feeling is not completely rooted out, but its intensity
has been minimized considerably.
What positive changes we see in our society have not occurred overnight. It
took long years to take place.
From the early 19th century, debates and discussions began to take place
in order to root out the evils that had crippled our society for years. These
debates were often initiated by Indian reformers and reform groups.
Raja Rammohun Roy was one such reformer. He founded the Brahmo
Samaj in Calcutta.
He wanted to spread Western education in the country. He advocated for

women education. He strongly disapproved the system of sati. Many British
officials also criticised Indian traditions and customs. They supported Raja
Rammohun Roy. Finally sati pratha was banned in 1829.
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar was a great social reformer. He favoured widow
re-marriage. British officials supported his cause and passed a law in 1856
that permitted widows to re-marry. Swami Dayanand Saraswati, founder of
Arya Samaj, also supported widow re-marriage.
These reformers felt that in order to improve the condition of women it was
necessary to educate them. For this purpose several schools were opened
for girls by the efforts of Vidyasagar and other reformers.
People reacted sharply against sending girls to schools. Hence, they were
taught at homes throughout the 19th century.
In aristocratic Muslim families in North India, women learnt to read the

Koran in Arabic. They were taught by women who came home to teach.
Muslim women like the Begums of Bhopal did a lot for the promotion of
education among women.
They set up a primary school for girls at Aligarh.
Begum Rolceya Sakhawat Hossain also opened schools for Muslim girls in
places like Patna and Calcutta.
By the 1880s, Indian women began to take university education. Some of
them trained to be doctors while some became teachers. Many women
began to write and publish their critical views on the status of women in
society. For instance, Tarabai Shinde published a book named
Stripurushtulna.
Pandita Ramabai wrote a book about the pathetic condition of upper-caste

Hindu widows. She set up a widow home at Poona in order to give shelter to
widows.
Orthodox Hindus and Muslims became worried about all these changes.
However, women ultimately began to enjoy greater freedom. And from the
1920s, some of them even joined various kinds of nationalist and socialist
movements.
Caste inequalities had cippled our society. Reformers made sincere efforts
to root out these evils from society. In Bombay, the Paramhans Mandali was
founded in 1840 to work for the abolition of caste.
During the course of the 19th century, Christian missionaries became

active. They set up schools for tribal groups and lower caste children.
But at the same time, the people from low caste, in order to get rid of the
exploitation from upper-caste, began to migrate to cities where there was
new demand for labour.
People belonging to lower castes began to organise movements from the

second half of the 19th century against caste discrimination. They
demanded social equality and justice. In this connection we can mention the
Satnami Movement in central India, initiated by Ghasidas who came from a
low caste.
In eastern Bengal, Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect worked among low caste
Chandala cultivators. Haridas questioned Brahmanical texts that supported
the caste system.
Jyotirao Phule, also a low-caste leader, attacked the Brahmans, claim that
they were superior to others, since they were Aryans.
He proposed that Shudras (labouring castes) and Ati Shudras

(untouchables) should unite to fight against caste discrimination.x
He founded Satyashodhak Samaj that propogated caste equality. In 1873,

he wrote
a book named Gulamgiri meaning slavery. _
Dr B.R. Ambedkar and Ramaswami Naicker continued the movement for

caste reform in the 20th century.
Ambedkar belonged to a Mahar family. As a child he experienced what

caste prejudice meant in everyday life. He remembered how he was forced
to sit outside the classroom on the ground and not allowed to drink water
from taps meant for upper-caste children. These systems were very
depressing.
In 1927, he started a temple entry movement, which was resented by the

Brahman priests.
The non-Brahman movement began in the early 20th century. It was

initiated by qualified, and wealthy non-Brahman castes. They challenged
Brahmanical claims to power.
E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, popularly known as Periyar, founded the Self
Respect Movement. He inspired untouehables to fight for their dignity and
self-respect. He was also a great critic of Hindi scriptures.
Several associations were established and movements started by our

reformers in order to make Indian society free from all evils. A glimpse of
these associations and movements have been given below.
The Brembo Samaj founded by Raja Rammohun Roy in 1830 to prohibit all
forms of idolatry and sacrifice.
Derozio and Young Bengal — Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, a teacher at

Hindu College, Calcutta initiated the Young Bengal Movement in the 1820s
to promote radical ideas and encourage his students to question all
authority.
The Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekananda. Vivekananda established the

Ramakrishna Mission to stress the ideals of salvation through social service
and selfless action.
The Prarthana Samaj. Established in 1867 at Bombay, the Prarthana Samaj

worked for removing caste restrictions, encouraging the education of
women, etc.
The Veda Samaj. It was established in 1864. It worked to abolish caste

distinctions and promote widow Remarriage and women’s education.
The Aligarh Movement. Sayyid Ahmed Khan founded the Mohammedan

Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 at Aligarh. It later became famous as the
Aligarh Muslim University. The institution offered modern education. It is
known as the Aligarh Movement.
The Singh Sabha Movement. This movement sought to free Sikhism from
superstitions, caste distinctions and practices seen by them as non-Sikh.
Sati: It means virtuous women. These women chose death by burning

themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands.
Untouchable: Untouchables were considered to be the lowest by the
upper-caste people. They were denied entry in temples, restaurants, etc.
Gulamgiri: A book written by Jyotirao Phule. It means slavery.
Stripurushtulna: A book published-by Tarabai Shinde. It means a

comparison between women and men.
Conservative: Those who want to stick to old traditions and customs and
oppose new changes.
Suffrage: The right to vote.
1772-1833 – Raja Rammohun Roy brought a lot reformations in the Indian

society during this period.
1829 – Sati was banned.
1856 – A law was passed to permit widow remarriage.
1875 – The Arya Samaj was founded.
1929 – The Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed.
1927-1935 – Ambedkar led three temple entry movements between this

period.
The Changing World of Visual Arts Class 8 Notes Chapter 10
New forms of Imperial Art: From 18 century, European artists visited India.
They painted what they perceived in India. They brought with them new
techniques such as oil paintings, which made painting lifelike. These new art
forms were instantly adopted by Indian artists.
Looking for picturesque: In this kind of painting style, India was depicted
as an unexplored land with wild and untamed landscape. Thomas and
William Daniell were two painters, who projected India in this way. Their
paintings had great demand in Britain as people wanted to know about the
Company’s new Empire.
What happened to the Court Artists: The Court of Mysore resisted the
new trends and its ruler, Tipu Sultan, encouraged local traditions such as
Mural paintings on the walls. In the states conquered by British, painters
adopted the change and one such example was use of perspective in their
paintings.
The New Popular Indian Art: In the early 19th century, new popular forms
of Indian art developed in various parts of India. In Bengal, local scroll
painters were developed around pilgrimage centres. These painters moved
to new cities and developed new art forms such as Kalighat,
The search for National Art: Nationalism also spread through the media of
paintings. Many painters attempted to develop an art style that could be
considered modem as well as Indian.
The Art of Raja Ravi Varma: Ravi Varma belonged to the royal house of
Travancore and attempted to develop an art style that could be modern as
well as national. He mastered the Western oil paintings and realistic life
study, but painted scenes from Indian mythology.
A different vision of national art: A new group of nationalist artists

emerged under Rabindranath Tagore. This group rejected Raja Ravi
Varma’s style to be considered as national. They laid emphasis on the
spiritual essence of the east rather than of the west in the paintings.
A lot of changes came in the world of visual arts during the British period in
India.
A colonial rule introduced many new art forms, styles, materials and
techniques which were creatively adapted by Indian artists for local patrons
and markets, in both elite and popular circles.
A stream of European artists, who came to India from the 18th century,
brought with them new styles and new conventions of painting. The pictures
that they produced shaped Western perceptions of India.
These artists introduced the idea of realizing. This was based on careful
observation and the faithful defection of scenes which they saw with their
own eyes.
The technique of oil painting, which was a new thing for the Indian artists,
was also introduced. This type of painting enabled artists to produce images
that looked real.
The European artists chose varied subjects for their paintings but they never
missed to emphasize the superiority of Britain—its culture and its people, its
power.
Picturesque landscape painting was a popular imperial tradition. This style

of painting depicted India as a quaint land, to be explored by traveling
British artists, its landscape was rugged and wild, seemingly untamed by
human hands. Thomas Daniell and his nephew William Daniell painted
within this tradition. They produced of the most evocative picturesque
landscapes of Britains newly conquered regions in India.
Portrait painting was another tradition of art in colonial India. The portraits
were life-size images that looked lifelike and real. The size of the paintings
itself projected the importance of the patrons who commissioned these
portraits.
Portrait painting became famous. As a result many European portrait

painters came to India in search of profitable commissions. The name of
Johann Zoffany is worth- mentioning in this connection.
The third category of imperial art is known as history painting. This tradition
sought to dramatise and recreate various episodes of British imperial
history.
British victories in India provided a rich material for history painters in

Britain. These paintings once again celebrated the British, their power, their
victories, their supremacy.
Imperial history paintings sought to create a public memory of imperial

triumphs.
Different courts had different trends. In Mysore, Tipu Sultan not only fought
the British on the battlefield but also resisted the cultural traditions
associated with them. He continued to encourage local traditions and had
the walls of his palace at Seringapatam covered with rural paintings done by
local artists.
The court of Murshidabad had a different trend. Here, after defeating

Sirajuddaulah the British had successfully installed their puppet Nawabs
(Mir Zafar and Mir Qasim) on the throne. The court at Murshidabad
encouraged local miniature artists to absorb the tastes and artistic styles of
the British.
As the British established their power in India, several local courts lost their
influence and wealth. They could no longer support painters and pay them
to paint for the court. As a result, many painters turned to the British, who
welcomed them.
British officials wanted images through which they could understand India,
remember their life in India and depict India to the Western world. Local
painters got work. They began producing a vast number of images of local
plants and animals, historical buildings and monuments, festivals and
processions, trades and crafts, castes and communities. As these pictures
were collected by the East India Company officials, they became famous as
Company paintings.
There were also painters who were not associated with any court. These
painters developed a new world of popular art in many of the cities of India
during the 19th century.
In Bengal, around the pilgrimage center of the temple of Kalighat, local

village scroll painters potters began developing a new style of art. They
moved from the surrounding villages into Calcutta in the early 19th century
in the life of new patrons and new buyers of their art.
Before the 19th century, the village pastures and potters had painted on
mythological themes and produced images of gods and goddesses. But the
images were not realistic and lifelike.
After the 1840s, they began producing paintings on social and political
themes.
Many of these Kalighat pictures were printed in large numbers and sold in
the market. In the beginning, the images were engraved in wooden blocks.
The carved block was inked, pressed against paper, and then the woodcut
prints that were produced were colored by hand. In this way many copies
could be produced from the same block.
By the late 19th century, mechanical printing presses were established

which allowed prints to be produced in even larger numbers. As a result,
these prints became accessible for the poor too.
Middle-class Indian artists also set up printing presses and produced prints
for a wide’ market.
With the spread of nationalism, popular prints of the early 20th century
began carrying nationalist messages. In many of them one can see Bharat
Mata appearing as goodness carrying the national flag, or nationalist heroes
sacrificing their head to the Mata, and gods and goddesses slaughtering the
British.
The images of India were produced by photographers too.
European photographers traveled to India and took pictures. They set up

studios and established photographic societies to promote the art of
photography.
Towards the end of the 19th century, the painters began to develop a style
that could be considered both modern and Indian.
Raja Ravi Verma was one of the first artists who created such a style. He
mastered the Western art of oil painting and realistic life study but painted
themes from Indian mythology. His mythological paintings became popular
among Indian princes and art collectors.
However, the nationalist artists in Bengal did not approve the art of Ravi
Verma because it was imitative and westernized. They declared that such a
style was unsuitable for depicting the nation’s ancient myths and legends.
They felt that a true Indian style of painting had to draw inspiration from non-
western art traditions and try to capture the spiritual essence of the East.
They broke away from the convention of oil painting and the realistic style
and turned to for inspiration to medieval Indian traditions of miniature
painting and the ancient art of mural painting in the Ajanta caves.
Convention: It refers to a norm or style that has been accepted.
Engraving: It refers to a picture printed onto paper from a piece of wood or

metal into which the design or drawing has been cut.
Picturesque: Scene.
Portrait: It is a picture of a person in which the face and its expression is

prominent.
Portraiture: It is an art of making portraits.
Commission: Choosing someone to do a special piece of work usually

against payment.
Mural: It is a wall painting.
Perspective: The way that objects appear smaller when they are further
away and the way parallel lines appear to meet each other at a point in the
distance.
Scroll painter: One who does painting on a long roll of paper that could be
rolled up.
Life study: It is the study of human figures from living models who pose for
artists.
The Making of the National Movement Class 8 Notes Chapter 11
The advent of Gandhiji: Gandhiji was 46 years old when he came to India
after leading the Indians in South Africa in non-violent marches against
racist restrictions.
Indian National Congress: The Indian National Congress was established

in December 1885. Around 72 delegates attended the first meeting of the
Indian National Congress held in Bombay. The early important leaders were
Dadabhai Naoroji, Ferozshah Mehta, Romesh Chandra Dutt, and S.
Subramania Iyer.
Radicals in the Congress: Since the 1890s, the Congress party witnessed
the emergence of the trend of radicals. They began to question the nature of
the political methods and approach of the moderates in Congress.
The Swadeshi Movement: The Swadeshi Movement emerged out as a

result of many demonstrations and mass protest against the partition of
Bengal in 1905. The movement was very strong in Bengal. It encouraged
the ideas of self-help, swadeshi enterprise, national education and use of
Indian languages.
The All India Muslim League: The All India Muslim League was formed at
Dacca in 1906 by a group of Muslim landlords and Nawabs. It supported the
partition of Bengal because of its desire for separate electorates for
Muslims.
The Congress Split: The Congress split in 1907 because the moderates
were opposed to the use of boycott by the Radicals. The Moderates
dominated the Congress after its split. The Radicals and the Moderates of
the Congress reunited in December 1915.
Demands of Moderates: The moderates demanded a greater voice for

Indians at higher positions in government and administration. They also
demanded the legislative councils to increase the number of representatives
by including Indians. They demanded the introduction of legislative councils
in the provinces.
The Lucknow Pact: The Lucknow Pact was a historic agreement signed in
1916 between the Congress and the All India Muslim League. Both parties
decided to work together for the representative government in the country.
The Khilafat Agitation: The Indian Muslims Community launched the

Khilafat Agitation. Its two important leaders were Mohammad Ali and
Shaukat Ali. It was launched against the Britishers’ imposition of a harsh
treaty (Treaty of Sevres) on the Turkish Sultan or Khalifa.
The Non-Cooperation Movement: The leaders of the Khilafat Agitation,

Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, persuaded Gandhiji to launch the Non-
Cooperation Movement. Gandhiji accepted it and urged the Congress to
protest and demonstrate against the Jallianwala massacre, the Khilafat
wrongdoing and in favor of Swaraj.
The Chauri Chaura Incident: Gandhiji was against the use of violent
methods and movements. He called off the Non-Cooperation Movement
abruptly due to the Chauri Chaura incident in which 22 policemen were
killed when a crowd of peasants set fire to the police station in February
1922.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha: In 1919, Gandhiji launched an anti-Rowlatt

Satyagraha, which received a countrywide response. April 6, 1919 was
observed as the day of “humiliation and prayers” and hartal (strike).
Satyagraha Sabhas were held throughout the country.
The Rowlatt Act: The Britishers passed the Rowlatt Act in India, under
which people could be imprisoned without trial. This act was called the
‘Black Act’. This strengthened the power of the police.
The Simon Commission: In 1927, the British government in England sent

a commission headed by Lord Simon to decide India’s political future. The
commission did not have any Indian representative, due to which it faced
protest by Indians.
The Salt March: In 1930, Gandhiji decided to lead a march to break the
Salt Law. The march began at Sabarmati Ashram and ended at the coastal
village of Dandi and Gandhiji broke the Salt Law by gathering salt naturally
found on the seashore.
Quit India Movement: In 1942, Gandhiji launched Quit India Movement
against the Britishers. The movement urged the Britishers to quit India and
followed a popular slogan “Do or Die”, calling upon the people’s full effort to
fight against the Britishers in a non-violent manner.
League and the Independent States: The All India Muslim League moved
a resolution demanding “Independent States” for Muslims in the 1940s. The
league located its “Independent States” in the north-western and eastern
areas of the country.
After the Revolt of 1857, people of India became determined to root out
British rule from the country.
As awareness spread among them, they began to feel that India was for the
people of India and its resources were meant for all the Indians. Unless
British control over the resources of India and its people was ended, India
could not be for Indians. Hence, the first and foremost task of every Indian
was to fight against the foreign rule unless and until it was rooted out.
Political associations came into being in the 1870s and 1880s. The more
important ones were the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association,
the Madras Mahajan Sabha and the Bombay Presidency Association. The
aim of all these associations was to empower Indians so that they might
take decisions regarding their affairs.
The British were aware of all these developments. They began to take
action. In 1878, the Arms Act was passed which disallowed Indians from
possessing arms. In the same, the Vernacular Press Act was passed, which
tried to silence all those who were critical of the government.
The need for an all-India organization of educated Indians had been felt
since 1880. Finally, in 1885 the Indian National Congress came into being.
In the beginning, the congress was more or less moderate in its objectives
and methods. It demanded a greater^oice for Indians in the government and
in administration. It also demanded separation of the judiciary from the
executive, the repeal of the Arms Act and the freedom of speech and
expression.
Congress, in the early years, also raised several economic issues. It

declared that an increase in the land revenue had impoverished peasants
and zamindars. Hence, reduction of revenue was essential.
The Moderate leaders in the Congress published newspapers, wrote articles

and showed how British rule was leading to the economic rain of the
country. All this they did in order to draw public attention towards the unjust
rule of the British.
Some leaders in the Congress such as Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar
Tilak, and Lala Lajpat Rai, did not like the ideas of the Moderates. They
criticized the Moderats for their ‘politics of prayers’ and emphasized the
importance of self-reliance and constructive work. They argued that people
must fight for swaraj. Tilak raised the slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I
shall have it”.
In 1905, Bengal, the biggest province of British India and included Bihar and
parts of Orissa, was partitioned by Viceroy Curzon. It enraged people all
over India. Both the Moderates and the Radicals unitedly oppressed the
British action. This led to the birth of the Swadeshi Movement, which
boycotted British institutions and goods.
An important development came in 1906 with the formation of the All India
Muslim League at Dacca. The founder members of the League were Muslim
landlords and nawabs. They supported the partition of Bengal and
demanded for separate electorates for Muslims.
However, in the year 1916, the Congress and the Muslim League decided to
work together for representative government in the country.
The growth of mass nationalism began to take place after 1919. Peasants,
tribals, students, and women became involved in the struggle against British
rule.
Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a mass leader. He, first of all, toured the
entire country in order to understand the people, their needs and the overall
situation.
Afterward, he led to local movements in Champaran, Kheda, and

Ahmedabad in which he got immense success.
In 1919 Gandhiji started Satyagraha Movement against the Rowlatt Act that
the British had just passed. The Act curbed fundamental rights such as the
freedom of expression and strengthened police powers.
In April 1919, there were a number of demonstrations and hartals in the
country against this Act. The government used hartal measures to suppress
them. The Jallianwala Bagh atrocities in Amritsar on Baishakhi Day were a
part of this Suppression.
In the year 1920, the British did another wrong known as khilafat wrong. The
British imposed a harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan also known as Khalifa.
This enraged the Muslims and Khalifa agitation started under the leadership
of Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali. They wished to initiate a full-fledged
Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhiji supported their call and urged the
congress to campaign against Jallianwala massacre, Khilafat wrong and
demand swaraj.
During the years 1921-22, the Non-Cooperation Movement gained

momentum because it got a wide support. However, it was abruptly called
off by Mahatma Gandhi when in February 1922 a crowd of peasants set fire
to a police station in Chauri Chaura. Twenty-two policemen were killed on
that day. It hurt Mahatma Gandhi because he had never thought that people
would go violent. He always wished to drive away the British by non-violent
methods.
The Congress now resolved to fight for Purna Swaraj (complete

independence) in 1929 under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Now efforts began to be made in this direction. In 1930, Gandhiji started

Dandi March against the Salt Law. He got immense support from the
people.
The combined struggles of the Indian people bore fruit when the
Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy and the
government announced elections to the provincial legislatures in 1937.
In September 1939, the Second World War broke out. The Congress
leaders were ready to support the British war effort. But in return, they
wanted independence after the war. The British refused to concede the
demand.
A new phase of movement, popularly known as Quit India Movement was
initiated in August 1942 under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. As a
result prominent leaders were jailed at once. But the movement spread.
In between these events the Muslim League began to demand independent

States for Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of the country.
Mahatma Gandhi was not in favour of this.
The League began to think that Muslims were a minority and they would
always have^ to play second fiddle in any democratic structure. The
Congress’s rejection of the Leagues desire to form a joint Cohgress-League
government in the United Provinces in 1937 further annoyed the League.
In 1945, the British opened negotiations between the Congress, the League
and themselves for the independence of India. The talks failed because the
League now wanted Pakistan.
In March 1946, the British cabinet sent a three-member mission to Delhi to

examine the League’s demand for Pakistan and to suggest a suitable
political framework for a free India.
The Mission suggested that India should remain united and constitute itself
as a loose confederation with some autonomy for Muslim majority areas.
Neither the Congress nor the League agreed to it. Now, partition of India
became inevitable.
Finally, Pakistan came into existence. The violence of partition shook both
the newly- independent countries—India and Pakistan. It marred the joy of
independence.
Sarvajanik: All the people.
Sovereign: Being independent without outside interference.
Publicist: Someone who publicises an idea by circulating information,
writing reports, speaking at public meetings.
Moderate: A person who is against taking extreme action.
Repeal: To undo the law.
Radical: A person who welcomes new ideas or opinions.
Revolutionary Violence: The use of violence to make a radical change

within society.
Council: An appointed or elected body of people with an administrative

advisory or representative function.
Knighthood: An honor granted by the British crown for exceptional

personal achievement or public service.
Picket: A person or a group of people protesting outside a building or shop

to prevent others from entering.
Mahants: Religious functionaries of Sikh gurudwaras.
Illegal eviction: Forcible and unlawful throwing out of tenants from the land
they rent.
RSS: It stands for Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.
Purna Swaraj: Complete independence.
Provincial Autonomy: Capacity of the provinces to make relatively

independent decisions while remaining within a federation.
General Constituencies: Election districts with no reservations for any

religious or other community.
Refugee: One who has been forced to leave his country or home due to
some political, religious or social reasons.
1878 – The Arms Act was passed.
1885 – The Vernacular Press Act was passed.
1905 – The Indian National Congress came into existence. Bengal got
partitioned.
1915 – Mahatma Gandhi came to India from South Africa. The Rowlatt
Satyagraha started.
1919 – Rowlatt Satyagraha started. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre took

place.
1920 – The Non-Cooperation Movement started.
1922 – Gandhiji called off the Non-Cooperation Movement.
1929 – The Congress resolved to fight for Puma Swaraj.
26 Jan 1930 – Independence Day was observed all over the country.
1930 – Mahatma Gandhi launched Dandi March.
August 1942 – The Quit India Movement started.
1947 – India got independence. Pakistan emerged as a new country.
India After Independence Class 8 Notes Chapter 12
A New and Divided Nation: India finally gained independence, but it was
divided into two separate nations. This resulted in the mobilization of a large
number of people. The settlement of these people and organization of
princely states were the main challenges before the new nation.
A Constitution was formed: Constitution is a written document, which lays

out the working of the government of the country. The duties and
responsibilities of all the organs of government are mentioned in this
document. Moreover, the rights and duties of the citizens are also
mentioned in the constitution.
A large population with diversity: the Indian population at the time of

independence was 345 million. The people followed different faiths, spoke
different languages and followed different cultures. Therefore, many people
opined that India could never unite as a nation. The problem of development
was also attached to this.
Constituent Assembly: In order to frame the Constitution for India,

Constituent Assembly was appointed. It had members from all parts of the
country. It met between December 1946 and November 1949. Discussions
and debates were held on different issues in order to frame the constitution
which could be acceptable by all.
Features of the Indian Constitution: Indian Constitution conferred
Universal Adult Franchise to all its citizens above the prescribed age limit.
Another feature of the Indian Constitution was a provision of equality before
law. One important feature included in the Constitution was the provision of
special privileges for poor and backward groups.
Power Sharing: Constituent Assembly spent many days in discussing the

issue of sharing of power between the central government and the state
governments. Discussions led to the division of powers between the centre
and states.
National language: Many leaders were of the view that Hindi should be
recognized as the national language, but leaders of non-Hindi states
opposed this opinion.
Prominent Leaders: B. R. Ambedkar was the chairman of the Drafting

Committee. His responsibility was to draft the constitution after compiling
the reports of all the Committees.
The demand of the Linguistic States: Nationalist leaders were reluctant to

form states on the basis of languages or religions, as a country had already
undergone the trauma of partition. Potti Sriramullu went on hunger strike
and died after 58 days of strike, which made the condition worse.
Planning for Development: In 1950, the Planning Commission was formed

for designing and executing suitable policies for the economic development
of the country. The mixed economy model was chosen for India.
Second Five-Year Plan: In 1956, the second five-year plan was

formulated. It laid stress on the development of the heavy industries and
building of dams.
The Nation after Sixty Years: On August 15th 2007, India celebrated its 60
years of independence. In its 60 years, India has remained free and
democracy exists in India. However, divisions are still persisting in Indian
society. Communal violence and caste discrimination still exist in India.
Partition created a number of problems for independent India.
First and foremost task was to rehabilitate the refugees who had come into
the country from the newly born Pakistan.
Then there was the problem of the princely states.
These two problems needed an immediate solution. Afterward, the new

nation had to adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes and
aspirations of its people.
The population of India in 1947 was about 345 million. One could observe a
lot of diversities in the country regarding languages, foods, dresses,
professions etc. There was wide gap between high castes and low castes.
In spite of all these diversities, people had to live together in one nation-
state. This created the problem of unity.
The problem of development was another major point. Indian economy was
very weak at the time the country got freedom. Farmers and peasants
depended on the monsoon for their survival.
In the cities, factory workers lived in crowded slums with little access to
education or health care.
The new nation had to da a lot of work in order to eradicate poverty,

illiteracy, etc. It had to increase productivity of agriculture and promote new,
job-creating industries.
A written constitution was essential for the country. For this a series of
meetings on the country’s political future was held. As a result the Indian
Constitution came into being on 26 January 1950.
The constitution adopted Universal Adult Franchise. All Indians above the
age of 21 would be allowed to vote in state and national elections. (Later it
was reduced to 18′ years.)
Our constitution guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens,
regardless of their caste or religious affiliation.
A third feature of the constitution was that it offered special privileges for the
poorest and most disadvantaged Indians. The practice of untouchability was
abolished. A certain percentage of seats in legislatures as well as jobs in
government was reserved for members of the lowest castes.
Along with the former untouchables, the advasis or Scheduled Tribes were
also granted reservation in seats and jobs. Like the Scheduled Castes,
these Indians too had been deprived and discriminated against.
In order to maintain balance between the central government and that of the
state governments, the constitution provided three lists of subjects—a Union
List, with subjects such as taxes, defence and foreign affairs, which would
be sole responsibility of the Centre, a State List with subjects such as
education and health, which would be taken care of mainly by the states, a
Concurrent List under which would come subjects such as forests and
agriculture, in which both the centre and states would have joint
responsibility.
The language was also an important point. Several members of the

Constituent Assembly wanted to replace English language with Hindi. But
non-Hindi speakers had different opinion. They wanted English language to
be continued. Therefore, a compromise was finally arrived at. It was
resolved that while Hindi would be the ‘official language’ of India, English
would be used in the courts, the services and communication between one
state and another.
Another major problem was that of the formation of state. Both Prime
Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime-Minister Vallabhbhai Patel were against
the creation of linguistic states. Nehru clearly said that he had to check
disruptionist tendencies caused due to partition and make the nation strong
and united.
This caused great disappointment among the Kannada speakers,

Malayalam speakers, the Marathi speakers and the Telugu speakers. They
began to protest. The strongest protest came from the Telugu-speaking
districts of the Madras Presidency.
In October 1952 a veteran Gandhian named Potti Sriramula went on a

hunger fast demanding the formation of Andhra state to protect the interests
of Telugu speakers. As the fast went on, it attracted much support. Hartals
and bandhs were observed in many towns.
Finally, the new state of Andhra Pradesh came into being on 1 October,
1953.
Now other linguistic communities also began to demand their own separate
states. A States Reorganisation Commission was set up which submitted its
report in 1956, recommending the redrawing of district and provincial
boundaries to form compact provinces of Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil,
Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu speakers respectively.
The large Hindi-speaking region of north India was broken up into several
states.
In 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay was divided into separate states for
Marathi and Gujarati speakers.
In 1966, the state of Punjab was also divided into Punjab and Haryana.
Now, planning for development began to be made. Lifting India out of

poverty and building a modern technical and industrial base was ‘among the
major objectives of the new nation.
In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help design and

execute suitable policies for economic development.
In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated which focused strongly
oh the development of heavy industries.
Sixty-two years of independence have passed. This is not a short duration.
A lot has been achieved in this time but at the same time, there have been a
number of failures.
Successes: India is still united and it is still democratic.
• There is a free press.

• There is an independent judiciary.
• Unity in diversity.
Failures
• Deep divisions persist.

• Despite constitutional guarantee, the Untouchables or the Dalits face
violence and discrimination.
• The gulf between the rich and the poor has grown over years.
Refugee: A person who has been forced to leave his country because of
some political, social or religious reasons.
Franchise: The right to vote.
Linguistic: Relating to language.
State: Concerned with the government.
Non-alignment: The policy of not providing support for or receiving support

from any of the powerful countries (USA and USSR) in the world.
15 August 1947 – Indian got independence.
30 January 1948 – Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated.
26 January 1950 – The Indian Constitution was adopted.
1 October 1953 – The new state of Andhra Pradesh came into being.
1960 – The bilingual state Bombay was divided into separate states for
Marathi and Gujarati speakers.
1966 – Punjab and East Patiala states union were divided into Punjab and
Haryana.
The French Revolution Class 9 Notes Chapter 1
After analysis of the previous 3 years’ examination papers, it is concluded

that the following topics are the most important concepts from this chapter
and should be focussed upon.
• The outbreak of the French Revolution

• Changes after Revolution
• Classes of French Societies
• Facts about Napoleon, the former emperor of France.
The French Society during the Late 18th Century-

The French Society comprised :
1st Estate: Clergy
2nd Estate: Nobility
3rd Estate: Big businessmen, merchants, court officials, peasants, artisans,
landless laborers, servants, etc.
Some within the Third Estate were rich and some were poor.
The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by
the Third Estate alone.
The Struggle for Survival: Population of France grew and so did the
demand for grains. The gap between the rich and poor widened. This led to
subsistence crises.
The Growing Middle Class: This estate was educated and believed that no
group in society should be privileged by birth. These ideas were put forward
by philosophers such as Locke the English philosopher and Rousseau the
French philosopher. The American Constitution and its guarantee of
individual rights was an important example of political theories of France.
These ideas were discussed intensively in salons and coffee houses and
spread among people through books and newspapers. These were even
read aloud.
The Outbreak of the Revolution

The French Revolution went through various stages. When Louis XVI
became the king of France in 1774, he inherited a treasury which was
empty. There was growing discontent within the society of the Old Regime.
1789: Convocation of Estates General. The Third Estate forms National

Assembly, Tennis Court Oath the Bastille is stormed, peasant revolts in the
countryside, Assembly issues Declaration of the Rights of Man.
1791: A constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to

guarantee the basic right to all human beings.
1792-93: Convention abolishes Monarchy; France becomes a republic. The

Jacobin Republic overthrown, a Directory rules France.
1795: New Constitution is adopted. A new Convention appointed a five-man

Directorate to run the state from 26th October 1795. Churches reopened.
1799: The Revolution ends with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon’s
coup abolishes Directory and establishes Consulate.
Time Line: The French Revolution
1770s-1780s: Economic decline: French Government in deep debt. In

1774, Louis XVI ascends to the throne.
1788-1789: Bad harvest, high prices, food riots.
1789, May 5: Estates-General convened, demands reforms.
1789, July 14: National Assembly formed. Bastille stormed on July 14.
French Revolution starts.
1789, August 4: Night of August 4 ends the rights of the aristocracy, the
surrender of feudal rights.
1789, August 26: Declaration of the Rights of Man
1790: Civil Constitution of the Clergy nationalizes the Church.
1791: Dissolution of the National Constituent Assembly.
1792: Constitution of 1791 converts absolute monarchy into a constitutional

monarchy with limited powers.
1792: Austria and Prussia attack revolutionary France, Robespierre, elected

the first Deputy for Paris to the National convention.
1793: Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were executed.
1792-1794: In 1793, the Reign of Terror starts. Austria, Britain, the

Netherlands, Prussia, and Spain are at war with France.
Robespierre’s Committee of Public Safety repels back foreign invaders.
Executes many ‘enemies of the people’ in France itself.
1794: Robespierre is executed. France is governed by a Directory, a

committee of five men. The Reign of Terror ends.
1795: National convention dissolved.
1799: Napoleon Bonaparte becomes the leader of the French Revolution

ends.
Women’s Revolution
• From the very beginning, women were active participants in the events
which brought about so many changes in French society.
• Most of the women of the third estate had to work for a living.
• Their wages were lower than those of men.
• They demanded equal pay for equal work.
• In order to discuss and voice their interests, women started their own
political clubs and newspapers.
• One of their main demands was that women must enjoy the same
political rights as men.
• Some laws were introduced to improve the position of women.
• Their struggle still continues in several parts of the world.
• It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.
The Abolition of Slavery
• There was a triangular slave trade among Europe, Africa, and America.
• In the 18th century, there was little criticism of slavery in France.
• No laws were passed against it.
• It was in 1794 that the convention made free to all slaves.
• But 10 years later slavery was reintroduced by Napoleon.
• It was finally in 1848 that slavery was abolished in the French colonies.
The Revolution and Everyday Life
• The years following 1789 in France saw many changes in the lives of
men, women, and children.
• The revolutionary governments took it upon themselves to pass laws
that would translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday
practice.
• One important law that came into effect was the abolition of censorship.
• The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important
legacy of the French Revolution. These spread from France to the rest
of Europe during the 19th century.
Napoleon
• In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself emperor of France.

• He set out to conquer neighboring European countries, dispossessing
dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his
family.
• He saw his role as a modernizer of Europe.
• He was finally, defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Class 9 Notes Chapter 2
As per the previous 3 years’ examinations, special emphasis has been laid
upon the following topics from this chapter and thereby students should pay
attention on them.
• Progress of Russian Revolution

• The First World War and the Russian Revolution
• Events and Effects of February and October Revolution of Russia
• Social changes that were taken place in Russia.
The Age of Social Change

The French Revolution opened up the possibility of creating a dramatic
change in the way in which society was structured. Not everyone in Europe,
however, wanted a complete transformation. Some were ‘conservatives’,
while others were ‘liberals’ or ‘radicals’.
Liberals: Wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. They argued for an
elected parliamentary government, subject to laws interpreted by a well-
trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials. They were not
Democrats.
Radicals: Wanted a nation in which government was based on the majority
of a country’s population. They disliked the concentration of property in the
hands of a few, not the existence of private property.
Conservatives: They resisted change. After the revolution, they started

accepting change provided it was slow and had links and respected the
past.
Industries and Social Change: This was the time of economic and social
change. Men, women, and children were pushed into factories for low
wages. Liberals and Radicals who were factory owners felt that workers’
efforts must be encouraged.
Socialism in Europe: Socialists were against private property. They had

different visions of the future. Some believed in cooperatives, some
demanded that governments must encourage cooperatives.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels added that industrial society meant capitalist
society which was not profitable for everyone. Marx believed that a socialist
society would free workers from capitalism. This would be a communist
society in which collective ownership of land and factories would be
promoted.
Socialism Given Support: Workers in Germany and England began

forming associations to fight for better living conditions. They set up funds
for members in distress, reduction of working hours and right to vote.
The Russian Revolution

In 1914, Tzar Nicholas II ruled the Russian empire.
Economy and Society: Most of the Russian population were agriculturalist.

Industries were being set up which were mostly private property of the
industrialists. Workers were divided into groups but they did unite to strike
work when they were dissatisfied. Peasants had no respect for nobility,
unlike the French peasant. Russian peasants were the only peasant
community which pooled their land and their commune divided the land
according to the needs of individual families.
Socialism in Russia: All the political parties were illegal in Russia before
1914.
The Russian Socialist Democratic Labour Party was formed in 1900. It
struggled to give peasants their rights over land that belonged to nobles. As
land was divided among peasants periodically, it was felt that peasants and
not workers would be the main source of the revolution. But Lenin did not
agree with this as he felt that peasants were not one social group. The party
was divided into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
The 1905 Revolution: Russia was an autocracy. The Tzar was not subject
to the Parliament.
Liberals wanted to end this state of affairs. They worked towards demanding
a constitution during the Revolution of 1905.
Bloody Sunday: Prices of essential goods rose so quickly by 1904 that the
real wages declined by 20%. During this time, four members of the Putilov
Iron Works were dismissed. The action was called for. Over 110,000
workers in St. Petersburg went on strike demanding a reduction in working
hours and an increase in wages. This procession was attacked by the police
and Cossacks.
Over 100 workers were killed. Strikes took place as a reaction. People
demanded a Constituent Assembly. The Tzar allowed the creation of an
elected Consultative Parliament or Duma. The Tzar dismissed the first
Duma within 75 days and announced the election of a second Duma.
The First World War and the Russian Empire: In 1914, the Russian Army
was the largest army in the world. The war was initially very popular but
later the support grew thin. Anti-German sentiments ran high. Russian
armies lost badly in Germany and Austria. There were 7 million casualties
and 3 million refugees in Russia.
The war also affected the industry. There was a shortage of labour, railway
lines were shut down and small workshops were closed down. There was a
shortage of grain, agricultural production slumped and thus, there were
crises in the food supply.
The February Revolution in Petrograd
Events
• In the winter of 1917, Petrograd was grim. There was a food shortage
in the workers’ quarters.
• 22 February: a lockout took place at a factory. Workers of 50 other
factories joined in sympathy. Women also led and participated in the
strikes. This came to be called the International Women’s Day.
• The government imposed curfew as the quarters of the fashionable
area and official buildings were surrounded by workers.
• On the 24th and 25th, the government called out the cavalry and police
to keep an eye on them.
• On 25th February, the government suspended the Duma and
politicians spoke against this measure. The people were out with force
once again.
• On 27th, the Police Headquarters were ransacked. People raised
slogans and were out in the streets.
• Cavalry was called out again but they refused to fire on the
demonstrators.
• An officer was shot at the barracks of a regiment and other regiments
mutinied, voting to join the striking workers. They gathered in the
evening to form a Soviet or council. This was the Petrograd Soviet.
• On 28th, a delegation went to meet the Tzar. The Military commanders
advised him to abdicate.
• The Tzar abdicated on 2nd March.
• A Provincial Government was formed by the Soviet and Duma leaders
to run the country.
• The people involved were the parliamentarians, workers, women
workers, soldiers, and military commanders.
Effects
• Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.

• Soviets like the Petrograd Soviet were set up everywhere.
• In individual areas, factory committees were formed which began
questioning the way industrialists ran their factories.
Soldiers’ committees were formed in the army.
• The Provisional Government saw its power declining and Bolshevik
influence grow. It decided to take stern measures against the spreading
discontent.
• It resisted attempts by workers to run factories and arrested leaders.
• Peasants and the Socialist Revolutionary leaders pressed for a
redistribution of land. Land committees were formed and the peasants
seized land between July and September 1917.
October Revolution
• 16th October 1917 – Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the
Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A Military
Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet to organize
seizure.
• The uprising began on 24th October. Prime Minister Kerenskii left the
city to summon troops.
• Early morning military men loyal to the government seized the buildings
of two Bolshevik newspapers. Pro-government troops were sent to take
over telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace.
• In response, the Military Revolutionary Committee ordered to seize
government offices and arrest the ministers.
• The Aurora’ ship shelled the Winter Palace. Other ships took over
strategic points.
• By night, the city had been taken over and the ministers had
surrendered.
• All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd approved the Bolshevik
action.
• Heavy fighting took place in Moscow and by December, the Bolsheviks
controlled the Moscow – Petrograd area.
• The people involved were Lenin, the Bolsheviks, troops (pro-
government).
Effects
• The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property.

• Most industry and banks were nationalized in November 1917.
• The land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to
seize the land of the nobility.
• Use of old titles of the aristocracy was banned.
• New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
• In November 1917, the Bolsheviks conducted the election but failed to
gain the majority support.
• Russia became a one-party state.
• Trade unions were kept under party control.
• A process of centralized planning was introduced. This led to economic
growth.
• Industrial production increased.
• An extended schooling system developed.
• The collectivization of farms started.
The Civil War – When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the
Russian army began to break up. Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals, and
supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik uprising. They were
supported by French, American, British and Japanese troops. All of them
fought a war with the Bolsheviks.
Making a Socialist Society – The Bolsheviks kept industries and banks
nationalized during the Civil War. A process of centralized planning was
introduced. Rapid construction and industrialization started. An extended
schooling system developed.
Stalin and Collective Farming – Stalin believed that rich peasants and
traders stocked supplies to create a shortage of grains. Hence,
collectivization was the need of the hour. This system would also help to
modernize farms. Those farmers who resisted collectivization were
punished, deported or exiled.
Global Influence
By the 1950s, it was recognized in the country and outside that everything
was not in keeping with the ideals of the Russian revolution. Though, its
industries and agriculture had developed and or were being fed, the
essential freedom to its citizens was being denied. However, it was
recognized that social ideals still enjoyed respect among the Russians. But
in each country, the ideas of socialism were rethought in a variety of
different ways.
Nazism and the Rise of Hitler Class 9 Notes Chapter 3
The following topics from this chapter are being highlighted the most in the
previous 3 years’ examinations and thereby hold significant importance.
• Formation of the Weimer Republic

• The rise of Hitler’s power
• The flow of Nazi around the world
• The Racial Ideology of Hitler and how it affected other countries
• How the years of Depression affected the German Economy.
Birth of the Weimer Republic

Germany fought the First World War (1914-1918) along with the Austrian
empire and against the Allies (England, France and Russia).
Germany initially made gains by occupying France and Belgium. However,

the Allies won defeating Germany and the Central Powers in 1918.
A National Assembly met at Weimer and established a democratic

constitution with a federal structure. The republic, however, was not
received well by its own people largely because of the terms it was forced to
accept after Germany’s defeat at the end of the First World War. Many
Germans held the new Weimer Republic responsible for not only the defeat
in the war but the disgrace at Versailles.
The Effects of the War – The war had a devastating impact on the entire
continent both psychologically and financially. From being a creditor, Europe
became a debtor. The supporters of the Weimer Republic were criticized
and became easy targets of attack in the conservative nationalist circles.
Soldiers came to be placed above civilians. Aggressive war propaganda
and national honour became important.
Political Radicalism and Economic Crisis – The birth of the Weimer

Republic coincided with the uprising of the Spartacist League on the pattern
of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. The Spartacists founded the
Communist Party of Germany.
Political radicalization was heightened by the economic crisis of 1923. As

Germany refused to pay the war reparations, France occupied its leading
industrial area, Ruhr. Germany retaliated with printing paper currency
recklessly. The value of the German mark collapsed. Prices of goods
soared. There was hyperinflation.
The Years of Depression

1924-1928 saw some stability, yet it was built on sand. In 1924, with the
introduction of the Dawes Plan by the Americans, Germany came out from
the financial instability. Germany was totally dependent on short-term loans,
largely from the USA. This support was withdrawn with the crash in 1929 of
the Wall Street Exchange. The German economy was hit badly. The middle
class and working population were filled with the fear of proletarianization.
The Weimer Republic had some inherent defects:
1. Proportional Representation
2. Article 48 which gave the President the powers to impose emergency,
suspend civil rights and rule by decree.
Hitler’s Rise to Power
Hitler was born in Austria in 1889. He earned many medals for bravery in
the First World War.
The German defeat horrified him. The Treaty of Versailles made him
furious.
He joined the German Workers Party and renamed it National Socialist

German Workers’ Party. This later came to be known as the Nazi Party.
Nazism became a mass movement only during the Great Depression. The
Nazi propaganda stirred hopes of a better future. Hitler was a powerful and
effective speaker. He promised the people a strong nation where all would
get employment.
The Destruction of Democracy: Hitler achieved the highest position in the

cabinet of ministries on 30 January 1933. Hitler then set out to dismantle the
structures of democratic rule.
The Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 suspended civic rights like freedom of
speech, press, and assembly. The Communists were hurriedly packed off to
newly established concentration camps. All political parties were banned.
Special surveillance and security forces were created to control the people
and rule with impunity.
Reconstruction: Economist Hjalmar Schacht was given the responsibility

of economic recovery. This was to be done through a state-created
economic programme.
Hitler pulled out of the League of Nations in 1933, reoccupied the Rhineland
in 1936 and integrated Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan: One
people, One empire, One leader.
He then took Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Hitler had the unspoken

support of England.
He did not stop here. He chose war as a way out of the Economic Crisis.
Resources were to be accumulated through the expansion of territory. In

September 1940′ Germany invaded Poland. This started a war with France
and England. The USA resisted involvement in the war. But when Japan
extended its support to Hitler and bombarded Pearl Harbour, the USA
entered the war. The war ended in 1945 with Hitler’s defeat and the US
bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
The Nazi World Wide

According to Nazi ideology, there was no equality between people, but only
racial hierarchy. The Nazis quickly began to implement their dream of
creating an exclusive racial community of pure Germans by physically
eliminating all those who were considered undesirable. They wanted a
society of pure and healthy Nordic Aryans. Jews, Gypsies, Blacks, Russian,
Poles, even certain Germans, and abnormals were considered undesirable.
The other aspect of Hitler’s ideology related to the geopolitical concept of

Lebensraum, or living space. Jews were the worst sufferers in Nazi
Germany. Hitler believed in pseudoscientific theories of a race which said
that conversion was no solution to the Jewish problem. It had to be solved
through their total elimination.
From 1933-1938 – the Nazis terrorized, pauperized and segregated the
Jews, compelling them to leave the country.
The next phase, 1939-1945, aimed at concentrating them in certain areas

and then killing them in gas chambers in Poland.
The Racial Utopia

Genocide and war became two sides of the same coin. Occupied Poland
was divided. Poles were forced to leave their homes and properties behind
to be occupied by the ethnic Germans brought in from occupied Europe.
Youth in Nazi Germany

Hitler felt that a strong Nazi society could be established by teaching Nazi
ideology to children.
All schools were given German teachers. Children were divided into two
groups- desirable and undesirable.
Textbooks were rewritten, functions of sports in schools was to nurture the

spirit of violence and aggression. Ten-year-olds had to enter Jungvolk. At
14, all boys joined ‘Hitler Youth’, they joined the Labour Service at 18.
The Nazi Cult of Motherhood – Women were told to be good mothers and
rear pure-blooded Aryan children. They were encouraged to produce many
children.
The Art of Propaganda – The Nazi regime used language and media with
care and often to great effect. They used films, pictures, radio, posters, etc.,
to spread hatred for Jews.
Crimes Against Humanity – People saw the world through Nazi eyes and
spoke the Nazi language. At times even the Jews began to believe in the
Nazi stereotypes about them.
Knowledge about the Holocaust – It was only after the war ended that
people came to know about what had happened. The Jews wanted the
world to know about the atrocities and sufferings they had endured during
the Nazi killing operations. They just wanted to live, even if it was for a few
hours, to tell the world about the Holocaust.
Forest Society and Colonialism Class 9 Notes Chapter 4
In the previous 3 years’ examinations, significant importance has been

given to the following topics from this chapter. Therefore, students should
have a deep understanding of these concepts.
• Changes in Forest Societies under Colonialism

• Location of Bastar people
• Bastar Rebellion
• Forest Rebellion in Java
• World Wars and Deforestation.
Relationship Between Forest and Livelihoods
Forests give us a mixture of things to satisfy our different needs — fuel,

fodder, leaves, trees suitable for building ships or railways, trees that can
provide hardwood.
Forest products like roots, fruits, tubers, herbs are used for medicinal
purposes, wood for agricultural implements like yokes, ploughs, etc.
Forests provide shelter to animals and birds. They also add moisture to the
atmosphere.
Rainfall is trapped in forest lands.
Foresters and villagers had very different ideas of what a good forest should
look like.
The forest department wanted trees which were suitable for building ships
or railways.
They needed trees that could provide hardwood and were tall and straight.
So particular species, like teak and sal, were promoted and others were cut.
The new forest laws meant severe hardship for villagers across the country.
After the Act (Forest Act), all their everyday practices, cutting wood for their
houses, grazing their cattle, collecting fruits and roots, hunting and fishing
became illegal.
People were now forced to steal wood from the forests, and if they were
caught they were at the mercy of the forest guards who would take bribes
from them.
Women who collected fuelwood were especially worried. It was also

common for police constables and forest guards to harass people by
demanding free food from them.
Deforestation: Deforestation is cutting down of trees indiscriminately in a
forest area. Under colonial rule, it became very systematic and extensive.
Why Deforestation?
As the population increased over the centuries and the demand for food
went up, peasants extended the boundaries of cultivation by clearing
forests.
The British encouraged the production of commercial crops like jute, sugar,
wheat, and cotton for their industries as raw material.
The British thought that forests were unproductive land as they yielded no
revenue nor agricultural produce. Cultivation was viewed as a sign of
progress.
Oak forests in England were disappearing. There was no timber supply for
the shipbuilding industry. Forest resources of India were used to make ships
for the Royal Navy.
The spread of railways required two things: land to be cleared to lay railway
tracks, wood as fuel for locomotives and for railway line sleepers.
Large areas of natural forests were cleared for tea, coffee, and rubber
plantations. Thus, the land was given to planters at cheap rates.
Changes in Forest Societies Under Colonialism
Shifting Cultivators: Forest management had a great impact on shifting

cultivators. In shifting cultivation parts of the forest are cut and burnt in
rotation. European foresters regarded this practice as harmful for the
forests. They felt that such land could not be used for growing trees for
railway timber and was dangerous while being burnt as it could start a forest
fire. This type of cultivation also made difficult for the government to
calculate taxes.
Nomadic and Pastoralist Communities: Nomadic and pastoralist

communities were also affected by changes in forest management. Their
traditional customary grazing rights were taken away and their entry into the
forests was restricted. Passes were issued to them which had details of
their entry and exit into and out of the forests. The days and hours they
could spend in the forest were also restricted. This was in contrast to the
earlier system that allowed them unrestricted entry into forests.
Pastoralists had to lessen the number of cattle in their herds which reduced
their income. Now they were deprived of this additional income. Some
pastoralists even had to change their lifestyle, leave pastoralism and work in
mines, plantations, factories. Some were branded as the ‘criminal tribes’.
Firms Trading in Timber/Forest Products: Firms trading in timber

products were given the sole trading rights to trade in the forest products of
particular areas. They made huge profits and became richer. The entire
timber and forest trade passed on to them. They became powerful and
began to cut down trees indiscriminately.
Plantation Owners: Plantation owners found that more and more forest
land could be cleared for plantations. The British had made it very clear that
their system of forestry would be scientific forestry, i.e., plantations.
Plantation owners began to reap profits as the British government gave
large areas of forest land to European planters.
Kings/British Officials Engaged in Shikar: The Kings/British officials

engaged in shikar found that now the villagers were prohibited from entering
the forests. They had the forest and wild animals to themselves. Hunting
animals became a big sport for them. Thus, hunting increased to such an
extent that various species became almost extinct.
Important Dates
1600: Approximately one-sixth of India’s landmass was under cultivation.

The population of Java was 3.4 million.
1700-1995: 9.3% of the world’s total area was cleared for industrial uses,
cultivation pastures and fuel wood.
1770: Kalanga uprising which was suppressed.
1850: The spread of Indian Railways.
1864: The Indian Forest Service was set up.
1865: The Indian Forest Act was formulated.
1878: The Indian Forest Act was amended and divided forests into
Reserved, Protected and Village forests.
1890: Surontiko Samin started a movement against the state ownership of

forests.
1899-1908: Terrible famines.
1910: Rebellion in the kingdom of Bastar.
1880-1920: India’s cultivated area rose by 6.7 million hectares. Terrible

famines.
1946: The length of railway tracks laid by now was over 765,000 km.
1980: Introduction of scientific forestry and restriction imposed on the forest

communities resulted in many conflicts.
Location of Bastar and Believe of the People of Bastar
Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh and borders

Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Maharashtra. The central part of Bastar is on
a plateau.
A number of different communities live in Bastar such as Maria and Muria

Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas. They speak different languages but
share common customs and beliefs.
The people of Bastar believed that each village was given its land by the
Earth, and in return, they had to look after the earth by making some
offerings at each agricultural festival. They show respect to the spirits of the
river, the forest and the mountain.
Since each village knows where its boundaries lie, the local people look
after all the natural resources within that boundary. If people from a village
want to take some wood from the forests of another village, they pay a small
fee called devsari, Land or man in exchange.
Some villages also protect their forests by engaging watchmen and each
household contributes some grain to pay them. Every year there is one big
hunt where the headmen of villages meet and discuss issues of concern,
including forests.
Causes for Bastar Rebellion
When the colonial government proposed to reserve two-thirds of the forest

in 1905 and stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest
produce, the people of Bastar were very worried.
Some villages were allowed to stay on in the reserved forests on the

condition that they worked free for the forest department in cutting and
transporting trees, and protecting the forest from fire. So, these came to be
known as Forest Villages.
People of other villages were displaced without any notice or compensation.

Villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent
demands for free labour and goods by colonial officials.
Then the terrible famines came in 1899-1900 and again in 1907-1908.

Rebellion became inevitable.
Results of the Bastar Rebellion
In a major victory for the rebels, work on the reservation was temporarily
suspended.
The area to be reserved was reduced to roughly half of that planned before
1910.
Causes for Forest Rebellion in Java
The Dutch wanted timber from Java to build ships. They banned the
practice of shifting cultivation. The Dutch enacted forest laws in Java,
restricting villagers’ access to forests.
Now wood could only be cut for specified purposes like making riverboats or
constructing houses, and only from specific forests under close supervision.
Villagers were punished for grazing their cattle in young stands, transporting
wood without a permit, or traveling on forest roads with horse carts or cattle.
As in India, the need to manage forests for shipbuilding and railways led to
the introduction of a forest service by the Dutch in Java.
The Dutch first imposed rents on land being cultivated in the forest and then
exempted some villages from these rents if they worked collectively to
provide free labour and buffaloes for cutting and transporting timber. This
was known as the blandongdiensten system.
Forest Rebellion in Java or Saminist Movement in Java
In the 1890s, Surontiko Samin a teak forest villager began questioning state
ownership of the forest. He argued that the state had not created the wind,
water, earth, and wood, so it could not own it.
Soon a widespread movement developed. Amongst those who helped to

organize it was Samin’s sons-in-law.
By 1907,3,000 families were following his ideas. Some of the Sam insists
protested by lying down on their land when the Dutch came to survey it,
while others refused to pay taxes or fines or perform labour.
World Wars and Deforestation
The First World War and the Second World War had a major impact on
forests. In India, working plans were abandoned at this time, and the forest
department cut trees freely to meet British war needs.
In Java, just before the Japanese occupied the region, the Dutch followed a
‘scorched earth’ policy, destroying sawmills, and burning huge piles of giant
teak logs so that they would not fall into Japanese hands.
The Japanese then exploited the forests recklessly for their own war
industries, forcing forest villagers to cut down forests.
After the war, it was difficult for the Indonesian forest service to get this land
back. As in India, people’s need for agricultural land had brought them into
conflict with the forest department’s desire to control the land and exclude
people from it.
Pastoralists in the Modern World Class 9 Notes Chapter 5
Pastoralism has been important in societies like India and Africa for years.
Pastoralism is a way of keeping animals such as cattle, sheep, that involves
moving from one place to another to find water and food. Nomads are
people who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to
earn their living.
Movement Of Pastoral Nomads In Mountains

Mainly pastoral communities are found in mountainous regions.
Gujjar Bakarwals
Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir are great herders of goat and
sheep. Many of them migrated here in the 19th century in search of
pastures for their cattle and settled here.
In winter, when the mountains were covered with snow, they lived with their
herds in the low hills of Siwalik range. Here, the dry scrub forests provided
pastures for their herds. They crossed the Pir Panjal passes and entered
Kashmir valley.
In summer, when the snow melted in the mountains and mountainsides
were left lush green, they moved onto high levels. The variety of sprouted
grass provided rich nutritious forage for their animals.
By the end of September, they used to start moving again for their
downward journey back to their winter base. Several households came
together for this journey forming a kafila.
Mandaps of Ringal:
The Gujjar cattle herders live in the mandaps, made of ringal—a hill
bamboo—and grass from the Bugyal. A mandap was also a workplace.
Here, the Gujjar used to make ghee which they ‘ took down for sale. In
recent years, they have begun to transport the milk directly in buses and
trucks. These mandaps are at about 10,000 to 11,000 feet, as buffaloes
cannot climb any higher.
Gaddi Shepherds:
Gaddi shepherd is a pastoral community of Himachal Pradesh. They had a
similar cycle of seasonal movements like Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and
Kashmir.
Movement of Gaddi Shepherds:

During winter, Gaddi Shepherds grazed their flocks in scrub forests of the
low hills of Siwalik range.
By April, they moved North and spent the summer in Lahul and Spiti.
Further to the East, in Garhwal f and Kumaun, the Gujjar cattle herders
came down to the dry forests of the bhabhar in the winter and went up to the
high meadows-the bugyals in summer. Many of the Gujjar cattle herders
were originally from Jammu and Kashmir and came to the uphills in the 19th
century in search of good pastures.When the snow melted on the high
mountains, they moved onto higher mountain meadows (dhars). By
September, they began their return movement. On the way, they stopped
once again in the villages of Lahul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest
and sowing their winter crop.
On the way down, they stop for a while to have their sheep sheared. The
sheep are bathed and cleaned before the wool is cut valley near Palampur
in Himachal Pradesh is one of the areas where shearing of wool is being
done. Then, they further descend to their winter base the Siwalik hills.
Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris Many pastoralists of the Himalayas like the
Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris also followed cyclic movement between
summers and winters in search of pastures. They all had to adjust to
seasonal changes and make proper use of available pastures. When the
pasture was exhausted or unusable in one place, they moved their herds
and flock to new areas. This continuous movement of the pastoralists
allowed the pastures to recover.
On The Plateaus, Plains And Deserts
The pastoral communities are also found in the plateaus, plains and deserts
of India.
Dhangars:
Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. In the
early 20th century, their population was more than 4 lakhs. They were
mainly shepherds, blanket weavers and buffalo herders. Dhangars stayed in
the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. In the monsoon,
this track became a vast grazing ground for their flocks.
By October, the Dhangars harvested the bajra and started to move towards
West. After a month, reached. Konkan which had high rainfall and rich soil.
Here, they were welcomed by the Konkani peasants.
After the harvest of the Kharif crop, the fields had to be fertilised and made
ready for the rabi harvest. Dhangar flocks manured the fields and fed on the
stubble. The Konkani peasants also gave supplies of rice which the
shepherds took back to the plateau where grain was scarce.
With the onset of monsoon, they returned to their settlements on the dry
plateau as sheep could not tolerate the wet monsoon conditions.
The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas are
the important pastoral communities of the dry central plateau of Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh. The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas
reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets.
They lived near the forests, cultivated small patches of land, engaged in a
variety of small trades and took care of their herds. The movement of these
pastoralists depended on monsoon and dry season.
In the dry season, they moved to the coastal tracts and left when the rains
came. Only buffaloes liked the swampy, wet conditions of the coastal areas
during the monsoon months. Other herds had to be shifted to the dry
plateau at that time.
Movement Of Pastoral Nomads On The Plateaus, Plains And Deserts
Bhabhar A dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaun.
Bugyals Bugyals are vast natural pastures on the high mountains, above
12,000 feet. They are under snow in the winter and come to life after April.
At this time, the entire mountainside is covered with a variety of grasses,
roots and herbs. By monsoon, these pastures are thick with vegetation and
carpeted with wild flowers. Kharif The autumn crop, usually harvested
between September and October. Rabi The spring crop, usually harvested
after March. Stubble Lower ends of grain stalks left in the ground after
harvesting.
Banjara Tribes
They were an important group of graziers, which were found in the villages
of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. In
search of good pasture land for their cattle, they moved over long distances.
They sold their plough cattle and other goods to villagers in exchange of
grain and fodder.
Ratios
They lived in the deserts of Rajasthan. Before 1947, they used to migrate to
Sindh and grazed their animals on the banks of the Indus. But after partition,
when Sindh became a part of Pakistan, this activity was restricted. Now,
they started migrating to Haryana where sheep can graze on agricultural
fields after the harvest. The rainfall in the region was less and uncertain. So,
they combined cultivation with pastoralism.
During the monsoon, the Raikas of Barmer, Jaisalmer Jodhpur and Bikaner
stayed in their home villages, where pasture was available. By October,
when those grazing grounds were exhausted, they moved out in search of
new pastures. They returned in their home villages during the next
monsoon.
Maru Raikas
One group of Raikas were known as Maru Raikas who reside in the Thar
desert near Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. Their settlement is called a dhandi. They
herded camels and another group reared sheep and goat. Maru Raikas
know the history of their community from a genealogist. The genealogist is
the one, who recounts the history of tribes. Such oral traditions give pastoral
groups their own sense of identity. These oral traditions can tell us about
how a group looks at its own past.
Camel Fairs
The camel fairs are held at different places of Rajasthan such as Pushkar,
Balotra, etc. Camel herders come to the fair to sell and buy camels. The
Maru Raikas also display their expertise in training their camels. Horses
from Gujarat are also brought for sale at this fair.
Factors that Contributed to the Movement of Pastoralists

The life of pastoral groups is not easy. It was sustained by careful
consideration of a host of factors. They had to judge how long the herds
could stay in one area and know where they could find water and pasture.
They needed to calculate the timing of their movements and ensure that
they could move through different territories.
Customary Rights Rights that are used by people by custom and tradition.
They had to set up a relationship with farmers on the way so that the herds
could graze in harvested fields and manure the soil. They combined a range
of different activities viz., cultivation, trade and herding to make their living.
Colonial Rule And Pastoral Life
The Colonial Government made different laws from time to time which
severely affected the lives of the pastoralists. Their grazing grounds shrank,
their movements were regulated, they had to pay high revenue, their
agricultural stock declined and their trades and crafts were also affected
adversely.
The colonial power believed that all grazing lands were wastelands because
they were unproductive. These lands did not produce revenue or agricultural
products. From the mid-19th century, Wasteland Rules were enacted in
various parts of our country.
Wasteland Rules and Forest Acts
The government granted selected individuals various concessions and
encouraged to settle them in these areas. Even some of them were made
as headmen of villages. In most areas, the lands taken over were actually
grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists as their customary rights.
They believed that grazing destroyed the saplings and young shoots of
trees that germinated on the forest floor. The herds crushed the saplings
and munched away shoots. These prevented new trees to grow. The Forest
Acts made by the British Government changed the lives of pastoralists.
Some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or
sal were declared as ‘reserved’.
In the reserved forests, no pastoral activity was allowed and in the protected
forests their activity was strictly restricted. In the protected forests, they
needed a permit for entry. The permit specified the timing of their entry and
departure. If they overstayed there, they were liable to fines.
Criminal Tribes Act

British officials were very suspicious of nomadic people. They wanted to rule
over a settled population which could be easily identified and controlled. In
1871, the British Government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By
this act, many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were
classified as Criminal Tribes.
They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth. As a result of this act,
these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements
and they were not allowed to move without a permit. The village police also
kept a strict watch on them.
The imposition of Grazing Tax

In the mid—19th century, Grazing Tax was introduced by the British
Government in most pastoral lands of India. In order to increase income, the
government imposed tax even on animals.
The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of the collection
was made increasingly efficient. In the decades between the 1850s and
1880s, the right to collect the tax was carried out by contractors. These
contractors tried to extract high tax so that they could earn the profit. By the
1880s, the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists.
Each of them was given a pass. The pastoralists had to pay tax on every
animal they grazed in the pastures. To enter a grazing tract, the pastoralist
had to show the pass and pay the tax.
Report by the Royal Commission on Agriculture

The Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1928 reported that the extent of the
area available for grazing has gone down tremendously with the extension
of the area under cultivation because of increasing population, an extension
of irrigation facilities, acquiring the pastures for government purposes, e.g.
defence, industries and agricultural experimental farms. Now breeders find it
difficult to raise large herds. Thus, their earnings have gone down. The
quality of their livestock has deteriorated, dietary standards have fallen and
indebtedness has increased.
Effects of Colonial Changes on the Lives of Pastoralists:

Wasteland Rules, Forest Acts, Criminal Tribes Act and the imposition of
grazing tax affected the lives of pastoralists badly. The effects were
• These measures led to the serious shortage of pastures as grazing

lands were turned into cultivable land.
• The shepherds and cattle herds could no longer freely graze their cattle
in the forests.
• Nomadic people had to move frequently from one place to another in
search of pastures.
• The animal stock declined as underfed cattle died in large numbers
during scarcities and famines.
Ways by which Pastoralists Cope with the Changes Pastoralists coped

up with the changes in a variety of ways
• Some reduced the number of cattle in their herds since there was not
enough pasture to feed large numbers.
• Some discovered new pastures when a movement to old grazing
grounds became difficult.
• Over the years, some richer pastoralists began buying land and settling
down, giving up their nomadic life.
• Many poor pastoralists borrowed money from moneylenders to survive.
• Some of them became labourers, working on fields or in small towns.
• In spite of such difficulties, pastoralist communities still exist and are
considered the most important form of life ecologically.
Pastoralism In Africa
Africa is a country where over half the world’s pastoral population lives.
Even now, over 22 million Africans depend on some forms of pastoral
activities for their livelihood.
The different pastoral communities of Africa are Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai,

Somali, Boran and Turkana. Most of them lived in semi-arid grasslands
where rainfed agriculture is difficult.
They raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys. They sell milk, meat,
animal skin and wool. Some of them earn through trade and transport.
Others combine pastoral activity with agriculture field and still, others do a
variety of odd jobs.
The life of Maasai Community
The Maasai are nomadic and pastoral people who depend on milk and meat
for subsistence. The title Maasai derives from the word ‘Maa’. Maai-sai
means ‘My People’.
Before colonial rules, Maasailand stretched over a vast area from North
Kenya to the steppes of Northern Tanzania. In the late 19th century,
European imperial powers divided the region into different colonies.
After colonial rule, best grazing lands of Maasai community were gradually
taken over for white settlement and the Maasai were pushed into a small
area in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.
By changing conditions, the Maasai were forced to agriculture. They started

growing crops such as maize, rice, potatoes, cabbage. Maasai believed that
tilling the land for crop farming is a crime against nature. Once you cultivate
the land, it is no longer suitable for grazing.
Effects of Colonial Ryle on Naassi Community
Maasais Lost their Grazing Lands

From the late 19 th century, the British Colonial Government in East Africa
also encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation. As
cultivation expanded, pasturelands were turned into cultivated fields. The
Maasai community lost about 60% of their land and were confined to an arid
zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures.
In pre-colonial times, the Maasai pastoralists had dominated their

agricultural neighbours both economically and politically. By the end of
colonial rule, the situation became the opposite. In 1885, Maasailand was
cut into half with an international boundary between British Kenya and
German Tanganyika.
They lost their grassing lands in the following ways
Large areas of grazing land were turned into game reserves like the Maasai
Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania.
The Serengeti National Park has created over 14,760 km of Maasai grazing
land.
Without grass, livestock (cattle, goats and sheep) were malnourished, which
meant less food available for families and their children.
The Kilimanjaro Water Project cuts through the communities of the area
near Amboseli National Park. But the villagers are barred from using the
water for irrigation or for livestock.
The loss of the finest grazing lands and water resources created a serious
problem for the pastoralists. Feeding the cattle became a persistent problem
due to the unavailability of enough grazing lands.
Effect of Closed Borders on Pastoralists
Pastoral groups were forced to live within the confines of special reserves.
The boundaries of these reserves became the limits within which they could
now move.
They were not allowed to move out with their stock without special permits.
They were not even allowed to enter the markets in white areas. They were
prohibited from participating in any form of trade.
The new territorial boundaries and restrictions imposed on them suddenly

changed the lives of pastoralists. This adversely affected both their pastoral
and trading activities. Earlier, pastoralists not only looked after animal herds
but traded in various products. The restrictions under colonial rule did not
entirely stop their trading activities but they were now subject to various
restrictions.
Effect of Dried Pastures on Maasais

The Maasais were forced to live in semi-arid tracts prone to frequent
drought. Since they could not shift their cattle to places where pastures
were available, large numbers of Maasai cattle died of starvation and
disease in these years of drought.
The colonial rules had unequal effects on elders and warrior groups of
Maasai society. The Elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic
councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes.
The Warriors consisted of young people, mainly responsible for the

protection of the tribe. The Warrior class proved their manliness by raiding
the cattle of other pastoral groups and participating in wars.
The British imposed various restrictions on raiding and warfare. Thus, the
traditional authority of both Elders and Warriors was negatively affected.
The chiefs appointed by the Colonial Government accumulated wealth over

time. They had regular income with which, they could buy animals, goods
and lands. They lent money to poor neighbours who needed it to pay taxes.
They started to live in towns and involved in trades. Their family stayed back
in villages to look after lands and animals. These rich chiefs managed to
survive devastations due to war and drought.
The poor pastoralists did not have the resources to tide over bad times and
thus, they were compelled to do odd jobs, like charcoal burners, workers in
road and building construction, etc.
Rituals to become Maasai Warrior

Even today, Maasai young men go through an elaborate ritual before they
become warriors, although actually it is no longer common. They must travel
throughout the section’s region for about 4 months, ending with an event
where they run to the homestead and enter with an attitude of a raider.
During the ceremony, boys dress in loose clothing and dance non-stop
throughout the day. This ceremony is the transition into a new age. Girls are
not required to go through such a ritual.
Kaokoland Herders of Namibia

In Namibia, in South-West Africa, the Kaokoland herders traditionally moved
between Kaokoland and nearby Ovamboland and they sold skin, meat and
other trade products in neighbouring markets. All this was stopped with the
new system of territorial boundaries that restricted movements between
regions.
In most places in colonial Africa, the police were given instructions to keep a
watch on the movements of pastoralists and prevent them from entering
white areas.
Conclusion
Pastoral communities in different parts of the world are affected in a variety
of different ways by changes in the modern world. New laws and new
borders affect the patterns of their movement.
They change the path of their annual movement, reduce their cattle
numbers, press for rights to enter new areas. They exert political pressure
on the government for relief, subsidy and other forms of support and
demand a right in the management of forests and water resources.
They are not people who have no place in the modern world.
Environmentalists and economists have increasingly come to recognise that
pastoral nomadism is a form of life that is perfectly suited to many hilly and
dry regions of the world.
Pastoralism is a way of keeping animals and moving from one place to

another to find water and food.
Gujjar Bakarwals migrated in the 19th century to Kashmir crossing Pir

Panjal. They shifted their grazing lands from highlands in summer to lower
hills of Siwalik range in winter. They used to move to form kafila.
Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh like Gujjar Bakarwals used to come

down to the dry forest of bhabhar in winter and went up to the high
meadows of bugyals in summer.
Shearing of wool is being done at Uhl valley near Palampur in Himachal

Pradesh.
To adjust to seasonal changes and make proper use of available pastures

Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris also involved in cyclic movement between
summer and winter.
Dhangars.of Central Plateau, Maharashtra were mainly shepherds, blanket

weavers and buffalo herders. After harvesting bajra, they move towards
Konkan to reap benefits of high rainfall and rich soil.
Gollas, Kurumas and kurubas are cattle herders of dry Central Plateau Qf
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Cyclic movement of Pastoralist communities in Plateaus, Plains and desert

was defined by alteration of monsoon and dry season.
Banjara tribes were found in villages of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan,

Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, who also moved over long distance in
search of Pastures.
Raikas of Rajasthan had to combine cultivation with pastoralism when Sindh
became part of Pakistan after 1947. Maru Raikas of Jaisalmer lived in a
settlement called dhandi and know about their community from a
genealogist.
Camel fairs were held in Pushkar, Balotra where Maru Raikas display their
expertise in training camels.
Pastoralists had to set up a relationship with farmers and combined a range

of different activities like cultivation, trade and herding.
Colonial Government considered that all grazing lands were unproductive.

Hence, they categorised forest into the reserved forest (no pastoral activity
allowed) and protected forest (permit system prevailed). These laws
affected the customary rights of the traditional pastoralist.
Criminal Tribe Act of 1871 classified many communities of craftsmen,

traders and pastoralists as criminal tribes.
British Government introduced Grazing Tax, which was auctioned out to

contractors.
The changes brought by laws of British Government reduced the available

area for pastureland. Thus continuous grazing in the same piece of land
degraded the quality of pasture.
To adapt to the changing circumstances, pastoralists reduced the number of

cattle, discovered new pasture. Some even bought land and started settling
down.
Pastoralism is still considered an ecologically most viable form of life.
Africa houses over half of the world’s pastoral population. Pastoral

communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran and Tukana
lived here.
The Maasai community lost about 60% of their land and were confined to
arid zones due to colonial laws, even though they dominated in economic
and political fields in the pre-colonial era.
Territorial boundaries and restrictions were imposed on Pastrolists and

required the social permit to move out of it. For exp. Kaokoland herders of
Namibia were severely affected by these territorial boundaries.
Maasai society was divided into Elders and Warriors.
Elders were ruling community who settled disputes and decided on affairs of
the community.
The Warriors were young people who raided cattle and participated in wars.
But restrictions imposed’ by Britishers affected the traditional authority of
both Elders and Warriors.
Though the traditional difference between Elders and Warriors was

disturbed it did not breakdown. With social change new distinction between
wealthy and poor pastoralist developed.
The relevance of Maasai tribe can be realised from the fact that even today
young men go through an elaborate ritual before they become warriors. The
boys in the ceremony wear loose clothing and dance throughout the day.
Pastoral communities are greatly affected by the new laws and new borders
of the countries. But they are not redundant communities rather recognised
as the perfectly suitable communities for many hilly and dry regions by
environmentalists and economists.
Peasants and Farmers Class 9 Notes Chapter 6
This chapter deals with peasants and farmers of three different countries i.e.
the small cottages in England, the wheat farmers of the USA and the opium
producers of Bengal (India). The comparison between the histories of
different places shows how these histories are different even though some
processes are similar.
The Time Of Open Fields And Common Land In England

The agricultural system of England changed dramatically over the late 18th
and the early 19th century. Before this time, in large parts of England, the
countryside was open. The lands were not enclosed or partitioned by the
landlords. Peasants cultivated on strips of land around the village they live
in. At the beginning of each year, people were allocated a number of strips
to cultivate at the public meeting. These strips were located at different
places and vary in quality.
Benefits of Common Land
Beyond enclosures lands lay the common land. Due to this, it was ensured
that everybody gets a mix of good and bad land. Everybody had access to
the common land.
On this land, villagers grazed their cattle and collected fuelwood for fire.
They also gathered berries and fruits for food. They fished in the rivers and
ponds and hunted rabbits in common forests. For the poor, the common
land was essential for survival as it helped them to overcome bad times
when crops failed.
Wool Production and Enclosures

In the 16th century, the price of wool went up in the world market. Rich
farmers wanted to expand wool production, thus they began dividing and
enclosing common lands to allow improved breeding of sheep. They
prevented the poor from entering the enclosed lands. After the mid—18th
century, the enclosure movement swept through the countryside to fulfill the
increasing demand for food grains due to the industrialization. Between
1750 and 1850, 6 million acres of land was enclosed. The British Parliament
passed 4000 Acts legalizing these enclosures.
Enclosure The fencing of once common land to bring it into private

ownership, in England between 16th to the 18th century.
Common land A piece of land over which everyone had customary rights of
collecting fruits, firewood, grazing, and even fishing.
New Enclosures for Grain Production

The new enclosures became a sign of a changing time. In the old
enclosures of the 16th century promoted sheep farming but 1 new enclosure
of the late 18th century was for grain production. From the mid-18th century,
the English population expanded four times. This meant an increased
demand for foodgrains to feed the population. During this period, Britain was
industrializing. Thus, more and more people began to live and work in urban
areas.
Impact of Migration and War on Enclosure Men from rural areas migrated to
towns in search of jobs. To survive they had to buy foodgrains in the market.
As the urban population grew, the market for foodgrains expanded. When
demand increased rapidly, foodgrain prices rose.
By the end of the 18th century, France was at war with England. This broke
trade and the import of foodgrains from Europe. Prices of foodgrains in
England became very high, encouraging landowners to enclose lands and
enlarge the area under grain cultivation. Landowners pressurized the
Parliament to pass the Enclosure Acts.
The Age of Enclosures

In earlier times, rapid population growth was followed by a period of food
shortages. Foodgrain production in the past had not expanded as rapidly as
the population. From the mid -19th-century grain production grew as quickly
as population. In 1868, England was producing almost 80% of the food it
consumed and the rest was imported.
This increase in foodgrain production was made possible by innovations in

agricultural technology and ‘ by bringing new lands under cultivation.
Landlords divided pasturelands, and carved up open fields, cut up forest
commons, took over marshes and turned larger areas into agricultural fields.
Innovation In Agriculture
In the late 17th century, farmers continued to use simple innovation in
agriculture. In the 1660s, farmers in many parts of England began growing
turnip and clover, instead of leaving the land fallow.
They started practicing crop rotation to increase soil fertility. They soon
discovered that planting these crops improved the soil and made it more
fertile. Turnip was moreover, a good fodder crop relished by cattle. So
farmers began cultivating turnips and clover regularly. These crops became
part of the cropping system. Later findings showed that these crops had the
capacity to increase the nitrogen content of the soil. Now enclosures were
seen as necessary to make long-term investments on land and plan crop
rotations to improve the soil.
Effect of Enclosures on the Poor

Enclosures allowed only the landlords to make more profit. But for the poor,
life became hard. They could no longer collect firewood, fruits, and berries
or graze their cattle or hunt small animals for meat. It was due to fences
which made enclosed land the exclusive property of the landowner.
Enclosure happened on a big scale in the Midlands and the countries
around from which the poor were displaced.
The poor found that their customary rights started gradually disappearing.
From the midlands, they moved to the Southern counties of England in
search of work. Earlier, the labourers lived with their landlords. They helped
their masters and worked for them throughout the year. By 1800, this
practice was disappearing. Landowners tried to increase their profit. Thus,
they cut the amount they had to spend on their labourers. ‘ The labourers
were employed only during the harvest time. For a large part of the year, the
poor had no work.
The Introduction of Threshing Machines
During the Napoleonic Wars, prices of foodgrains were high and farmers
expanded their production largely. The landlords began buying the new
threshing machines to reduce dependence on labourers. A single machine
could do the work of more than 20 labourers.
The loss of livelihood forced the poor to oppose the introduction of threshing
machine. The Captain Swing riots spread in the countryside at this time.
The threshing machines had became a sign of bad times for the poor. After
the Napoleonic Wars, thousands of soldiers returned, who needed
alternative work to survive.
At that time, grain started flowing into England from Europe and the prices
declined, so the landowners began reducing the area under grain
cultivation. Thus, an Agricultural Depression set in. They tried to cut the
wages and number of labourers they needed.
Protest and Government Actions

In England during 1830s, farmers received threatening letters of not using
threshing machines that remove workmen of their livelihood. Some farmers
found their barn and haystack reduced to ashes by fire at night. Most of the
letters were signed in the name of Captain Swing. It was a mythic name
used in these letters. Landlords feared attacks by armed groups at night and
many destroyed their own machines. The government took severe actions
on these riots. The suspects of the riots were arrested.
Conclusion on Modern Agriculture in England Many changes was

introduced with the coming of modern agriculture in England. The open
fields disappeared and the customary rights of peasants were removed.
The poor left their villages in large numbers while the richer farmers
expanded grain production and made profits. They became powerful. The
income of labourers became unstable, their jobs insecure and their
livelihood dependent on others.
Bread Basket Of The World

Modern agriculture developed in the USA and it became the breadbasket of
the world. At the time, when common fields were being enclosed in England
at the end of the 18th century, settled agriculture had not developed on any
extensive scale in the USA. At that time, forests covered over 800 million
acres and grasslands (prairies) 600 million acres. Most of the landscape
was not under the control of white Americans. Till the 1780s, white
American settlements were confined to a small narrow strip of coastal land
in the East.
At that time there were various Native American groups. Several of them
were nomadic, some were settled. Still, others were expert trappers through
whom European traders had secured their supplies of beaver fur since the
16th century.
By the early 20th century, this landscape had transformed radically. White
Americans had moved Westward and controlled up to the West coast by
displacing local tribes and transformed the whole landscape into agricultural
fields.
The Westward Move of White Americans and Wheat Cultivation

Many native Americans lived by hunting, gathering, and fishing, others
cultivated corn, beans, tobacco and pumpkin. After the American War of
Independence (1775 to 1783) and the formation of the United States of
America, the white Americans began to move Westward.
In 1800, over 700000 white Americans had moved on to the Appalachian

plateau through the passes. They had the idea that wilderness of forests
could be turned into cultivation fields. Forest timber could be cut for export,
animals hunted for skin, moutains mined for gold and minerals. For this, the
American Indians had to be cleared from the land. After 1800, the US
government took a policy of driving the American Indians Westward, first
beyond the river Mississippi and then further West.
Displacement of Local Tribes and Settlement

To displace local tribes was not an easy task. Many wars were waged in
which Indians were massacred and many of their villages burnt. They were
forced to sign treaties, give up |! their lands and move Westward. The
settlers poured in as the Indians retreated. The white Americans settled on
the Appalachian plateau by the first decade of the 18th-century and then
moved into the Mississippi valley between 1820 and 1850.
Wherever the White American settlers went, they slashed and burnt the
forests and cleared the land for cultivation. They ploughed the land and
sowed corn and wheat. After the 1860s, the Great Plains across the River
Mississippi became a major wheat-producing area of America. Timber for
houses was not available in this area. Settlers in the area began clearing
the grasslands and made sod houses to live in.
The Wheat Farmers of USA
From the late 19th century, there was a great expansion of wheat
production in the USA. The urban population was [ growing and the export
market was becoming bigger. With I the increasing demand for grain, prices
also increased and encouraged the farmers to produce more. The spread of
railways also made it easier for exporting the grain. By the early 20th
century, the demand became even higher.
The demand of wheat further increased during the First ; World War, when
Russian supply of wheat was cut off. The US President Wilson called upon
the farmers to plant more wheat. He said ‘Plant more wheat, i.e. wheat will
win the war’.
In 1910, about 45 million acres of land in the USA was I under wheat
production. After 9 years, the area had expanded to 74 million acres, an
increase of about 65%.In the USA, a new class was emerged-The Wheat
Barons who controlled as much as 2000 to 3000 acres of land individually.
The Coming of New Technology

The expansion of wheat production was made possible by 1 new
technology. In the 19th century, as the settlers moved into new habitats and
new lands, they modified their implements to meet their requirements.
When they entered prairie grasslands, their traditional tools became

ineffective as prairie was covered with a thick
mat of grass with tough roots. To break the sod and turn the soil, a variety of
new ploughs were devised. Some of them were about 12 feet long.
In the early 20th century, farmers were breaking the ground with tractors
and disk ploughs, clearing vast stretches for wheat production. Before the
1830s, the grain used to be harvested with a cradle or sickle.
The new machines allowed big farmers to rapidly clear large tracts, break
up the soil by removing the grass and prepare the ground for cultivation.
With power-driven machinery, 4 men could plough effect seed and harvest
2000 to 4000 acres of wheat in a season.
Effect of New Technology on the Poor

Machines brought misery for the poor. Many poor farmers bought machines
by taking loans from the banks. They hoped the wheat prices would bring
high profits and they would pay their debts back. But it did not happen due
to the war. Production expanded during the war and unsold stock piled up.
Wheat prices fell and the export market collapsed. The vast amount of
wheat and corn turned into animal feed. This created great Agrarian
Depression of the 1930s.
Those poor farmers who borrowed money found it difficult to pay back their
loan. Many of them left their farms and looked for a job elsewhere.
USA Became Dust Bowl

The expansion of wheat production in the USA created other problems.
Farmers slashed and burnt forests indiscriminately, uprooted all vegetation,
which had deep roots in the Earth. As trees and grasses were cut, there
was no rains year after year and the temperature increased. The tractors
had broken the soil into dust. The whole region had become a dust bowl.
In the 1930s, terrifying duststorm began to blow over the Southern plains.
The wind blew with great speed. Black blizzards rolled in, sometimes 7000
to 8000 feet high. It looked like monstrous waves of muddy water.
Through the 1930s, these duststorms came day after day and year after
year. People were blinded and choked, cattle were suffocated to death,
sand covered fields and coated the surfaces of the rivers till fishes died.
Dead bodies of birds and animals were all over the landscape.
The Trade With China
The story of British trade with China and the history of opium production in
India are interlinked. In the late 18th century, the English East India
Company was buying tea and silk from China for sale in England.
As tea became a popular English drink, the tea trade became more and
more important. In 1785, about 15 million pounds of tea were being
imported into England.
By 1830, the figure had jumped to over 30 million pounds. In fact, the profits
of the East India Company came to depend on the tea trade.
The problem of English Hembants with Chin, England at this time produced
nothing that could be easily sold in China. The Confucian rulers of China,
the Manchus, were suspicious of all foreign merchants.
The Manchus were unwilling to allow the entry of foreign goods. In such a
situation, Western merchants found difficulty in financing the tea trade.
They could buy tea only by paying in silver coins or bullion. This meant an
outflow of treasure from England, a prospect that created widespread
anxiety. It was believed that a loss of treasure would make the nation poor
and deplete its wealth. Merchants, therefore, looked for ways to stop this
loss of silver.
They searched for a commodity they could sell in China, something they
could persuade the Chinese to buy Opium was such a commodity.
Opium as a Medium of Exchange

The Portuguese had introduced opium into China in the early 16th century.
Opium was, however, known primarily for its medical properties and used in
very small quantities for certain types of medicines.
The Chinese were aware of the dangers of opium addiction and the
Emperor had forbidden its production and sale except for medicinal
purposes. But Western merchants in the mid—18th century began an illegal
trade in opium. It was unloaded in a number of sea ports of South-Eastern
China and carried by local agents to the interiors.
While the English cultivated a taste for Chinese tea, the Chinese became
addicted to opium. People of all classes took to the drug. As China became
a country of opium addicts, British trade in tea flourished. The returns from
opium sale financed the tea purchases in China.
Opium Cultivation in India
When the Britisher conquered Bengal, they made a determined effort to

produce opium in the lands under their control.
As the market for opium expanded in China, larger volumes of opium flowed
out of Bengal ports. Before 1767, no more than 500 chests (of two maunds
each) were being exported from India. Supplies had to be increased to feed
this booming export trade. By 1870, the government was exporting about
50000 chests annually from Bengal to China.
Unwilling Cultivators Made to Produce Opium

Indian farmers were not willing to grow opium in their lands for the following
reasons
• First, opium had to be grown on the best land, on fields that lay near
villages and well manured.
• Second, many cultivators owned no land, so they had to pay rent and
lease land from the landlords.
• Third, the cultivation of opium is a long and difficult process.
• Finally, the price the government paid to the cultivators for the opium
they produced was very low. It was unprofitable for cultivators to grow
opium at that price.
Unwilling cultivators were made to produce opium through a system of

advances. In Bengal and Bihar, there were a large number of poor
peasants, who found it difficult to survive. When the village headman
(mahato) offered loans to produce opium, they took it hoping to repay it
later. The government opium agents gave the money to the headman, who
gave it as loan to the peasants.
By taking the loan, the peasants were forced to grow opium and hand over
the product to the agents once the crop had been harvested. The prices
given to the cultivators were very low. The British Government was not
ready to increase the price of opium. They wanted to produce it at a cheap
rate and sell it at a high price. The difference between the buying and selling
price was the government’s opium revenue. But the peasants began
agitating for higher prices and refused to take advances. They even sold
their crop to traveling traders (pykars), who offered higher prices.
Monopoly and Conflict Over Opium Trade

By 1773, the British Government had established a monopoly to trade in
opium. By the 1820s, the British found that opium production in their
territories was rapidly declining, but its production outside the British
territories was increasing. It was being produced in Central India and
Rajasthan, within the Princely States that were not under British rule. In
these areas, local traders were offering much higher prices and were
controlling the opium trade to China.
The British Government considered this trade illegal and instructed its
agents posted in the Princely States to seize all opium and destroy the
crops. The conflict between the British Government, peasants and local
traders continued as long as opium production lasted.
Conclusion
All sections of rural people were not affected in the same way. Some gained
and others lost. The history of modernization was not only a glorious story of
growth and development. It was also a story of displacements and poverty,
ecological crises and social rebellion, colonization, and repression. We need
to look at these variations and strands to understand the diverse ways in
which peasants and farmers confronted the modern world.
The coming of modern agriculture in England created many problem for

small farmers and labourers.
In protest to the modern agriculture, they started setting fire on haystack

and barn, destroying threshing machine.
Before advent of modern agriculture, land were not enclosed and peasants
cultivated on stripes of land allocated to them in public meeting.
Beyond enclosures land, lied the common land where villagers grazed their
cattle and collected fuel wood for fire.
Wool production gained importance in 16th century. So, rich farmer

enclosed the land preventing entry of poor farmers to expand wool
production.
Though the enclosure movement was slow in the early of 18th century later
on there was a fanatic effort to enclose land.
The new enclosure was for grain production whereas old enclosures were
for sheep farming.
Migration to urban areas, due to industrialisation raised the demanct of

foodgrain and thus its prices. Foodgrains prices further increased when
trade was disrupted due to England-French war.
There was rapid increase in foodgrain production from mid-19th century,

which was the result of radical innovation in agricultural technology and
bringing of new lands under cultivation.
Farmers also used certain innovative methods like growing turnip and
clover, practise of crop rotation etc.
During the Napoleonic wars, prices of foodgrains were high and farmers
expanded their production and bought threshing machine.
After the Napoleonic wars, thousands of soilder returned who needed work,
there was grain inflow into England from Europe, food prices declined,
landlords reduced the area of cultivation which all led to the Agricultural
Depression.
Development of Modern agriculture in USA made it the bread basket of the

world.
With formation of the United States of America white Americans moved

westward and drove away American – Indians (native settlers). This
displacements lead to may wars.
In 19th century there was dramatic expansion in wheat production in USA.

The export market grew bigger and rising prices encouraged farmers to
produce more.
New technology the ploughs to break the sod and turn the soil, tractors,
diskplough and the reaper invented by Cyrus McCormick helped improving
wheat cultivation.
Machine brought misery for the poor, many took loans to buy machines and
found it difficult to pay back.
After the First World War, demand of wheat reduced, stocks pilled up and all
this lead to the great Agrarian depression of 1930s.
Indiscriminate cutting of trees, practice of slashing and burning of forest

resulted in drought and soaring temperature in USA.
Soil turned into dust and the whole region became a dust bowl. Terrifying
duststorm blew over the Southern plains year after year.
The American dream of land of plenty turned into a nightmare and the
American realised that they had to maintain the ecological balance of each
region.
After the Battle of Plassey (1757), to establish their rule in India, the British
wanted to impose regular system of land revenue thus expanded area of
cultivation.
Indigo and opium were two major commercial crops in 19th century and
later on sugarcane, cotton, jute, wheat and several crops were also included
to meet the growing demand in Europe.
The East India Company was buying tea and silk from China for sale in
England, paying in silver coins. But is was drying out the treasury of
England, hence they started illegal trade in opium.
The opium in China came from farmlands of Bengal, where poor farmers
were lured to grow opium by giving them advance loans through village
headman (Mahato).
By 1773, the British Government had established a monopoly to trade in

opium. But its production was also increasing outside British territory within
the Princely States in Central India and Rajasthan. The local traders
controlled the trade.
The British considered this trade illegal. The conflict between the British and
local traders peasants continued as long as opium production lasted.
The history of modernization of agriculture was not beneficial for all. Some
rural people gained and some lost.
History and Sport: The Story of Cricket Class 9 Notes Chapter 7
The present chapter deals with how the history of cricket was connected to
the social history of the time. It shows the evolution of cricket as a game in
England and discuss the wider culture of physical training and athleticism of
the time. It will then move to the history of the adoption of cricket in our
country.
The Story Of Cricket

Cricket was invented in England and became intimately linked to the culture
of 19th century-Victorian society. The game was expected to represent all
that England valued; fair play, discipline and gentlemanliness. With the
British, cricket spread to the colonies. It was supposed to uphold the values
of Englishness also. The colonial masters assumed that only they could play
the game as it ought to be played in its spirit.
The game of cricket thus got linked up closely with the politics of colcnialism
and nationalism. Within the colonies of the British, the game had a complex
history. It was connected to the politics of caste and religion, community and
nation. The emergence of cricket as a national game was the result of many
decades of historical development.
Cricket grew out of the many stick-and-ball games played in England 500
yeirs ago, under a variety of different rules. The word ‘bat’ is an old English
word thal simply means stick or club.
By the 17th century, cricket had envolved enough to be recognisable as a
distinct game. Till the middle of the 18th century, bats were roughly the
same shape ashockey sticks, curving outwards at the bottom. There was a
simple reason for this, the ball was bowled underarm, along the ground so
the curve at the end of the bat j£ve the batsman the best chance of making
contact.
The Historical Development Of Cricket As A Game In England

The social and economic history of England in the 18th and 19th centuries
shaped the game and gave it a unique nature. For instance, a Test match of
cricket can go on for five days and still end in a draw. No other modern team
sport takes even half as much time to complete.
The length of the pitch is specified i.e. 22 yards but, the size and shape of
the ground is not specified. Grounds can be oval, like Adelaide, or nearly
circular, like Chepauk in Chennai. A six at the Melbourne Cricket Ground
needs to clear much more ground than a Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi. Both
these strange aspects consist a historical reason.
Laws of Cricket
The first written Laws of Cricket were drawn up in 1774. These laws stated
that ‘the principals shall choose the gentlemen from amongst present two
umpires who shall, absolutely decide all disputes. The stumps must be 22
inches high and bail across them 6 inches. The ball must be between 5 to 6
ounces and the two sets of stumps should be 22 yards apart’. There was no
limits on the shape or size of the bat.
Changes in Cricket Laws by Marylebone Cricket Club.

The world’s first cricket club was formed in Hambledon in 1760s and the
Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was founded in 1787. In 1788, MCC
published the first revision of the laws and became the guardian of cricket’s
regulations.
The MCC revision of the laws brought in a series of changes in the game
that occurred in the second half of the 18tl century. During the 1760s and
1770s, it became mmmon to pitch the ball through the air, rather than rollit
along the ground. It opened new possibilities for pace, spin and swing for
the bowlers.
The weirht of the ball was limited between 5-10 ounces ind the width of the
bat to 4 inches. In 1774, the first leg-before law was published and three
days had become the length of a major match.
Changes in Cricket During 19th Century

Many important changes occurred during the 19th century. They were
• The rule about wide balls was applied

• The exact circumference of the ball was specified
• Protective equipment like pads and gloves became available
• Boundaries were introduced. Previously all shots had to be run
• Over-arm bowling became illegal.
Cricket as a Reflection of Past and Present

The game of cricket matured during the early phase of the Industrial
Revolution in the late 18th century. This history has made cricket a game
with characteristics of both past and present. Cricket’s connection with a
rural past can be seen in the length of a Test match and the uncertainity
about the size of a cricket ground. Even after boundaries were written into
the laws of cricket, their distance from the wicket was not specified.
Originally, cricket matches did not have time limit.
Modern factory work meant that people were paid by the hour or the day or
the week. That’s why games like football and hockey were strictly time-
limited so that time should be limited to fit the routines of industrial city life.
Technological Changes in Cricket Equipments
The cricket has changed with changing time and it also remained true to its
origins in rural England. Cricket’s most important tools like bat, ball, stumps,
bails all are made of natural, pre-industrial materials. The material of bat
changed slightly over time. But cricket has refused to make its tools with
man-made materials, like, plastic, fibre glass, metal, etc.
In the matter of protective equipment, cricket has been influenced by

technological change. The invention of vulcanised rubber led to introduction
of pads in 1848 and protective gloves soon afterward. Also, helmets made
of metal and synthetic lightweight materials were introduced.
Cricket and Victorian England

The organisation of cricket in England reflected the nature of English
society. The rich, who could afford to play it for pleasure, were called
amateurs and the poor, who played it for a living, were called professionals.
The wages of professionals were paid by patronage or subscription or gate
money.
Gentlemen and the Players

The game was seasonal and it did not offer employment for the whole year.
Thus, professionals worked as miners or in other forms of working class
employment. The social superiority of amateurs was built into the customs
of cricket. Amateurs were called Gentlemen, while professionals were called
Players. They even entered the playground from different entrances.
Amateurs tended to be batsman, leaving the energetic, hardworking aspect

of the game, like fast bowling to the professionals. That is why the laws of
the game always gave the benefit to the batsman. Cricket is a batsman’s
game because its rules were made to favour ‘Gentlemen’. The social
superiority of the amateur was also the reason that the captain of a cricket
team was traditionally a batsman. Captain of teams, whether club teams or
nationals sides were always amateurs. It was not till the 1930s that the
English team was led by a professional, the Yorkshire batsman, Len Hutton.
Introduction of Crickter to Boys School

It is often said that the ‘Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of
Eton’. It means that Britain’s military success was based on the values
taught to school boys in its public schools. Eton was the most famous of
these school. The English boarding school was the institution that trained
English boys for careers in the three great institution of imperial England
(i.e. the Military, Civil service and the Church).
By the beginning of 19th century, educationist like Thomas Arnold (founder

of the modern public school system) saw team sport like, cricket and rugby
as not just outdoor game, but as a way of teaching English boys the
discipline, the importance of hierarchy, the skills, the codes of conduct and
the leadership qualities that helped them to build the British empire properly.
Cricket helped the English Elite by glorifying the amateur ideal, where
cricket was played not for victory or profit but for its own sake in the spirit of
game.
English ruling class believed that they won the wars due to- the superior
characters of its young men, built in boarding schools, playing gentlemanly
games like cricket that tipped the balance.
Sports for Girls

Till the end of the 19th century, sports and vigorous exercise for girls were
not a part of their education in Britain. Croquet which was a slow-pace,
elegant game considered suitable for women, especially of the upper class.
By the 1890s, schools began acquiring playgrounds and allowing girls to
play some, of the games which were earlier considered as male games.
The Spread Of Cricket

Some English team games like hockey and football became international
games but cricket remained a colonial game. It was only played in the
countries that were once had been part of British empire. In the colonies,
cricket was established as a popular sport either by white settlers or by local
upper classes who wanted to copy their colonial masters. In colonies,
playing cricket became a sign of superior social and racial status.
The Afro-Caribbean population of the countries in the West Indies was

discouraged from participating in organized club cricket. This remained
dominated by white plantation owners and their servants.
The first non-white club in the West Indies was established towards the end
of tie 19th century and its members were the light-skinned Mulattos. The
blacks played informal cricket on beaches, in back alleys and parks.
Cricket became hugely popular in the Caribbean. Success at cricket

became a measure of racial equality and political progress. When the West
Indies wot! its First Test Series against England in 195C, it was celebrated
as a national achievement.
Ironies of the Victory
The following points state ironies of this victory

It was a way of demonstrating that West Indians were the equals of white
Englishmen.
The winning West Indies team was captained by a white player. The first
time a black player, Frank Worrell led the West Indies Test team in 1960.
The West Indies cricket team represented not one nation but several
dominions that later became independent countries.
Cricket, Race, and Religion

In colonial India, cricket was organised on the principle of race and religion.
The first record of cricket being played in India is 1721. It was played as a
recreational sport by English sailors in Cambay.
The first Indian club, the Calcutta Cricket Club was established in 1792.
Through the 18th century, cricket in India was only played by British military
men and civil servants in all white clubs and gymkhanas.
The first Indian community to start playing the game was the small
community of Zoroastrians, the Parsis in Bombay.
The Parsis came into close contact with the British because of their interest
in trade and this was the first Indian community to westernize. They founded
the first Indian cricket club, the Oriental cricket club in Bombay in 1848.
History of Gymkhana Cricket

Parsi clubs were funded and sponsored by Parsi businessmen like the
Tatas and the Wadias. There was a quarrel between the Bombay
Gymkhana (a whites-only club) and Parsi cricketers over the use of a public
park. So the Parsis built their own gymkhana to play cricket.
A Parsi team beat the Bombay Gymkhana at cricket in 1889, just four years
after the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Indian National
Congress was an organisation which had early leaders, like the great Parsi
statesman and intellectual Dadabhai Naoroji.
The establishment of the Parsi Gymkhana became precedent for other

Indians, who in turn established clubs based on the idea of religious
community.
By the 1890s, Hindus and Muslims were busy gathering funds and support
for a Hindu Gymkhana and an Islam Gymkhana. The history of gymkhana
cricket led to first-class cricket being organised on communal and racial
lines. The teams that played colonial India’s greatest and most famous
tournaments represents religious communities.
Quadrangular and Pentangular Tournaments

The first-class cricket tournament was called the Quadrangular as it was
played by four teams, the Europeans, the Parsis, the Hindus and the
Muslims. Later, the Quadrangular became the Pentangular when a fifth
team, viz the Rest was added. The Rest was comprised of all the
communities left over. For example, Vijay Hazare, a Christian, played for the
Rest. By the late 1930s and early 1940s, journalists, cricketers and political
leaders had begun to criticise the racial and communal foundations of the
pentangular tournament.
The distinguished editor of the Bombay Chronicle, S A Brelvi, radio

commentator, A F S Talyarkhan and India’s most respected political leader
like Mahatma Gandhi, were against the Pentangular as a communally
divisive competition. It was played at the time when nationalists were trying
to unite India.
A rival first-class tournament on regional lines, the National Cricket.

Championship (later named the Ranji Trophy), was established but was not
able to replace Pentangular tournament. It was present until independence
but colonial tournament died with their rule.
Caste and Cricket

Palwankar Baloo was born in Poona in 1875. He was the greatest Indian
slow bowler of his time. He played for the Hindus in the Quadrangular
tournament. Despite being their greatest player he was never made captain
of the Hindus because he was born as a Dalit.
His younger brother, Vithal was a batsman. He became captain of the

Hindus in 1923 and led the team to a famous victory against the Europeans.
‘The Hindus’ brilliant victory was due more to the judicious and bold step of
the Hindu Gymkhana in appointing Mr Vithal as a captain of the Hindu team.
The moral that can be safely drawn from the Hindus’ magnificent victory is
that removal of Untouchability would lead to swaraj, which is the prophecy
of Mahatma Gandhi.
The Modern Transformation Of The Game

Tests and One-day Internationals (ODIs), played between national teams
dominate modern cricket. The players who become famous, who live on in
the memories of cricket’s public, are those who have played for their
country. The players are remembered by Indian fans from the era of the
Pentangular and the Quadrangular tournaments.
CK Nayudu is popularly remembered as an outstanding Indian batsman. He

became India’s first Test Captain and played for India in its first test match
against England in 1932.
The entry of Indians to Test Cricket

India entered the world of Test cricket in 1932. This was possible because
Test cricket from its origins in 1877 was organised as a contest between
different parts of the British empire, not sovereign nations.
The first Test was played between England and Australia when Australia
was still a white settler colony, not even a self-governing dominion.
Similarly, the small countries of the Caribbean that together make up the
West Indies team were British colonies after the Second World War.
Mahatma Gandhi and Colonial Sport

Mahatma Gandhi believed that sport was essential for creating a balance
between the body and the mind. He often emphasised that games like
cricket and hockey were imported into India by the colonial masters and
were replacing our traditional games.
Games like cricket, hockey, football. and tennis were expensive games, so
these were meant for the privileged only. Gandhiji suggested that these
games showed a colonial mindset and were a less effective education than
the simple exercise of those who worked on the land.
Decolonization and Sport

Decolonization is the process through which different parts of European
empires became independent nations. It began with the independence of
India in 1947 and continued for the next half of century. This process led to
the decline of British influence in trade, commerce, military affairs,
international politics and sports matter.
Even after the disappearance of the British colonies, the regulation of

international cricket remained the business of the Imperial Cricket
Conference (ICC). In 1965, the ICC renamed the International Cricket
Conference. But it was dominated by its foundation members, England and
Australia which had the veto power. After 1989, the privileged position of
England and Australia was taken away.
The colonial flavour of world cricket during 1950s and 1960s can be seen
from the fact that England, Australia and New Zealand continued to play
Test cricket with South Africa, a racist state where a policy of racial
segregation is practiced. Test-playing nations like India, Pakistan and the
West Indies boycotted South Africa. English cricket authorities canceled a
tour by South Africa only in 1970 after the increasing political pressure to
boycott the racist state.
Commerce, Media And Cricket Today

The 1970s was the decade, in which cricket was transformed. It was notable
for the exclusion of ‘Racist’ South Africa from international cricket. Year
1971 was a landmark year because the first One-Day International was
played between England and Australia in Melbourne. In 1975, the first World
Cup was staged successfully. In 1977, cricket was changed forever by a
businessman.
World Series Cricket

Kerry Packer, an Australian television tycoon saw the money-making
potential of cricket as a televised sport. He signed up fifty-one of the world’s
leading cricketers against the wishes of the National Cricket Botrds and for
about two years staged unofficial Tests and one-day internationals under
the name of World Series Cricket. It was described as Packer’s circus.
Kerry Packer made cricket more attractive to television audiences which

changed the nature of the game. Coloured dress, protective helmets, field
restrictions, cricket under lights, became a standard part of the post-Packer
game. Packer gave the lesson that cricket was a marketable game, which
could generate huge revenue. Cricket boards became rich by selling
television rights to television companies.
Television and Expansion of Cricket

Television channels made money by selling sports to television companies.
The continuous television coverage made cricketers celebrities. The
cricketers made larger sums of money by making commercials for wide
range of products, from types to Colas, on television.
Television coverage changed cricket. It expanded the audience for the

game by beaming cricket into small towns and villages. The technology of
satellite television and the worldwide reach of multi-national television
companies created a global market for cricket.
Since India had the largest viewership and market for the game, the game’s
center of gravity shifted to South Asia. This shift was symbolized by the
shifting of the International Cricket Council (ICC) headquarters from London
to tax-free Dubai. The center of gravity in cricket has shifted away from the
old Anglo-Australian axis to subcontinental teams like India, Pakistan and
Sri Lanka.
Conclusion
One hundred and fifty years ago, the Parsis, the first Indian cricketers
struggled for an open space to play cricket. Today, Indian players are the
best-paid, most famous cricketers in the game. The factors behind this
transformation are the replacement of the gentlemanly amateur by the paid
professional, the triumph of the one-day game in place of Test cricket and
the remarkable changes in global commerce and technology. In this way a
colonial sport became the most popular game in our country.
Cricket was invented in England and it was assumed that the game ought to
be played in its true spirit. Hence, it was linked up closely with politics of
colonialism and nationalism, caste, religion and community.
Cricket had evolved as a different game by 17th century. Ball was bowled
underarm and till middle of the 18th century bats were of same shape as
hockey sticks.
Cricket was shaped by the social and economic history of England in the
18th and 1 j)th century.
Length of the pitch is specified as 22 yards; but shape and size of the
ground is not fixed.
The laws of cricket were codified in 1774. Stumps 22 inches high, bail 6
inches, ball 5 to 6 ounces but shape or size of bat not specified.
Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was founded in 1787. In 1788 it published

the first revision of the laws and became the guardian of cricket’s
regulations.
Cricket as a game is connected with both past and present. The past is
reflected in the length of cricket match, size of cricket grounds, no time limit
etc.
The organization of cricket in England reflected the nature of English

society. The rich played for pleasure and were called amateurs and the poor
played for living were called professionals.
Amateurs were called gentlemen while”professionals were called players.

Amateurs were batsman hence rules of cricket were in favor of Batsman.
Educationist like Thomas Arnold saw sports like cricket, rugby as not just
outdoor game but as source of discipline, skills, code of conduct and
leadership quality.
Girls were only allowed to play slow pace and elegant game until! 1890,
after which they played games earlier considered as male games.
The cricket remained a colonial game, as playing cricket became a superior

social and racial status. The Afro-Caribbean population discouraged from
participating in organised club cricket.
Cricket became so popular in Caribbean that success in cricket became a

measure of racial equality and political progress.
Cricket was organised on the principle of race and religion. The Calcutta
Cricket Club was first Indian club established in 1792. The Oriental Cricket
Club, established by Parsis in 1848, was the first Indian Cricket Club.
The Parsis team beat the Bombay Gymkhana in 1889.
The first class cricket tournament was called Quadrangular (Europeans,

Parsis,Muslims and Hindus), later it became Pentangular when a fifth team
Rest was added.
The division of cricket tournament was condemned by respected leaders

including Mahatma Gandhi, for being communally divisive.
Modern cricket is dominated by test and One Day Internationals.
India played first test rhatch against England in 1932.
The impact of decolonisation process was also reflected in cricket as after

1989 privileged position of England and Australia was scrapped.
South Africa was excluded from international cricket because of prevailing

racialism.
First International One Day match was pldyed between England and
Australia in 1971 at Melbourne.
Kerry Packer realised the money making .potential of cricket, as a televised

sport and made it more. popular and attractive with coloured dress,
protective helmets, crickets under light, etc!
The technology of satellite television created a global market for cricket.
Since India had the longest viewership, the game center of gravity shifted to
South Asia.
International Cricket Council (ICC) headquarters shifted from London to
Dubai.
Colonial sport cricket became the most popular game in our country.
Clothing: A Social History Class 9 Notes Chapter 8
There is a history to the clothes we wear. All societies observe certain rules
about wearing clothes. Some of them are quite strict about the ways in
which men, women and children should dress or different social classes and
groups should dress themselves. These rules were made to define the
identity of people. They shape the notions of grace and beauty, ideas of
modesty and shame. As societies were transformed with time, these rules
also changed.
History Of Clothing Style

The emergence of the modern world is marked by dramatic changes in
clothing. Before the age of democratic revolutions and the development of
capitalist markets in 18th century Europe, most people dressed according to
their regional codes. This was limited by the types of clothes and cost of
materials that were available in that region. Clothing styles were strictly
regulated by class, gender or status in the social hierarchy.
After 18th century, the colonisation of most of the world was done by
Europe. The growth of democratic ideals and industrial society changed the
thinking and meaning of clothes for people. The people started using styles
and materials from other countries. The Western dress style for men was
adopted worldwide.
Sumptuary Laws And Social Hierarchy

In medieval Europe, detailed laws regarding the dress code were
sometimes imposed upon members of different sections of societies. From
about 1294 to the time of the French Revolution in 1789, the people of
France were expected to strictly follow the Sumptuary Laws. The laws tried
to control the behaviour of social inferiors, preventing them from wearing
certain clothes, consuming certain foods and beverages arid hunting game
in certain areas.
In medieval France, the materials to be used for clothing were legally

prescribed. Only royalty could wear expensive materials like ermine, fur,
silk, velvet and brocade. Other classes were not allowed to clothe
themselves with materials that were used by the aristocratic class.
Not all Sumptuary Laws were meant to emphasise social hierarchy; some
laws were passed to protect home production against imports.
For example, a law passed in 16th century England compelled all persons
over six years of age except those of high position to wear woollen caps
made in England. This law lasted for 26 years and was very useful in
building up to English woollen industry.
End of Sumptuary Laws

The French Revolution ended the dress distinctions between the rich and
the poor, as it completely removed the Sumptuary Laws. Members of
Jacobin clubs called themselves as ‘sans-culottes (without knee breeches).
The fashionable ‘knee breeches’ were used by the aristocracy. Both men
and women began wearing clothing that was loose and comfortable.
Blue, white and red became popular colours of France, as they were a sign
of the patriotic citizen. Other political symbols too became a part of dress
like the red cap of liberty, long trousers and the revolutionary cockade which
was pinned on to a hat. The simplicity of clothing was meant to express the
idea of equality.
Clothing And Notion Of Beauty

The end of Sumptuary Laws did not mean that everyone in European
societies could now dress in the same way. Some social differences were
still there, as the poor could not dress or eat like the rich people. But laws
no longer stopped people’s right to dress in the way they wished. Different
classes developed their own culture of dress according to their earnings.
Clothing Styles in Victorian England
Styles of clothing also emphasised differences between men and women. In

Victorian England, dutiful and obedient women were considered ideal ones.
They were expected to bear pain and sufferings. On the other hand, a man
symbolised strength, depth, seriousness and responsibility. Norms or ideas
of clothing reflected these ideals.
From childhood, girls were tightly laced up and dressed in stays. The effort
was to restrict the growth to their bodies. When slightly older, girls had to
wear tight fitting corsets having a busk. Tightly laced, small-waisted women
were admired as attractive, elegant and graceful. Thus, clothing played a
key role in creating humble and obedient Victorian women.
The reaction of Women to the Norms of Clothing
The ideals of womanhood were believed by many women.
They got the ideals from society, literature and educational institutions.
From childhood, they grew up to believe that having a small waist was a
womanly duly. Being a woman, it was essential to suffer pain. They had to
wear the corset to be seen as attractive and to be womanly. But not
everyone accepted these ideals.
Agitation in England
Over the 19th century, ideas of women changed. By the 1830s, women in
England began agitating for democratic rights. As the suffrage movement
developed, many women began agitating for democratic rights and
campaigning for dress reform.
Women’s magazines described that tight dresses and corsets caused
deformities and illness among young girls. Such clothing restricted body
growth and affected blood circulation.
Their muscles remain underdeveloped and spines got bent. Doctors

reported that many women were regularly complaining of acute weakness
and fainted frequently. Thus, corset became necessary to hold up their
weakened spine.
Agitation in America
In America, a similar movement developed amongst the white settlers on
the East coast. Traditional feminine clothes were criticised for various
reasons. Long skirts swept the grounds and collected dirt which caused
illness. They were large in volume and difficult to handle.
In the 1870s, Mrs Stanton of the National Woman Suffrage Association and
Lucy Stone of the American Woman ‘ Suffrage Association campaigned for
dress reform. Everywhere conservatives opposed change.
Thus, women reformers did not immediately succeed in changing social

values. But by the end of the 19th century, changes started with the new
times and new values came. People began accepting the ideas of
reformers.
New Times
Many changes were made possible in Britain due to the introduction of new
materials and technologies. Other changes came'” about because of the two
World Wars and the new working conditions for women.
Introduction of New Materials

Before the 17 th century, most of the ordinary women in Britain possessed
very few clothes made of flax, linen or wool, which were difficult to clean.
After 1600, trade with India brought cheap, beautiful, easy to maintain
Indian chintzes within the reach of Europeans.
During the Industrial Revolution, cotton clothes, became more accessible to

a wider section of people. By the early 20th century, artificial fibers
appeared. They were clothes made of cheaper and easier to wash and
maintain. Of the late 1870s, heavy, restrictive underclothes were no longer
in use. Clothes got lighter, shorter and simpler.
Effect of the War on Clothing

Major changes happened in women’s clothing due to the two world wars.
Many European ladies stopped wearing jewellery and luxurious clothes.
Social barriers were removed as upper class women mixed with other
classes. All classes of women began to dress in similar ways.
During the First World War (1914-1918), clothes of women got shorter due
to practical necessity. By 1917, over 7 lakh, women in Britain were
employed in ammunition factories. They wore a working uniform. Khaki
overalls, caps, short skirts and trousers became the dresses of new
professional women. Use of bright colours in clothes was replaced by sober
colours. Thus, clothes became plainer and simpler.
Effect of Professionalism and Games

For convenience women took to cutting their hair short. By the 20th century,
a plain and. simple style came to reflect seriousness and professionalism.
Gymnastics and games entered the school curriculum for women. They had
to wear clothes that did not affect movement. They needed clothes that
were comfortable and convenient.
Clothing Transformation In Colonial India
During the colonial period, there were significant changes in male and
female clothing in India. There was a consequence of the influence of
Western dress forms and missionary activity. It was also due to the effort by
Indians to fashion clothing styles that included an indigenous tradition and
culture. Cloth and clothing became very important symbols of national
movement.
In 19th century, Indians reacted to Western style clothing in following three
different ways
Many people began incorporating some elements of Western style clothing

in their dress. The wealthy Parsis of Western India were among the first to
adopt Western style clothing. Baggy trousers and the phenta (hat) were
added to long collarless coats, with boots and a walking stick.
Western-style clothing was accepted by dalits, who were converted to

Christianity. At that time, it was men rather than women who accepted the
new dress styles first.
There were others who were convinced ’that Western culture would lead to
a loss of traditional cultural identity. The use of the Western style of clothes
was taken as a sign of the world turning upside down.
Some men started wearing Western clothes without giving up their Indian
clothes. In the late 19th century, many Bengali bureaucrats began stocking
Western-style clothes for working outside the home and used the more
comfortable Indian clothes at home.
Caste Conflict and Dress Change

Though there were no formal Sumptuary Laws in India, still it had its own
strict social codes of food and dress. The caste system clearly defined what
subordinate and dominant caste Hindus should wear, eat, etc., and these
codes had the force of law.
An Example of Caste Conflict: Shanars of Kerala

The Shanars were a community of toddy tappers who migrates to Southern
Travancore to work under Nair landlords. They were not allowed to use
umbrellas, shoes or gold ornaments. Even men and women of Shanar
community were not allowed to cover their upper bodies before the upper
caste.
In 1820s, Shanar women under the influence of Christian missionaries

began to wear tailored blouses like upper castes. But complaints were filed
against them for dress change. Specially when shanars also refused to give
free service to the upper castes. Hindu reformer like Ayya Vaikunder
supported this dress reform.
In 1855, slavery was abolished in Travancore and caste conflict emerged

among upper castes and the Shanars.
Finally by a proclamation of government, Shanar women were allowed to
wear a jacket to cover their upper bodies, but not like women of upper
castes.
British Rule and Dress Codes

In different cultures, specific items of clothing often convey contrary
meanings. This leads to misunderstanding and conflict. Styles of clothing in
British India changed through such conflicts.
The turban in India was not just for protection from the heat but was a sign
of respectability and could not be removed at will. But in the Western
tradition, the hat to be removed before social superiors as a sign of respect.
This cultural difference sometimes created misunderstanding.
The British were often offended if Indians did not take off their turban when
they met colonial officials.
Another such conflict related to the wearing of shoes. Earlier, British officials
had to follow Indian etiquette and remove their footwear in the courts of
ruling kings or chiefs.
Some British officials also wore Indian clothes. But in 1830, Europeans were
forbidden from wearing Indian clothes at official functions, so that the
cultural identity of the white masters was not destroyed. At the same time,
Indians were expected to wear Indian clothes to office and follow Indian
dress codes.
Controversy Over Taking Off Shoes
In 1824-1828, Governor General Amherst ordered that Indians should take
off their shoes as a sign of respect when they appeared before him. But this
order was not strictly followed. Lord Dalhousie, made it mandatory that
Indians were made to take off their shoes when entering any government
institution. Only those who wore European clothes were exempted from this
rule.
In 1862, Manockjec Cowasjee Entee, an assessor in the Surat Fouzdaree

Adawlut, refused to take off his shoes in the court of sessions judge. He was
restricted to enter into the courtroom and he sent a letter of protest to the
Governor of Bombay. This incident led many controversies.
Indians urged that taking off shoes in sacred places and at homes was
linked with following two reasons There was the problem of dirt. Shoes
collected the dirt on the road. This dirt could not be allowed into spaces that
were clean, particularly when people in Indian homes sat on the ground.
Leather shoes and the dirt that stuck under it were seen as polluting.
But public buildings like the courtrooms were different from home. It took
many years for Indians to enter courtroom wearing shoes.
Designing the National Dress

As nationalist feelings swept across India by the late 19th century, Indians
began developing cultural symbols that would express the unity of the
nation. Artists looked for a National Style of art, poets wrote National Songs,
a debate began over the design of National Flag, an experiment started in
search of a National Dress. This move was to define the cultural identity of
the nation in a symbolic way.
Chapkan: Combination of Hindu-Muslim Dresses

In the 1870s, the Tagore family of Bengal experimented with designs for a
National Dress for both men and women in India. Rabindranath Tagore
suggested that instead of combining Indian and European dresses, India’s
National Dress should combine elements of Hindu and Muslim dresses.
So, the chapkan (a long buttoned coat) was considered the most suitable
dress for men. There were also attempts to develop a dress style that would
draw on the tradition of different regions.
Pan-Indian Style of Sari

In the late 1870s, Jnanadanandini Devi, wife of Satyendranath Tagore
adopted the Parsi style of wearing the sari. This was adopted by women of
Brahmo Samaj and came to be known as Brahmika sari.
This style gained acceptance among Maharashtrian and Uttar Pradesh

Brahmos, as well as non-Brahmos. However, these attempts at devising a
pan-Indian style did not fully succeed. Women of Gujarat, Kodagu, Kerala
and Assam continue to wear different types of sari.
The Swadeshi Movement
The Swedeshi Movement in Bengal in the first decade of 20th century was
centrally linked to the politics of clothing. The British first came to trade in
Indian textiles that were in great demand all over the world. The Industrial
Revolution in Britain which mechanised spinning and weaving and greatly
increased the demand for raw materials’ such as cotton and indigo changed
India’s status in the world economy.
Political control of India helped the British in two ways. Indian peasants
were forced to grow crops like indigo and cheap British manufacture easily
replaced coarser Indian products.
Large number of Indian weavers and spinners were left without work.
Important textile weaving centres, like Murshidabad, Machilipatnam and
Surat declined as demand fell.
Effect of Partition of Bengal on Swadeshi Movement
In 1905, Lord Curzon decided to partition Bengal to control the growing

opposition to British rule. The Swadeshi Movement developed in reaction to
this measure.
People were urged to boycott British goods of all kinds and started their own
industries for the manufacture of goods, such as match boxes and
cigarettes. The use of khadi had became the patriotic symbol. Women were
urged to throw away their silk saries, glass bangles and wear simple shell
bangles.
Rough homespun was glorified by the patriotic poems and songs. The
change of dress appealed largely to the upper class, rather than the poor.
Actually, it was impossible to compete with the cheap machine made
products of Britain by ‘Swadeshi’ products. Despite its limitations, the
experiment with Swadeshi gave Mahatma Gandhi important ideas about
using cloth as a symbolic weapon against British rule.
Mahatma Gandhi’s Experiments with Clothing

Mahatma Gandhi’s experiments with clothing summed up the changing
attitude to dress in the Indian sub-continent. It is stated in the points below
• When he went to London to study Law as a boy of 19 in 1888, he cut

off the tuft on his head and dressed in a Western suit. On his return, he
continued to wear Western suits topped with a turban.
• As a lawyer in Johannesburg, South Africa in the 1890s, he still wore
Western clothes.
• In Durban, in 1913, Gandhiji first appeared in an Itmgi and kurta with
his head shaved as a sign of mourning to protest against the shooting
of Indian coal miners.
• On his return to India in 1915, Gandhiji decided to dress like a
Kathiawadi peasant.
• In 1921, he adopted the short dhoti, the form which he wore until his
death. He adopted this dress of the poorest Indian to identify himself as
a common man.
• Khadi is a white and coarse dress material. It was a sign of purity,
simplicity and poverty for Gandhiji. Wearing khadi also became a
symbol of nationalism and a rejection of Western milPtnade cloth.
• Gandhiji even wore the short dhoti without a shirt when he went to
England for the Round Table Conference in 1931.
Responses for Gandhiji’s Call for Wearing Khadi

Mahatma Gandhi’s dream was to clothe the whole nation in khadi. He felt
khadi would be a means of erasing difference between different religions,
classes, etc.
Some examples of other responses to Mahatma Gandhi’s call are as follows
• Nationalists such as Motilal Nehru, a successful barrister from

Allahabad, gave up his expensive Western-style suits and adopted the
Indian dhoti and kurta. But these were not made of coarse cloth.
• Those who had been deprived by caste norms rules for centuries were
attracted to Western dress styles. Therefore, unlike Mahatma’ Gandhi,
other nationalists such as Babasaheb Ambedkar never gave up the
Western-style suit.
• Many Dalits in the early 1910s began to wear three-piece suits and
shoes and socks on all public occasions, as a political statement of
self-respect.
• A woman from Maharashtra in 1928 wrote to Mahatma Gandhi in
response of his call. She said, ‘A year ago, I heard you speaking on the
extreme necessity of everyone of us wearing khadi and thereupon
decided to adopt it. But we are poor people, my husband says khadi is
costly. Belonging as I do to Maharashtra, I wear a sari nine yards long
…. (and) elders will not hear of a reduction (to six yards)’.
• Other women, like Sarojini Naidu and Kamala Nehru, wore coloured
saris with designs, instead of coarse, white homespun.
Conclusion
Changes in styles of clothing are thus linked up with shifts m cultural tastes
and notions or ideas of beauty. Style also enhance due to the changes in
the economy and changes in society due to social and political conflict.
Societies observe rules, some of them are strict about the ways in which
men, women and children should dress.
Societies are transformed as times change and modifications in clothing

reflect these changes.
After the 18th century, most of the world was colonised by Europe. The
growth of democratic ideals and industrial society changed the thinking and
meaning of clothes for people.
From 1294-1789, Sumptuary Laws tried to control the socially inferior

classes, from wearing certain clothes and consuming certain foods in
France.
French Revolution ended the dress distinctions between the rich and the
poor, as it completely removed the Sumptuary laws.
Law no longer barred people’s right to dress in the way they wished.
Different classes developed their own culture of dress according to their
earnings.
Styles of articles of clothing emphasized differences between men and

women in Victorian England. Women were groomed to be docile, dutiful,
submissive whereas, man symbolised strength, depth, seriousness and
responsibility.
By the 1830s women in England began agitating for democratic rights. As

the suffrage movement developed, many women started campaigning for
dress reform.
During the Industrial Revolution, cotton clothes, which were easy to wash
and maintain, become’more accessible to a wider section of people. Thus
clothes got lighter, shorter and simpler.
Radical changes happened in women’s clothing due to the two World Wars.
European ladies stopped wearing jewellery and luxurious clothes.
Women started to wear uniform in their work place. Thus clothes became
plainer, simpler and convenient.
During the colonial period, there were significant changes in male and
female clothing in India.
This change was consequence of the influence of western . dress forms and
missionary activities.
In 19th century western style clothing was accepted by dalits, who were
converted to Christianity. It was men rather than women who accepted the
new dress styles first.
India had its own strict social codes of food and dress. The caste system
clearly defined what subordinates and dominant caste Hindus should wear,
eat, etc. and these codes had the force of law. For example, men and
women of Shanar community were? not allowed to cover their upper bodies
before the upper caste.
In different cultures, specific items of clothing often convey contrary

meaning. This leads to misunderstanding and conflict, styles of clothing in
British India changed through such conflicts.
The Turban in India could not be removed at will as it was a sign of

respectibility not just for protection from heat. But in western tradition the hat
to be removed before social superiors as a sign of respect.
By the late 19th century, as nationalist feelings emerged, India began

preparing cultural symbol that would express the unity of the nation.
Experiment started over National Songs, National Flag, and National Dress.
Rabindranath Tagore suggested the Chapkan as the most suitable dress for
men and Brahmika Sari was adopted for women by Jananadanandini Devi.
The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal was linked to the politics of clothing.
Political control of India helped the British in two ways. Indian peasants
were forced to grow crops like Indigo and cheap British manufacture easily
replaced coarser Indian products.
In 1905 partition of Bengal started Swedeshi Movement. People started

boycott of British goods of all kinds. The use of Khadi had become the
patriotic symbol.
Mahatma Gandhi’s experiments with clothing summed up the changing

attitude to dress in the Indian sub-continent. Wearing Khadi become a
symbol of Nationalism.
Not all Indian could wear khadi as it was coarse and costly rather than mill-
made cloth.
Gandhi cap became a symbol of defiance and a part of the nationalist

uniform.
Changes in style of clothing arise due to economic, social and political
changes in the society.
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe Class 10 Notes Chapter 1
Nation (State):
A large number of people of mainly common descent, language, history,
inhabiting a territory bounded by defined limits and forming a society under
one government is called a nation.
Frederic Sorrieu and his visualization:

In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints,
visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social
republics’, as he called them.
1. The first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a
long train, and offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by
it. A female figure carries a torch of enlightenment in one hand and the
Charter of the Rights of Man, in the other hand.
2. On the earth lies the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist
institutions.
3. In Sorrieu’s Utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as
distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costumes.
4. Leading the procession are USA and Switzerland, followed by France
and Germany. Following Germany are Austria, Kingdom of the two
Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
5. From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze at the scene.
The artist symbolizes fraternity among the nations of the world.
The French Revolution and the idea of Nation:
1. Growth of nationalism in France.

2. Introduction of various measures and practices created sense of
collective identity among the people of France.
3. Change of monarchy and establishment of republic, creation of new
assembly.
4. Rise of Napoleon and his reforms. Revolutionaries help other people of
Europe to become nation.
The making of Nationalism in Europe:
• Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into Kingdom, duchies and
cantones these divisions were having their autonomous rulers.
• Uses of different languages.
• Rise of middle class.
• Industrialization in England, emergence of a working class and
liberalism.
• New conservation after 1815 and preservation of traditional institution.
• After the defeat of Napoleon, the European government follows the
spirit of conservatism. Conservative regimes were autocratic
Revolutionaries at that time fought for liberty and freedom.
Example, Mazzini’s young Italy and Young Europe.
Unification of Italy:
Giuseppe Mazzini had played an important role in the unification of Italy. He
formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles, to spread his
goals. He believed Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states
and had to be forged into a single unified republic. During 1830’s, Mazzini
sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic.
As uprisings in 1831 and 1848 had failed, the mantle now fell on Sardinia-
Piedmont under its ruler Emmanuel II to unify Italy.
Under Chief Minister Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in destroying

the Austrian forces in 1859. Even Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they
marched into South Italy and the kingdom of the two Sicilies and with the
help of the local peasants, drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor
Emmanuel II was proclaimed as King of United Italy.
Unification of Germany:
In the 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of
these states ceased to exist during the Napoleonic wars. At the end of the
war, there were still 39 independent states in Germany. Prussia was most
powerful, dominated by big landlords known as Junkers.
• Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who

had tried to unite the different regions of the German federation into a
nation-state governed by an elected Parliament.
• In May 1848, a large number of political associations came together to
vote for an all-German National Assembly. Their representatives met at
Frankfurt and the Frankfurt Assembly proposed the unification of
Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia as
emperor
• The King of Prussia rejected the offer and the liberal initiative of nation
building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy, the
military and the ‘Junkers’.
• Then on, Prussia under its Chief Minister Otto Von Bismarck led the
movement for unification of Germany. Bismarck carried out this process
with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy. He fought
three wars over seven years with Denmark, Austria and France. Prussia
was victorious in all these wars and the process of unification was
completed as a result of Prussia’s victory over France.
• Consequently, on 18th January 1871, an assembly comprising of
princes of German States, representatives of the army, important
Prussian ministers and Bismarck gathered in the Palace of Versailles
and proclaimed the Prussian King, Kaiser William, the new German
Emperor.
Visualizing the Nation:

Marianne and Germania were both female allegories used by artists in the
19th century to represent the nation.
1. In France she was named Marianne, a popular Christian name, which

underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn
from those of liberty and republic—the red cap, the tri-colour, the
cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares as a
national symbol of unity. Marianne images were marked on coins and
stamps.
2. Instead of just having the idea of father land, they wanted to implant a
suitable image in the minds of the people. They invariably chose the
mother figure symbolizing nations—Britannia, Germania and Marianne
reminding us of our concept of Matribhumi.
3. Germania became the allegory of the German nation. Germania wears
a crown of oak leaves as German oak stands for heroism. It was hung
from the ceiling of St. Paul’s Church, where Frankfurt Parliament was
convened, to symbolize the liberal revolution.
Napoleonic Code:
1. The first major change was doing away with all privileges based on
birth, establishing equality before law and securing the right to property.
2. Administrative divisions were simplified.
3. Feudal system was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom
and manorial dues (abuse of manorial lords).
4. In towns, guild restrictions were removed.
5. Transport and communication systems were improved.
6. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new
found freedom.
7. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods in particular began to
realize that uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and a
common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange
of goods and capital from one region to another.
Nationalism and Imperialism:

Last quarter of the 19th century nationalism became a narrow creed with
limited ends, Intolerance Balkan became the sense of big power rivalry
Nationalism, aligned with imperialism cause of World War I. Idea of a
Nationalism was now same everywhere . But concept of National State was
accepted universally.
The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China Class 10
Notes Chapter 2
INDO-CHINA:
Comprises of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia — French colony.
Views of Paul Bernard:

Paul Bernard was an influential writer and policy-maker who strongly
believed that the purpose of acquiring colonies was to make profits.
• According to him, the development of economy will raise the standard

of people and people would buy more goods. The market would
consequently expand, leading to better profit for French business.
• According to him, there were several barriers to economic growth in
Vietnam, such as large population, low agricultural productivity and
extensive indebtedness.
• To reduce the poverty and increase agricultural productivity, it was
necessary to carry out land reforms.
• Industrialization was also essential for creating more jobs as agriculture
was not likely to ensure sufficient employment opportunities.
Ho Chi Minh Trail:
• The trail symbolizes how the Vietnamese used their limited resources to
great advantage.
• The trail, an immense network of footpaths and roads was used to
transport men and material from North to South.
• It was improved in late 1950s and from 1967 about 20,000 North
Vietnamese troops came south each month. The trail had support
bases and hospitals along the way.
• Mostly supplies were carried by women porters on their backs or on
their bicycles.
• The US regularly bombed this trail to disrupt supplies but efforts to
destroy this important supply line by intensive bombing failed because
they were rebuilt very quickly.
Influence of Japan:
In 1907-08, around 300 students from Vietnam went to Japan to acquire
modem education.
1. The primary objective was to drive out the French from Vietnam,
overthrow the puppet emperor and reestablish the Nguyen dynasty that
had been deposed by the French. For this, they needed foreign help.
2. Japan had modernized itself and had resisted colonization by the West.
It had defeated Russia in 1907 and proved its military strength. The
Vietnamese nationalists looked for foreign arms and help and appealed
to the Japanese as fellow Asians.
3. Vietnamese students established a branch of Restoration Society in
Tokyo but, in 1908, the Japanese Ministry of Interior clamped down on
them. Many, including Phan Boi Chau, were deported and forced to
seek exile in China and Thailand.
Scholars Revolt, 1868:

It was an early movement against French control and spread of Christianity.
It was led by officials at the imperial court angered by the spread of
Catholicism and French power. There was an uprising in Ngu An and Ha
Tien provinces where the Catholic missionaries had been active in
converting people to Christianity since the early 17th century. By the middle
of the 18th century, nearly 3,00,000 people had got converted. This had
angered the people of these provinces and led to the uprising. Though this
uprising was crushed by the French, it had inspired the people of other
regions to rise against the French colonialism.
Hoa Hao Movement:
It began in 1939 and gained popularity in Mekong delta area. The founder of
Hoa Hao was Huynh Phu So. He performed miracles and helped the poor.
His criticism against useless expenditure, opposition to the sale of child
brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium had a wide appeal. The
French tried to suppress the movement led by Huynh Phu So and declared
him mad, called him the Mad Bonze and put him in a mental asylum.
Interestingly, the doctor, who had to certify him insane, became his follower
and finally, in 1941, the French doctors declared that he was sane. The
French authorities exiled him to Laos and sent his many followers to
concentration camps.
Major problems in the field of education for the French in Vietnam:
1. The French needed an educated local labor force, but they feared that
once the Vietnamese got educated, they may begin to question colonial
domination.
2. French citizens living in Vietnam (called ‘colons’) feared that they might
lose their jobs as teachers, shopkeepers, policemen to the educated
Vietnamese. So they opposed the policy of giving the Vietnamese full
access to French education.
3. Elites in Vietnam were still powerfully influenced by Chinese culture. So
the French carefully and systematically dismantled the traditional
Vietnamese education system and established French schools for the
Vietnamese.
4. In the battle against French colonial education, schools became an
important place for political and cultural battles. Students fought against
the colonial government’s efforts to prevent the Vietnamese from
qualifying for white-collared jobs.
5. There was a protest in Saigon Girls School on the issue of racial
discrimination. The protest erupted when a Vietnamese girl sitting in the
front row was asked to move back to allow a local French student to
occupy the front seat. The girl refused and was expelled along with
other students who protested. The government was forced to take the
expelled students back in the school to avoid further open protests.
‘Rat Hunt’:
1. The modem city of Hanoi got infested with rats in 1902 and was struck
by bubonic plague. The large sewers in the modem part of the city
served as breeding grounds for rats.
2. To get rid of the rats, a ‘Rat Hunt’ was started. The French hired
Vietnamese workers and paid them for each rat they caught. This
incident taught the Vietnamese the first lesson of collective bargaining.
Those who did the dirty work of entering sewers found that if they came
together they could negotiate a higher bounty.
3. They also discovered innovative ways to profit from the situation. The
bounty was paid when a tail was given as a proof that a rat had been
killed. So the rat catchers began clipping the tails and releasing the rats,
so that the process could be repeated over and over again.
4. Defeated by the resistance of the Vietnamese, the French were forced
to scrap the bounty programme. Bubonic plague swept through the area
in 1903 and in subsequent years. In a way, the rat menace marks the
limits of French power and contradiction in their civilizing mission.
U.S. entry into the war:

• US entry into the war proved costly to the Vietnamese as well as to
Americans. The phase of struggle with the US was brutal.
• From 1965-1972, many (over 403100) US personnel served in Vietnam
out of which 7484 were women. Many died in battle and a large number
of people were wounded.
• Thousands of US troops arrived equipped with heavy weapons and
tanks backed by most powerful bombers of the time—B52s. The
widespread attacks and use of chemical weapons — Napalm, Agent
Orange and Phosphorous bombs destroyed many villages and
decimated jungles. Civilians died in large numbers.
Effect of the US involvement on life within the US:

Most of the people were critical of the government’s policy of war. When the
youths were drafted (forced recruitment) for the war, the anger grew.
Compulsory service in the armed forces could be waived only for university
graduates. US media played a major role in both supporting and criticizing
the war. Hollywood made films in support of the war. (Example: John
Wayne’s Green Berets; 1968). Other films were more critical.
(Example: John Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now 1979 reflected the moral
confusion that the war caused in the US).
Role of women:
• In the 1960s, photographs in magazines and journals showed women

as brave fighters. There were pictures of women militia shooting down
planes. Women were portrayed as young, brave and dedicated.
• Women were represented not only as warriors but also as workers.
They were shown with a rifle in one hand and a hammer in the other.
• Many women joined the resistance movement. They helped in nursing
the wounded, constructing underground rooms and tunnels and fighting
the enemy.
• Of the 17,000 youth who worked on the trail, 70 to 80 per cent were
women.
Nationalism in India Class 10 Notes Chapter 3
Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of Satyagraha:

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in 1915 from South Africa. Gandhiji’s
novel method of mass agitation is know as ‘Satyagraha’. Satyagraha
emphasized truth. Gandhiji believed that if the cause is true, if the struggle
is against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the
oppressor. A satyagrahi can win the battle through non-violence. People,
including oppressors, had to be persuaded to see the truth. Truth was
bound to ultimately triumph.
In India the first was at Champaran in 1916 to inspire plantation workers to

struggle against oppressive plantation system. In 1917 Satyagraha at
Kheda to support peasants.
In 1918 Satyagraha at Ahmadabad:

Among the cotton mill workers.
‘Hind Swaraj’:
The famous book written by Mahatma Gandhi, which emphasized non-
cooperation to British rule in India.
New economic situation created in India by the First World War:
1. Manchester imports into India declined as the British mills were busy
with war production to meet the needs of the army paving the way for
the Indian mills to supply for the huge home market
2. As the war prolonged, Indian factories were called upon to supply war
needs. As a result new factories were set up, new workers were
employed and everyone was made to work longer hrs.
3. Cotton production collapsed and exports of cotton cloth from Britain fell
dramatically after the war, as it was unable to modernize and compete
with US, Germany, Japan. Hence within colonies like India, local
industrialists gradually consolidated their position capturing the home
market.
The Rowlatt Act of 1919:

It gave the British government enormous power to repress political activities
and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
Jallianwala Bagh inci dent:
On 13th April 1919, a crowd of villagers who had come to attend a Baisakhi
fair, gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh. Being from
outside the city, many were not aware of the martial law that had been
imposed as a repressive measure. General Dyer with his British troops
entered the park and closed the only exit point without giving any warning to
the assembled people and ordered the troops to fire at the crowds, killing
hundreds. This brutal act of General Dyer provoked unparalleled
indignation. As the news of Jallianwala Bagh spread, crowds took to the
streets in many North Indian towns. There were hartals, clashes and attacks
on government buildings.
Non-cooperation programme was adopted at Nagpur in Dec. 1920.
Effects of the Non-cooperation Movement on the economy of India:

Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops were picketed and foreign cloth
was burnt. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921-1922. Its value
dropped from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. Many merchants and traders
refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. People began
discarding imported clothes and wearing Indian ones. The production of
Indian textile mills and hand looms went up. Use of khadi was popularized.
Non-cooperation Movement in the countryside:
• In Awadh, the peasants’ movement led by Baba Ramchandra was

against talukdars and landlords who demanded extremely high rents
and a variety of other ceases from the peasants. Peasants were forced
to work in landlords’ farms without any payment (beggar). Peasants had
no security of tenure, thus being regularly evicted so that they could
acquire no right over the leased land. The demands of the peasants
were— reduction of revenue, abolition of beggar and social boycott of
oppressive landlords.
• In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh a militant guerrilla movement
spread in the early 1920s against the closure of forest areas by the
colonial government, preventing people from entering the forests to
graze their cattle, or to collect fuel wood and fruits. They felt that their
traditional rights were being denied.
• For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move
freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed. It
meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come. Under
the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not
permitted to leave tea gardens without permission. In fact the
permission was hardly granted. When they heard of the Non-
Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities
and left for their homes.
Slowing down of Non-cooperation Movement in cities:
• Khadi cloth was more expensive than mill cloth and poor people could
not afford to buy it. As a result they could not boycott mill cloth for too
long.
• Alternative Indian institutions were not there which could be used in
place of the British ones.
These were slow to come up.
• So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools
and lawyers joined back work in government courts.
Khilafat movement:
Khilafat movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi and the Ali Brothers,
Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali in response to the harsh treatment given to
the Caliph of Ottoman empire and the dismemberment of the Ottoman
empire by the British.
Chauri Chaura incident:

In February 1922, Gandhiji decided to launch a no tax movement. The
police opened fire at the people who were taking part in a demonstration,
without any provocation. The people turned violent in their anger and
attacked the police station and set fire to it. The incident took place at
Chauri Chaura in Uttar Pradesh.
When the news reached Gandhiji, he decided to call off the Non-
cooperation movement as he felt that it was turning violent and that the
satyagrahis were not properly trained for mass struggle.
Swaraj Party was founded by C.R. Das and Moti Lai Nehru for return to
council Politics. Simon Commission 1928 and boycott. Lahore Congress
session and demand for Puma Swaraj in 1929. Dandi march and the
beginning of civil Disobedience movement.
Features of Civil Disobedience Movement:
• People were now asked not only to refuse cooperation with the British
but also to break colonial laws.
• Foreign cloth was boycotted and people were asked to picket liquor
shops.
• Peasants were asked not to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes.
• Students, lawyers and village officials were asked not to attend English
medium schools, colleges, courts and offices.
‘Salt March’:
On 31st January, 1930 Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin
stating eleven demands, one of which was the demand to abolish Salt Tax.
Salt was one of the most essential food items consumed by the rich and
poor alike and a tax on it was considered an oppression on the people by
the British Government. Mahatma Gandhi’s letter was an ultimatum and if
his demands were not fulfilled by March 11, he had threatened to launch a
civil disobedience campaign. So, Mahatma Gandhi started his famous Salt
March accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over
240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town
of Dandi. The volunteers walked for 24 days, about 10 miles a day.
Thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi wherever he stopped, and he
told them what he meant by Swaraj and urged them to peace-fully defy the
British. On 6th April, he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law,
manufacturing salt by boiling sea water. This marked the beginning of the
Civil Disobedience Movement.
Who participated in the movement?

Civil Disobedience Movement came into force in various parts of the
country. Gandhiji led the salt march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with
his followers starting the Civil Disobedience Movement. In the countryside,
the rich Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh were active in the
movement. As rich communities were very hard hit by the trade depression
and falling prices, they became enthusiastic supporters of the Civil
Disobedience Movement. Merchants and industrialists supported the
movement by giving financial assistance and also by refusing to buy and
sell the imported goods. The industrial working class of Nagpur region also
participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Railway workers, dock
workers, mineral of Chhota Nagpur, etc. participated in protest rallies and
boycott campaigns.
Limits of the movement

less participation by untouchables—Ambedker for separate electorate and
Poona pact of 1932, Luke warm response by some Muslim Political
Organization.
Provisions of Poona pact of 1932:

Signed between Dr. Ambedkar and Gandhiji. It gave depressed classes
reserved seats in central provincial councils but they were to be voted by
the general electorate.
The sense of collective belonging:

Though nationalism spread through the experience of united struggle but a
variety of cultural processes captured the imagination of Indians and
promoted a sense of collective belonging:
1. Use of figures or images: The identity of India came to be visually

associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Devotion to the mother figure
came to be seen as an evidence of one’s nationalism
2. Indian folklore: Nationalists started recording and using folklore’s and
tales, which they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that
had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces. So preservation of
these became a way to discover one’s national identity and restore a
sense of price in one’s past.
3. Use of icons and symbols in the form of flags: Carrying the tricolor flag
and holding it aloft during marches became a symbol of defiance and
promoted a sense of collective belonging.
4. Reinterpretation of history: Indians began looking into the past to
rediscover the glorious developments in ancient times in the field of art,
science, mathematics, religion and culture, etc. This glorious time was
followed by a history of decline when India got colonized, as Indian
history was miserably written by the colonizers.
The Making of Global World Class 10 Notes Chapter 4
Trade:
The activity of buying selling or exchanging goods or services between
people firms or countries.
Global inter contentedness:

As early as 3000 BCE (Before the Christian Era), an active coastal trade
linked the Indus Valley civilization with present day West Asia. Thus, trade,
migration of people, movement of capital, goods, ideas, inventions and
many more have helped in creating a global world in ancient times.
Christopher Columbus:
Christopher Columbus was the explorer who discovered the vast continent
of America. He took the sea route to reach there.
First World War:

The war which broke out in 1914 engulfed almost the entire world. The war
was fought in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific. Because of the
unprecedented extent of its spread and its total nature, it is known as the
First World War.
‘Chutney music’:
‘Chutney music’, popular in Trinidad and Guyana is a creative contemporary
expression of the post-indenture experience. It is an example of cultural
fusion between Caribbean islands and India.
Role of the ‘Silk route’:
The routes on which cargoes carried Chinese silk to the west were known
as ‘Silk routes. Historians have discovered several silk routes over land and
by sea, covering vast regions of Asia and connecting Asia with Europe and
Northern Africa. Even pottery from China, textile and spices from India and
South Asia also traveled the same route. In return, precious metals like gold
and silver flowed from Europe to Asia. Culturally, Buddhism emerged from
Eastern India and spread in several directions through the silk route.
Indentured labour is a bonded laborer under contract to work for an

employer for a specific amount of time, to pay for his passage to a new
country or home.
Reasons why it can be described as new system of slavery:
• Many migrants agreed to take up work to escape poverty and

oppression in their home villages. They were cheated and were
provided false information by the agents regarding their destination,
modes of travel, the nature of work and working conditions.
• Often migrants were not even told that they were to go on long sea
journeys.
• The tasks allotted to them on plantations were extremely heavy and
could not be completed in a day. They were beaten or imprisoned.
• Deductions were made from wages if the work was considered
unsatisfactory.
• Living and working conditions were harsh and there were few legal
rights to protect them.
Com laws:
A Com Law was first introduced in Britain in 1804, when the landowners,
who dominated Parliament, sought to protect their profits by imposing a duty
on imported com. This led to an expansion of British wheat farming and to
high bread prices.
Effects of Abolition of Corn Laws:
This allowed the merchants in England to import food grains from abroad at
lower costs —
• It led to widespread unemployment in the agricultural sector.

• It also resulted in the rise of a prosperous capitalist class in the urban
areas.
• Unemployment in the rural sector forced the movement of labor from
agricultural to industrial sector.
Europeans were attracted to Africa because:

Africa had vast resources of land and minerals. Europeans came to Africa
hoping to establish plantations and mines to produce crops ‘and minerals
which they could export to Europe. The loss of cattle disease destroyed
African livelihoods. Planters, mine owners and colonial governments now
successfully monopolized what scare cattle resources remained to force
Africans into the labor market. African countries were militarily weak and
backward. So they were in no position to resist military aggression by
European states.
‘Food offers many examples of long distance cultural exchange’:
• Traders and travelers introduced food crops to the lands they traveled.
Many of our common foods, such as potatoes, maize, soya,
groundnuts, tomatoes, chilies and sweet potatoes came from America.
• It is believed that noodles traveled West from China to become
‘Spaghetti’ or perhaps Arab traders took pasta to fifth century Sicily (an
island in Italy). Indian ‘Rotis’ have become ‘tortillas’ in Mexico, America
and western countries.
• Europe’s poor people began to eat better and live longer with the
introduction of potato.
Economic effect of the First World War on Britain:’
1. To finance war expenditure, Britain had borrowed liberally from US.

This meant that at the end of the war, Britain was burdened with huge
external debts,
2. The war had disturbed Britain’s position of dominance in the Indian
market. In India, the nationalist movement had gathered strength and
anti-British feeling had become stronger among common people.
Promotion of Indian industries had become one of the objectives of the
nationalist leaders, which adversely affected industries in Britain.
3. There was widespread increase in unemployment coupled with
decrease in agricultural and industrial production. Cotton production
collapsed and export of cotton from Britain fell dramatically.
4. Unable to modernize, Britain was finding it difficult to compete with U.S.,
Germany and Japan internationally.
Rinderpest (cattle plague).

An infectious viral disease of cattle, domestic buffalo, etc.
Opium trade, the traffic that developed in the 18th and 19th centuries in
which Great Britain, exported opium grown in India to China.
The Great Depression.

An economic situation in which most parts of the world experienced
catastrophic declines in production, employment, incomes and trade. Began
around 1929 and lasted till the mid-1930s.
Great Depression in the US between 1929-30:
1. Agricultural Overproduction. Falling of agricultural prices had made it
even worse. As the prices fell, the agricultural income declined. To meet
this situation, farmers brought larger volume of produce to the market to
maintain their small income. The excessive supply couldn’t be sold due
to lack of buyers and farm produce rotted.
2. US Loan Crisis. In the mid-1920s, many countries financed their
investments through loans from the US. The overseas lenders panicked
at the first sign of trouble. Countries that depended crucially on US
loans faced an acute crisis due to the withdrawal of US loans. It led to
the failure of major banks and collapse of currencies.
NIEO:
Although there was unprecedented economic growth in the West and
Japan, nothing was done about the poverty and lack of development in
countries which were earlier colonies. Thus, there arose a need for the
developing nations to organised themselves into the G-77 group to demand
a New International Economic Order (NIEO). NIEO meant a system that
would give them control over their own natural resources, more
development assistance, fairer prices for raw materials and
and better access for their manufactured goods in developed markets.
Bretton Woods Agreement:

Tire main aim of the post-war international economic system was to
preserve economic stability and full employment in the industrial world. A
framework of the scheme was prepared. The famous economist John
Maynard Keynes directed the preparation of the frame-work and it was
agreed upon at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held
in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire in USA. According to the
Bretton Woods Conference, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
World Bank were set up. IMF was set up to deal with external surpluses and
deficits of its member nations and the World Bank was to finance post-war
reconstruction. These two are referred to as Bretton Woods institutions or,
sometimes, ‘Bretton Woods twins’. Decision making in these institutions was
controlled by the Western industrial powers and the US even had Veto over
their key decisions. The post-war economic system is often described as the
Bretton Wood system.
The Age of Industrialisation Class 10 Notes Chapter 5
Key Concepts:
• An association of craftsmen or merchants following same craft to

protect the members interest and supervise the standard of the work.
• Tanning. Convert raw hide into leather by soaking in liquid containing
tannic acid.
• Food processing. Technique of chopping and mixing food for making
jam, juices, etc.
• Victorian Britain. Britain during the reign of Queen Victoria.
• Brewery. A place where beer etc. is brewed commercially. Brewing is a
process of infusion, boiling and fermentation.
• Vagrant. A person without a settled home or regular work.
• Bourgeois. The upper middle class.
• Gomastha. An Indian word meaning an agent, a middle man between
the merchant and weavers.
• Stapler. A person who staples or sorts wool according to its fiber.
Industrialisation:
Production of goods with the help of machines in factories. The first
industrialized Nation-Britain.
Features:
Handmade goods to machine made goods in factories, cottage to factory,
large scale production, started in England in later parts of 18th Century. In
course of time, it affected all systems of production.
Before Industrial Revolution
Proto-Industrialisation:
• Production in 17th century, artisans worked for merchants to produce
goods, artisans took raw material from merchants for production. Their
cottages functioned as a factory.
• Association of producers, trained craft people maintained control over
production, restricted entry of new traders. This period saw the coming
of factories.
Coming up of factories:
• Early factories in England came up by the 1730s.

• First symbol of new era-cotton mill
• Many factories sprang up in England
• A series of inventions took place in the form of carding, twisting,
spinning and rolling.
The pace of Industrial change:
• Cotton and iron and steel industries were the most dynamic industries.
• New industries could not displace traditional ones.
• Technological changes occurred slowly.
• Steam engine invented by James Watt had no buyers for years.
• New technologies were slow to be accepted.
Hand labor and stream power:
• In Victorian Britain there was no shortage of human labor.

• In many industries the demand for labor was seasonal.
• Range of products could be produced only with hand labor.
• There was a demand for intricate designs.
• Upper classes preferred things produced by hand.
Life of the worker:
• Abundance of labor affected the life of workers badly.

• Labour was seasonal.
• Fear of unemployment made workers hostile to new technology.
• Women labors protested against the introduction of the Spinning Jenny.
• Introduction of railways opened greater opportunities.
Industrialisation in the colonies:
• Textile industry was the center of industrialization in India.
Age of Indian textiles
• Finer varieties of cotton from India were exported.

• A vibrant sea trade operated through pre-colonial ports.
What happened to weavers?
• East India Company appointed “gomasthas” to collect supply from

weavers.
• Weavers lost bargaining power and lost lands for settling loans.
Gomasthas:
The Gomasthas were paid servants whose job was to supervise weavers,
collect supplies and examine the quality of cloth.
• The aim of the East India Company behind appointing gomasthas was
to work out a system of management and control that would eliminate
competition, control costs and ensure regular supplies of cotton and
silk.
• Soon there were clashes between the weavers and the gomasthas who
began ill-treating the weavers.
• They did not allow the company weavers to sell their produce to other
buyers. Once an order
was placed, the weavers were given loans to purchase the raw
material. Weavers who had accepted loans from the company had to
hand over the cloth they produced to the gomasthas only.
• The weavers were forced to sell their goods to company’s officials.
When the American Civil War broke out and cotton supplies from the
US were cut off, Britain’s demand for raw cotton from India increased.
Manchester comes to India:
• By 1950s, India began to import Manchester cotton from Britain.

• With the rise in Manchester imports, Indian export and local market
declined.
• Supply of raw cotton in India decreased.
• Weavers were forced to buy cotton at high prices.
Factories come up:
• Industries were set up in different regions.

• First cotton mill came in Bombay in 1854.
• The first jute mill came up in Bengal in 1855.
• 1830s-1840s—Dwarakanath Tagore setup six-joint stock companies in
Bengal.
• Capital was accumulated through other trade networks.
• Till the First World War European managing agencies in fact controlled
large sectors of Indian industries.
Where did the workers come from?
• Most of the workers came from Indian villages.
Peculiarities of industrial growth:
• Early Indian cotton mills made coarse cotton yam.

• During the First World War Manchester imports to India declined.
• Indian factories supplied goods for war needs.
Small scale industries predominated:
• Most of the Industries were located in Bengal and Bombay.

• A small portion of total industrial labor worked in factories.
• Use of fly shuttle increased handicraft.
Market for goods:
Advertisements helps in creating new consumers.
• When Manchester industrialists began selling cloth in India, they put

labels on the cloth bundles, to make the place of manufacture and the
name of the company familiar to the buyer. When buyers saw ‘Made in
Manchester’, written in bold on the label, they felt confident to buy the
cloth.
• The labels carried images and were beautifully illustrated with images of
Indian gods and goddesses. The printed image of Krishna or Saraswati
was also intended to make the manufacture from a foreign land, appear
familiar to Indians.
• Manufacturers also printed calendars to popularize their products.
• When Indian manufacturers advertised, the nationalist message was
clear and loud. If you care for the nation,. then buy only ‘Indian’
products. Advertisements became a vehicle of the nationalist message
of Swadeshi.
Work, Life and Leisure Class 10 Notes Chapter 6
Role of industrialization in shaping of the modem cities in England:

The early industrial cities of Britain such as Leeds and Manchester attracted
large numbers of migrants to the textile mills set up in the eighteenth
century.
• During the 18th and 19th centuries, London became a center for
international trade and commerce and attracted a large number of
traders and merchants from all over the world.
• London was a powerful magnet for migrant population even when it did
not have large factories.
• Apart from the dockyard, five major types of industries employed large
number of workers:
(i) clothing and footwear,
(ii) wood and furniture,
(iii) metals and engineering,
(iv) printing and stationery and
(v) precision products such as surgical instruments, watches and
objects of precious metal.
Impact of industrialization and urbanization on the family life in
Britain:
The family life transformed in terms of function and shape. The family as an
institution had broken down as the ties between members of households
loosened, and among the working class the institution of marriage tended to
break down.
Women of the upper and middle classes in Britain faced increasingly higher
levels of isolation, although their lives were made easier by domestic maids
who cooked, cleaned and cared for young children on low wages. Women
lost their industrial jobs and were forced to withdraw into their homes. The
public space became increasingly a male preserve.
Steps taken by the British State to provide housing for working

classes between 1919-1939:
Between the two World Wars, the responsibility for housing the working
classes was accepted by the British State and a million houses, most of
them single family cottages, were built by local authorities. Meanwhile, the
city had extended beyond the range where people could walk to work, and
the development of suburbs made new forms of mass transport, absolutely
necessary, which led ultimately to the setting up of railways.
Steps taken to clean up London:
1. Demands were made for new ‘lungs’; efforts were made to bridge the
difference between the city and the countryside through a Green Belt
around London. Attempts were made to decongest localities, green the
open spaces, reduce pollution.
2. Large blocks of apartments were built and rent control was introduced
in Britain during the First World War to ease the impact of a severe
housing shortage.
3. Architect and planner Ebenezer Howard developed the principles of the
‘Garden City’, a pleasant space full of plants and trees.
4. Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker developed the Garden suburb of
New Earswick based on Howards idea.
Benefits of London Tube railway:
The London underground railway partially solved the housing crisis by
carrying large masses of people to and from the city. The population in the
city became more dispersed. Better-planned suburbs and a good railway
network enabled large numbers to live outside Central London and travel to
work.
Air pollution—nuisance for the Londoners:

The congestion in the 19th century industrial city of London led a yearning
for clean country air. Because of widespread use of coal in homes and
industries, air pollution led to bad tempers, smoke-related illnesses and dirty
clothes. Demands were made for new ‘lungs’ for the city.
1. Factory owners and steam engine owners were told invest on

technologies that would improve their machinery. Despite hurdles and
opposition from the industries, the Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and
1853 were passed.
2. Attempts were made to decongest localities, green the open spaces,
reduce pollution and landscape the city. Large blocks of apartments
were built and rent control was introduced. Architect and planner
Ebenezer Howard developed the ‘Garden City’.
Sources of entertainment for the common people of London:
• ‘London Season’ was an annual feature for the wealthy Britishers.

Several cultural events such as the opera, the theater and classical
music performance were organized for an elite group of 300-400
families in the late 18th century.
• The working class met in pubs to have drinks, exchange news or to
discuss politics.
• In the 19th century some libraries, art galleries and museums were
established to provide people with a sense of history.
• Music halls were popular among the lower classes. By the early 20th
century, cinema became the great mass entertainment for mixed
audiences.
• Holidaying by the sea became popular among the industrial workers.
Transformation of Bombay into an industrial city:
At first, Bombay was the major outlet for cotton textiles from Gujarat. Later,
in the 19th century, the city functioned as a port through which large
quantities of raw materials, such as cotton and opium, would pass.
Gradually, it also became an important administrative centre in Western
India, and then, by the end of the 19th century, a major industrial centre.
Bombay became the capital of the Bombay Presidency in 1819 after the
Maratha defeat in the Anglo-Maratha war. With the growth of trade in cotton
and opium, large communities of traders and bankers as well as artisans
and shopkeepers came to settle in Bombay. The establishment of textile
mills led to a fresh surge in migration. Bombay had its first cotton textile mill
established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about
1,46,000 workers.
‘Chawls of Bombay’:
The working people who migrated from various parts lived in thickly
populated Chawls. Chawls are multi-storeyed structures built in the native
parts of the town. Each Chawl was divided into smaller one room tenements
which had no private toilets. The homes being small, streets and
neighborhoods were used for a variety of activities such as working,
washing, sleeping and various types of leisure activities. The magicians,
monkey players and acrobats used to regularly perform their act in an open
space in the middle of four Chawls. Liquor shops and akharas came up in
any empty spot.
Rent Act (Bombay):

The Rent Act was passed in Mumbai (Bombay) in the year 1918.
To solve the problem of housing, the Rent Act was passed with the aim of
keeping the rents reasonable. It had the opposite effect of producing a
severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
Bombay—a city of dreams:

Despite massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay
(Mumbai) appears to many as mayanagari—a city of dreams.
• Many films of Bombay deal with the arrival in the city of new migrants
and their pressures of daily life. Even some songs from films like CID
(1956) and Guest House (1959) speak of the contradictory aspects of
the city. By 1925, Bombay had become India’s film capital, producing
films for a national audience.
• Most of the people in the film industry were themselves migrants who
came from cities like Lahore, Calcutta, Madras. Bombay films have
contributed greatly to produce an image of the city as a blend of dreams
and reality of slums and star bungalows.
Land reclamation process in Bombay:
1. Seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass over a period
of time. The need for additional commercial place in mid-19th century
led to the formulation of several plans for the reclamation of more land
from sea. Both private companies and government were involved.
2. In 1864, the Black Bay Reclamation Company won the right to reclaim
the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar Hills to the end of Colaba.
3. By 1870, the city had expanded 22 square km.
4. A successful reclamation project was undertaken by the Bombay Port
Trust, which built a dry dock between 1914 and 1918 and used the
excavated earth to create the 22 acre Ballad Estate. Subsequently the
famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.
Causes of air-pollution in Calcutta:

City development everywhere occurred at the expense of ecology and
environment. Kolkata (Calcutta) was also not an exception.
1. High levels of pollution were a consequence of the huge population that

depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life.
2. The main polluters were the industries and establishments that used
steam engines run on coal. The city was built on marshy land the
resulting fog combined with smoke generated thick block fog.
3. The railway line introduced in 1855 brought a dangerous new pollutant
into the picture—coal from Raniganj. The high content of ash in Indian
coal was a problem.
4. In 1920, the rice mills of Tolly gunge began to bum rice husk instead of
coal leading to air filled with black soot falling like drizzling rain.
Print Culture and Modern World Class 10 Notes Chapter 7
Printing in the early days:

Invention of Printing Press had a very lasting effect on the social and
cultural life of man. Print initially developed in East Asia and later developed
through Europe and India. Before the era of print or invention of Printing
Press, writing of books was purely manual affair. Books were handwritten
and even illustrated. Calligraphy developed as an art during that era.
Calligraphy means the art of beautiful and stylish writing.
Printed matter Chinese tradition.

Chinese were the first to have a system of recruitment of civil service
personal through open examination. Printing remained confined to
examination materials till around the 16th century. Trade information was
circulated among the traders through printed materials. By 19th century
mechanical printing press made its appearance in China.
The First Printing Press was invented in 1430s by Johann Gutenberg.

Johann Gutenberg’s Bible was the most beautiful books ever printed.
Germany took the lead in revolutionizing printing all over Europe.
Features of handwritten manuscripts:
• They were copied on palm leaves or on handmade papers. Pages were

beautifully illustrated.
• They were pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure
preservation.
• Manuscripts were available in vernacular languages. They were highly
expensive and fragile. They could not be read easily as script was
written in different styles. They were not widely used in everyday life.
Woodblock method became popular in Europe:

Production of handwritten manuscripts could not meet the ever increasing
demand for books. Copying was an expensive, laborious and time
consuming business. The manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle and
could not be carried around or read easily. By the early 15th century,
woodblocks started being widely used in Europe to print textiles, playing
cards and religious pictures with simple, brief texts.
Visual culture:
In the end of 19th century a new visual culture had started. With the
increasing number of printing presses visual images could be easily
reproduced in multiple copies. Painters like Raja Ravi Verma produced
images for mass circulation. Cheap prints and calendars were brought even
by the poor to decorate the walls of their houses.
Print popularized the ideas of the idea of the enlightenment thinkers:
• Collectively the writings of thinkers provided a critical commentary on

tradition, superstition and despotism.
• Scholars and thinkers argued for the rule of reason rather than custom
and demanded that everything to be judged through the application of
reason and rationality.
• They attacked the sacred authority of the church and the despotic
power of the state thus eroding the legitimacy of a social order based
on tradition.
• The writing of Voltaire and Rousseau were read widely and those who
read these books saw the world through new eyes, eyes that were
questioning critical and rational
Development of reading mania in Europe:
A new forms of popular literature appeared to target new readers. There
were ritual calendars along with ballads and folk tales. In England penny
chapbooks were carried by petty peddlers known as chapmen and sold for a
penny. In France these low priced books were called Bibliotheque Bleue as
they were bound in cheap blue covers. Periodical presses developed to
combine information on current affairs with entertainment. The idea of
scientists and scholars had now become more accessible to the common
people.
Impact of print on Indian women:

Writers started writing about the lives of women and this increased the
number of women readers. Women writers began to write their own
autobiographies. They highlighted the condition of women, their ignorance
and how they were forced to do hard domestic labor. A large section of
Hindu writing was devoted to the education of women. In the early 20th
century the journals written by women became very popular in which
women’s education, widowhood, widow remarriage were discussed.
Print culture created the conditions within which the French

Revolution:
The print popularized the ideas of the enlightened thinkers who attacked the
authority of the church and the despotic power of the state. The print
created a new culture of dialogue and debate and the public become aware
of reasoning. They recognized the need to question the existing ideas and
beliefs. The literature of 1780s mocked the royalty and criticized their
morality and the existing social order.
India and Print Culture:
Print culture came to India with the coming of Portuguese missionaries.

Konkani was the first Indian language in which books were printed. The first
Tamil book printed was printed in 1579 and Malayalam book in 1713.
English printing in India commenced with the publication of Bengal Gazette
in 1780. Printed tracts played a very significant role in the spread of social
reform movement in India.
The Vernacular Press Act:
• In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed by the British

Government to impose restrictions on vernacular press, which was
responsible for spreading nationalist ideas.
• The government started to keep a regular track of the vernacular
newspapers and had extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in
the vernacular press.
• When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned,
and if the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and
the printing machinery confiscated.
•
Novels, Society and History Class 10 Notes Chapter 8
• The Rise of the Novel:

Novel is a modem form of literature. It is born because of print which is
a mechanical invention. Novels could reach a larger audience because
of print. Novels began to be written from the 17th century and flowered
in the 18th century. New groups of lower-middle-class; along with the
traditional aristocratic and gentlemanly classes in England and France
formed the new readership of novels.
• The Publishing Market:

Initially, novels did not come cheap and were out of reach for the poor
classes. With the introduction of circulating libraries in 1740; people
could get easier access to books. Apart from various innovations in
printing, innovations in marketing also helped in increasing the sales
and bringing down the prices.
• The worlds created by novels were more realistic and believable. While
reading a novel, the reader was transported to another person’s world.
Novels allowed individuals the pleasure of reading in private. It also
allowed the joy of publicly reading and discussing stories.
• In 1836, Charles Dicken’s Pickwick Papers was serialized in a
magazine. Magazines were cheaper and illustrated. Moreover,
serialization allowed readers to relish the suspense. They could live for
weeks in anticipation of the next plot of the story.
• The World of the Novel

In the 19th century, Europe entered the industrial age. While
industrialization created new opportunities of growth and development,
it also created new problems for the workers and the city life. Many
novelists created stories around the problems of ordinary people in the
new cities. Charles Dickens and Emile Zola were the notable authors
of this period.
• Community and Society:
The novels reflected the contemporary developments in the society.
Thomas Hardy’s Mayor of Caster bridge (1886) is novel written in the
rural backdrop. The novel by Hardy has use of vernacular language
which is the language spoken by common people. Use of vernacular
helped Hardy in correlating with the common people who lived in that
period.
• Women and the Novels:

During the 18th century Britain, the middle class became more
prosperous. Women could get more spare time which they utilized to
read and write novels. That is how the novels began to explore the
world of women. Many novels were about domestic life. A woman
writer could write about domestic life with more authority than a male
writer. Many women novelists also began to raise questions about the
established norms of society.
• Novels for the Young:

Novels for the young boys were based on heroism. The hero of such
novels used to be a powerful, assertive, independent and daring
person. As this was the period of expansion of colonialism, most of the
novels tried to glorify colonialism. Books; like R. L. Stevenson’s
Treasure Island (1883) and Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Book (1894)
became great hits. G. A. Henry’s historical adventure novels for boys
were very popular at the height of the British Empire. These novels
were always about young boys who witness grand historical events
and get involved in some military action.
• The Novel Comes to India:
The modem novel developed in India in the 19th century, once the Western
novels were introduced. Many Indian authors initially tried to translate the
English novels but they apparently did not enjoy doing that. Later many of
them decided to write novels in their own language and on their own social
background.
• Some of the earliest novels in India were written in Bengali and

Marathi. Baba Padmanji’s Yamuna Paryatan (1857) was the earliest
Marathi novel. This was followed by Miiktamala by Lakshman
Moreshar Halbe (1861).
• Leading novelists of the nineteenth century wrote to develop a modem

literature of the country. They wanted to produce a sense of national
belonging and cultural equality with their colonial masters.
•
• Novel in South India:
O. Chandu Menon wrote the first Malayalam novel Indulekha in 1889.
Kandukuri Viresalingam (1848-1919) wrote the Telugu novel
Rajasekhara Caritamu in 1878.
• The Novel in Hindi:

•
Bharatendu Harishchandra was the pioneer of modern Hindi literature.
The first proper novel in Hindi was written by Srinivas Das of Delhi. It
was titled Pariksha Gum and was published in 1882. This novel
highlights the pitfalls of blind copying of the western culture and
advocates preserving the traditional Indian culture. The characters in
this novel attempt to bridge the western and the eastern world and try
to make a balance between the two cultures. The writings of Devaki
Nandan Khatri created a novel-reading public in Hindi. Chandrakanta
was his best-seller. This novel is believed to have immensely
contributed in popularizing the Hindi language and the Nagari script
among the educated classes of that time.
• Premchand and his writings:

The Hindi novel achieved excellence with the writing of Premchand. He
began to write in Urdu and later shifted to Hindi. He took a leaf from
the traditional art of kissa- goi (storytelling). Simple language was the
hallmark of his writings. Moreover, he portrayed people from all
sections of the society. In many of his writings, the main character
belonged to oppressed classes.
• Novels in Bengal:
Durgeshnandini (1865) was written by Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay and this novel was much appreciated for its literary
excellence. The initial Bengali novels used a colloquial style associated
with urban life. Meyeli, the language associated with women’s lingo
was also used in those novels. But Bankim’s prose was Sanskritised
and contained a more vernacular style.
• Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay became a novelist of universal appeal
in all parts of India. He was a straight forward supporter of armed
rebellion against British in his novel Pather Dabi (1926).
• Uses of Novel:
For the colonial administrators, novels provided a good source to
under-stand about the life and social hierarchy in India. They could
understand different aspects of the Indian society through novels.
Some of the novels were translated into English; by British
administrators or Christian missionaries. Many novels highlighted the
social ills and suggested remedies. Many novels told stories about the
past so that people could establish a relationship with the past. People
from all walks of life could read novels. This helped in creating a sense
of collective identity on the basis of one’s language. Novels also
helped people to understand about the culture of other parts of the
country.
• Pleasures of Reading:
Novels became a popular medium of entertainment among the middle
class. Detective and mystery novels often had be sent for reprints to
meet the demand of readers. Many novels were printed as many as
twenty two times. The novel also helped in spreading the silent
reading. As late as the nineteenth century and probably in the early
twentieth century, people often read out a text for several people to
hear. But gradually, people adapted to read in silence.
• Women and the Novel in India:

Women were singled out and advised to stay away from immoral
influence of novels as they were seen as easily corruptible. Old women
listened with fascination to popular Tamil novels. But women did not
remain mere readers of stories written by men, they also began to
write novels. In some languages, the early creations of women were
poems, essays or autobiographical. Stories of love showed women
who could to some extent control their lives. Some women authors
also wrote about women who changed the world of both men and
women. Rokeya Hossein, a reformer, wrote a fantasy in English called
‘Sultana’s Dream’ showing a world in which women take the place of
men. In the south, women and girls were often discouraged from
reading novels.
• Caste Practices:
Many authors began to highlight the plight of lower caste people in
their novel. In some of the novels, conflicts arising out of marriage
between a lower caste and an upper caste were highlighted. Some
people from the lower caste also became authors; like Potheri
Kunjambu from Kerala, wrote a novel called Saraswati Vijayam in 1892
mounting a strong attack on caste oppression.
• National pride and novels:
• In India, many novels were written for glorification of India’s past. Many
novels were written in all the main Indian languages in different parts of
the country that helped in the growth of national feelings among the
readers. Some of the greatest novelists of modem India were
protagonists of the national movement like Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay. He infused the ideas of nationalism and freedom from
colonial rule in novels like ‘Anandmath’ and ‘Kapalkundala’. In Bengal,
many historical novels were about Marathas and Rajputs. These
novels portrayed the nation to be full of adventure, heroism, romance
and sacrifice. Bankim’s Anandmath is a novel about secret Hindu
militia which fights Muslims to establish a Hindu kingdom. This novel
inspired many kinds of freedom fighters. Several other novelists wrote
for the same cause. The novels also helped in the nation building
process by taking up the cause of the poor and downtrodden people,
women and such sections of society who were being exploited by rich
aristocratic people. Novels also attacked the racial superiority of the
English people.
From the Beginning of Time Class 11Notes Chapter 1
Flow-Learning:
Story of Human Evolution
Points to remember:
1. Phases of Evolution
Stage 1 – Early Societies
• a. Ape
• b. Australopithecus
• c. Homo erectus (literally ‘upright man’)
• d. Homo sapiens (literally ‘thinking/wise man’)
Stage 2 Hunter-gatherer Societies
• Modern Humans
• Hunters and Gatherers
2. Places of Evolution
The earliest fossils of modern humans where found in:
ETHIOPIA – 195,000-160,000 years ago,
SOUTH AFRICA – 120,000-50,000 years ago,
MOROCCO – 70,000-50,000 years ago,
ISRAEL – 100,000-80,000 years ago,
AUSTRALIA – 45,000-35,000 years ago,
BORNEO – 40,000 years ago,
FRANCE – 35,000 years ago.
3. Social Aspects
• Food
• Shelter
4. Economic Aspects
• Farming
• Domestication of animals
• Trade
5. Cultural Aspects
• Paintings
• Stone Tools
6. Sources
• Fossils
• Stone Tools
• Bones
7. Phases of Stone Age
8. Present day Hunter-Gatherers
i. Role of both-men and Women in present society
SNIPPETS FROM THE CHAPTER
Phases of Evolution
The origin of human begins are divided into several stages:
Primates – A category of larger group of mammals, emerged in
Asia and Africa.
• They existed about 36-24 million years ago.
• They existed in Asia and Africa.
Hominoids – A subgroup subgroup amongst primates emerged by
about 24 mya, called hominoids.
• This group included Apes who had smaller brains.
• They had four legs but were unable to walk erect.
Hominids – The evidence of the first hominids is found about 5.6
mya in Africa.
• They had an upright posture and bipedal locomotion.
• Hominids belong to a family known as Hominidae, which
includes all forms of human beings
• They are further subdivided into branches known as Genus, of
which Australopithecus and Homo are important. Each of
these in turn includes several species.
Homo is a Latin word, meaning ‘man’ (including women). So human
fossils are classified as Homo habilis (the tool maker), Homo
erectus (the upright man), and Homo sapiens (the wise or
thinking man).
Homo Sapiens (Modern Human) can be further divided into –
Homo Heidelbergensis (fossils found in Europe, Asia and Africa)
and Homo Neanderthalemsis (fossils found in Europe, Western
and Middle Asia)
The remains of early humans have been classified into different
species. These are often distinguished from one another on the
basis of differences in bone structure. For instance, species of early
humans are differentiated in terms of their skull size and distinctive
jaws. These characteristics may have evolved due to what has been
called the positive feedback mechanism.
Tool – Making – Example – Pg. – 13
Comparison: Modern Human & Hunter Human
Modern Human:
On one side some scholars feel that ethnographic data cannot be
used for understanding past societies. They have not applied
directly the specific data from present day hunter-gather societies
to interpret the archeological remains of the post.
They have the ideas:
• Present day hunter-gatherer societies pursues several other
economic activities along with hunting and gathering.
• These include engaging in exchange and trade in minor forest
produce or working as paid labourers in the fields of
neighbouring farmers .
• Moreover, these societies are totally marginalised in all senses
– geographically, politically and socially.
• The conditions in which they live are very different from those
of early humans.
• There are tremendous variation amongst living hunter –
gatherer societies.
• There are conflicting data on many issues such as the
relative importance of hunting and gathering, group sizes or
the movement from place to place.
• Today generally women gather and men hunt, there are
societies where both women and men hunt and gather and
make tools. Both women and men are contributing to the food
supply.
The Hunter Human
Whereas, there are scholars who have directly applied specific data
from present-day hunter-gatherer societies to interpret the
archaeological remains of the past. They suggest that hominids
sites dated back to 2 mya.
Social Factors
• Food – Example – Hunting began in about 500,000 yrs. ago
‘The Hadza’ (pg. Text rep. 24)
• Shelter – Date between 700,000 Tools accumulated in one
place Example (Map -2 Text reference Europe Pg. 18) Tree
shape figure Pg. -19
Economic Factors
• Hunting (began about 500,000 years ago), Gathering, Foraging
(to search for food)
• Domestication of animals (began between 10,000 and 4,500
years ago)
• Agriculture and Pastoralism (began around 10,000 years ago)
Cultural Factors
It developed between – 30, 000 and 12,000 years ago
PHASES OF STONE AGE
i. Paleolithic
ii. Mesolithic
iii. Neolithic
a. Neolithic Revolution
Sources
Present day – Hunters and Gatherers

Two – points of view
• Directly applied Specific data from Present day hunter –
gatherer Societies to interpret the archeological remains of the
past.
• Past societies are totally different from the present society.
Key Words: Fossils, Species, Primates, Hominoids Artefacts,
Anthropology, Ethnograp
SUMMARY
• The origin of human beings can be divided into many stages.

• Subgroup of a larger group of mammals is known as Primates.
• About 36-24 mya, Primates existed in Asia and Africa.
• The existence of Hominoids can be traced by about 24 mya.
• Apes came under Hominoids and had comparatively smaller
brain.
• Hominoids had four legs. Although they moved on their four
paws but were unable to walk erect. Hominids which
• evolved from Hominoids originated in Africa in 5.6 mya.
• The Hominids belonged to Hominidae family.
• Hominids are further subdivided into branches known as
genus.
• Homo is originally a Latin word which means ‘man’. Homo
came into existence approximately in 2.5 mya. Their fossils
• date back to 2.2 mya to 1.8 mya.
• Homo habilis were more intelligent in comparison to
Australopithecus.
• Homo erectus were familiar with the art of walking.
• In many parts of Asia and Africa, fossils of Homo erectus have
been found.
• Homo sapiens were the modern men. They were intelligent and
wise.
• Homo sapiens came into existence between 0.19 to 0.16 mya.
• Fossils of Homo habilis have been found at Omo in Ethiopia
and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The fossils of Homo
• erectus have been found in Africa and Asia.
• Homo sapiens were quite intelligent. They used sophisticated
tools and languages.
• Homo neanderthalensis were also called Neanderthal men.
Because their fossils have been found in Neander valley in
Germany.
• Terra Amata in Southern France gives the most important
evidence. The hut was made of thatch.
• The life of early men underwent a sea change due to the
discovery of fire.
• Chesowanja in Kenya and Swartkrans in South Africa are the
places where the traces of the use of fire have been found.
• The tools of early men were made of stones. The tools
constituted hand axes, choppers and flake tools.
• The earliest evidence of stone tools were found in Ethiopia and
Kenya.
• About 21,000 years ago, sewing needle was invented.
• The art of speech helped the man to develop culturally.
• The early human beings painted the pictures of flora and fauna,
sun, moon, rivers and their daily activities.
• Paintings were done on the walls and roofs of the caves.
Altamira, Lascaux and Chauvet are considered to be the
earliest famous cave paintings.
• The early humans also made small sized sculptures.
• The Hadza were also fond of hunting and lived around the salty
lake, Lake Eyasi.
• Altamira is a cave site in Spain.
• Marcelino Sanz deSautula and his daughter Maria brought into
notice the cave paintings.
• Mary and Louis Leakey identified Otduvai.
• Some historians think that ethnographic data cannot be used
without understanding of the past society.
• Ethnography stands for the analytical study of contemporary
ethnic society.
• The early humans were completely dependent on nature.
• They gathered food by fishing and hunting.
• Hooks and harpoons were used to gather small and large
fishes.
• Early men lived on trees, in caves and later on in huts.
• Early men began to live in caves around 400,000 years ago.
• Cave Lazaret is the earliest example of cave dwelling. It is in
Southern France.
Important terms:
• Fossils: The remains of ancient plants, animals and humans
which have become hard and turned into rock.
• Species: A group of organisms that can be bred to produce
healthy and fertile offspring which are divided smaller than
Genus.
• Primates: They are subgroup of a larger group of mammals,
and have a long gestation period followed by birth, mammary
glands, different types of teeth, and ability to maintain a
constant body temperature.
• Artefacts: Objects made by human beings such as tools,
painting, sculpture, engravings, etc.
• Anthropology: A branch of science which deals with human
culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology.
• Ethnography: The study of contemporary ethnic group. It
studies the modes of livelihood, gender, political institutions,
social customs, etc.
• Australopithecus: Southern apes.
• Homo: A Latin word which means man.
• Homo erectus: Human who could walk erect on their legs.
• Homo sapiens: Wiseman, also known as modern humans.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 2 Writing and City Life
Flow-Learning:
I. Ancient Mesopotamia
Geography:
• City life began in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia is derived from the
Greek words ‘mesos’, meaning middle, and ‘potamos’, meaning
river.)
• It is a flat land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers that is
now part of the Republic of Iraq.
• In the north, there is a stretch of upland called a steppe, where
animal herding offers people a better livelihood than agriculture
• Agriculture began between 7000 and 6000 BCE.
• Soil was very fertile here but agriculture was threatened because of
natural causes.
• Ur, Lagash, Kish, Uruk and Mari were some of its important cities.
• The excavation work started 150 years ago.
Urbanisation
• Mesopotamian civilization was based on definite plan.
• Cities and towns are develop when an economy develops in

spheres other than food production that it becomes an advantage
for people to cluster in towns.
• Urban economies comprise besides food production, trade,
manufactures and services.
• There is social organisation in place
• Helpful for the city manufacturers.
• The division of labour is a mark of urban life.
Movement of Goods into cities
•
II. Mesopotamian & Writing Modern Writing

1. Mesopotamian Writing:
• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE,

contained picture-like signs and numbers.
• Writing began when society needed to keep records of
transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different
times, and involved many people and a variety of goods
• Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.
2. Modern Writing: The greatest legacy of Mesopotamia to the world is
its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and mathematics, calender.
III. Political Factors

• From about 1100 BCE, when the Assyrians established their
kingdom in the north, the region became known as Assyria. The
first known language of the land was Sumerian.
• Writing was used not only for keeping records, but also for making
dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the
deeds of kings, and announcing the changes a king had made in
the customary laws of the land.
• It can be inferred that in Mesopotamian understanding it was
kingship that organised trade and writing.
Religious Factors
• Early settlers (their origins are unknown) began to build and
rebuild temples at selected spots in their villages. The earliest
known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. Temples
were the residences of various gods.
• Temples were centres of religious activities. They were dedicated to
different gods and goddess.
(5000 BCE – Settlements began to develop in southern Mesopotamia)
IV. Social Factors
1. Life in the City – Mesopotamian society the nuclear family was the
norm, although a married son and his family often resided with his
parents. The father was the head of the family.
• A ruling elite had emerged

• Had a major share of wealth
• Followed nuclear family system and patriarchal system
• Condition of women
• System of marriages
2. Ur – was a town, one of the earliest cities. It is often compared with
Mohenjodaro
3.In Mesopotamian tradition, Uruk was the city par excellence, often
known simply as The City.
V. Economic Factors
1. Urbanism
2. Trade
3. Record of transaction
• Writing began in Mesopotamia in 3200 BCE.
• Writing became as a records of transactions
• 2600 BCE the letters became cuneiform and language was
Sumerian
VI. Cultural Factors
1. System of Writing:
• Writing was skilled craft

• It conveyed in visual form of system of sounds of a particular
language
2. Literacy:
• Writing reflected the mode of speaking

• King and very few could read
• Official letter from a king could be read
3. Uses of Writing:
• Connections between city life trade and writing is brought out.

• It has brought out in a long Sumerian epic poem about Enmerkar
(king)
• Kingship was able to organise trade and writing
4. Inter Mixture culture:
• Mesopotamian society and culture were open to different people

and cultures.
• Thus the vitality of the civilisation was of course – an intermixture
culture
Cuneiform Script
1. Meaning: It is a script of Mesopotamia. The word ‘Cuneiform’ is
derived from the Latin words cuneus, meaning ‘wedge’ and forma,
meaning ‘shape’. Cuneiform letters were wedge shaped, hence, like
nails.
2. Uses: By 2600 BCE or so, the letters became cuneiform, and the
language was Sumerian. Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language
continued in use until the first century CE, that is, for more than 2,000
years.
VII. Sources
i. Tables (Written around 32000 BCE)
ii. Bible (Old Testament)
iii. British Museum
iv. Texts
VIII. Greatest Legacy of Writing

1. Scholarly tradition of time reckoning
A. Calendar
• Division of years
• Division of Months
• Division of Weeks
• Division of Days
• Division of Hours
• Division of Minutes
• Division of Seconds
B. Recorder of Modern world Phenomenon past
C. Literature: Gilgamesh, which was written on twelve tablets, was the

famous epic of Mesopotamia. It was the work of Uruk who was the
ruler of Mesopotamia in 2700 BCE.
2. Mathematical contribution
• Tables with multiplication and division

• Square
• Square route tables
• Tables of compound interest
• Problem regarding
• A field of area
• Volume of water
Summary
• A great civilization flourished in Mesopotamia around 5000
BCE.
• Mesopotamia is the modern Iraq.
• Originally Mesopotamia is a Greek word which means the land
between two rivers.
• Tigris and Euphrates were the two rivers between which the
civilization of Mesopotamia flourished.
• Mesopotamia is a flat plain. The excavation work started here
about 150 years ago.
• Sumer region was the lower part of the Mesopotamian
civilization.
• It was the heart of the civilization.
• Sumerians were the first to develop a civilization in
Mesopotamia. That is why the civilization has been named
after them, i.e. Sumerian civilisation.
• As per excavations , there were three types of cities in
Mesopotamia. They were religious, commercial and royal
cities.
• Ur, Lagash,Kish, Uruk and Mari were some of the most
important cities of Mesopotamian civilisation.
• Soil of Mesopotamia was very fertile but agriculture was
threatened because of natural causes. The crops grown were
wheat, barley, peas and lintel.
• Mesopotamian civilization was based on a definite plan.
• There were three kinds of slaves that existed in Mesopotamian
society. They were war prisoners, children sold by their
parents and those who failed to pay their debt. They were ill
treated.
• Mesopotamian society consisted of three classes, i.e. Upper
class, Middle class and Lower class.
• Ruling class, the nobles, the royal people and the high officials
belonged to the upper class.
• Members of the upper class led a luxurious life.
• Merchants, traders, landlords, artisans, craftsmen belonged to
the second class.
• Slaves belonged to the lower class.
• Cows, goats, oxen and sheep were the main animals of
domestication.
• Hammurabi, the great, was the ruler of Mesopotamia during
the period of 2067-2025 BCE.
• Code of conduct was the greatest contribution of Hammurabi.
They were 282 in numbers and covered every aspect of life.
• Cuneiform script was the script of Mesopotamia.
• Mesopotamians had great interest in literature also. Gilgamesh
was their famous epic. It was the work of Uruk who was the
ruler of Mesopotamia in 2700 BCE.
• Mesopotamians were interested in mathematics too.
• Sixty important numbers have been found in their numerals.
• Babylonia had an important role in the history of Mesopotamia.
• Temples of Mesopotamia also had much importance in the
history of Mesopotamia. Temples were centres of religious
activities. These temples were dedicated to different gods and
goddesses.
Important terms:
• Mesopotamia: The land between two rivers. It is made of

Greek words ‘Mesos’ meaning middle and ‘Potamos’ meaning
river.
• Division of labour: In this system, each labour/person is given a
particular part of work in which he is skilled.
• Nuclear Family: A very small family consisting of husband, wife
and their children.
• Cuneiform: The wedge-shaped symbol which represents the
syllables and sound of a word.
• Steles: Stone slabs with inscriptions or carvings.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents
Sources: There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman

history, like – texts, documents and material remains.
1. Archaeological : a) Amphitheater, b) Amphorae, c)

Colosseum, d) Statues, e) Aqueducts
2. (Literary) Written : (A) Texts – Histories written by

Contemporary Historians (B) Documents
3. Aerial Photographs :Documentary sources include

mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually
cuton stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and
Latin.
The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of
the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material
that was very widely used in everyday life.
Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents
survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are
called ‘papyrologists.
Flow-Learning:
Boundaries of Roman Empire
• The ancient Roman empire which was spread across the three
continents namely – Europe, Asia and Africa.
• To the North, the boundaries of the empire were formed by
two great rivers – the Rhine and the Danube.
• To the South, by the huge expanse of desert called the Sahara.
• To the East river Euphrates and to the West Atlantic Ocean.
• This vast stretch of territory was the Roman Empire. That is why
Roman Empire is called an Empire across Three Continents.
• The Mediterranean Sea is called the heart of Rome’s empire.
Division of Roman Empire:
• The Roman Empire can broadly be divided into two phases,
‘early’ and‘late’, divided by the third century as a sort of
historical watershed between them.
• In other words, the whole period from the beginning of Roman
Empire to the main part of the third century can be called the
‘early empire’, and the period from the third century to the end
called the ‘late empire’ or ‘late antiquity’.
THE EARLY EMPIRE
Administration: i. The Army – ii. The Senate – iii. the Aristocracy
– iv. The Emperor – v. Republic – vi. Provincial Territory – vii.
Taxation
• Many languages were spoken in the empire, but for the
officially Latin and Greek were the most widely used.
• The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27
BCE was called the ‘Principate’ (which means he was ‘leading
citizen’, ‘Princeps‘ in Latin, not the absolute ruler). He ruled till
14 BCE and brought to an end the chaotic condition prevailing
in Roman empire.
• The Principate was advised by the Senate, which had existed in
Rome for centuries. This body which had controlled Rome
earlier, in the days when it was a Republic, and remained a
body representing the aristocracy, that is, the wealthiest
families of Roman and, later, Italian descent, mainly
landowners.
•Next to the emperor and the Senate, the other key institution
of imperial rule was the army. Rome had professional
conscripted army, which was forcibly recruited. Military service
was compulsory for certain groups or categories of the
population for a minimum of 25 years.
• The emperor, the aristocracy and the army were the three main
‘players’ in the political history of the empire. The success of

individual emperors depended on their control of the army,
and when the armies were divided, the result usually was civil
war. Except for one notorious year (69 CE), when four
emperors mounted the throne in quick succession.
Emperors: a) Nero, b) Julius Caesar, c) Octavian Augustus, d)
Tiberius, e) Trajan
• Roman empire made unprecedented growth in the field of
literature during Augustan age. Augustus played a significant
role in expansion of Roman empire.
• The ‘Augustan age’ is remembered for the peace it ushered in
after decades of internal strife and centuries of military
conquest.
• Augustus appointed Tiberius, his adopted son, as his successor
who ruled from 14-37 CE. The empire he was already so vast
that further expansion was felt to be unnecessary.
• Trajan was a famous Roman emperor who ruled from 98-117
CE. He made an immense contribution in expanding Roman
empire. The only major campaign of expansion in the early
empire was Trajan’s fruitless occupation of territory across the
Euphrates, in the years 113-17 CE abandoned by his successors.
Territories: The Roman Empire had two types of territories –
dependent kingdoms and provincial territory. The Near East was
full of dependent kingdoms but they disappeared and were
swallowed up by Rome. These kingdoms were exceedingly wealthy,
for example Herod’s kingdom yielded 5.4million denarii per year,
equal to over 125,000 kg of gold per year.
A city in the Roman Empire was an urban centre with its own
magistrates, city council and a ‘territory’ containing villages which
were under its jurisdiction. Thus, one city could not be in the
territory of another city, but villages almost always were included.
THE THIRD CENTURY CRISIS: The first two centuries were free
from civil war, therefore, it was known as period of peace,
prosperity and economic expansion. External warfare was also
much less common in the first two centuries. But the third century
brought in the first sign of internal conflict.
• From the 230s, the Roman Empire found itself fighting on
several fronts simultaneously. An aggressive dynasty called the

‘Sasanians’, emerged in 225 which expanded rapidly just within
15 years in the direction of the Euphrates. Shapur I, the Iranian
ruler, claimed he had crushed Roman army of 60,000 and even
captured the eastern capital of Antioch.
• Simultaneously, a whole series of Germanic tribes or rather
tribal confederacies began to move against the Rhine and
Danube frontiers, and the entire period from 233 to 280 saw
repeated invasions of a whole lone of provinces that stretched
from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern Germany. The
Romans were forced to abandon much of the territory beyond
the Danube.
• There was a rapid succession of emperors in this century (25
emperors in 47 years!) is an obvious symptom of the strains
faced by the empire in this period.
Gender, Literacy, Culture
• The system of nuclear family in the Roman society was one of
its modern feature. The family used to be patriarchal in nature.
Slaves were included in the family.
• Marriages were generally arranged, and there is no doubt that
women were often subject to domination by their husbands.
• The literacy rate was casual and varied greatly between
different parts of the empire.
• The cultural diversity of the empire was reflected in many ways.
Numerous languages that were spoken in Roman Empire were
– Aramaic, Coptic,Punic, Berber and Celtic. But many of these
linguistic cultures were purely oral, at least until a script was
invented for them. Among the above mentioned languages
Armenian began to be written as late as the fifth century.
A. Sources of Entertainment
• Colosseum – Huge place where gladiators fought with beast. It
could accommodate 60,000 people.
• Amphitheatre – It was used for military drill and for staging
entertainments for the soldiers.
• Urban populations also enjoyed a much higher level
of entertainment, for example, one calendar tells us
that spectacula (shows) filled no less than 176 days of the year!
B. CRAFT & INDUSTRY
• Minting
• Mining
• Amphorae
• Making Papyrus scrolls
• Public baths were a striking feature of Roman urban life
Economic expansion
• The empire had a substantial economic infrastructure of
harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive oil factories, etc.
Wheat, wine and olive-oil were traded and consumed in huge
quantities, and they came mainly from Spain, the Gallic
provinces, North Africa, Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Italy,
where conditions were best for these crops.
• Liquids like wine and olive oil were transported in containers
called ‘amphorae’.Spanish producers succeeded in capturing
markets for olive oil from their Italian counterparts. This would
only have happened if Spanish producers supplied better
quality oil at lower prices.
• The Spanish olive oil of this period was mainly carried in a
container called ‘Dressel 20’.
• The empire included many regions that had a reputation for
exceptional fertility. Italy, Sicily, Egypt and southern Spain were
all among the most densely settled or wealthiest parts of the
empire. The best kinds of wine, wheat and olive oil came
mainly from numerous estates of these territories.
• Diversified applications of waterpower around the
Mediterranean as well as advances in water-powered milling
technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in the
Spanish gold and silver mines and the gigantic industrial scale
on which those mines were worked.
• The existence of well-organized commercial and banking
networks and the widespread use of money are all indications
of Roman economy.
• A strong tradition of Roman law had emerged by the fourth
century, and this acted as a brake on even the most fearsome
emperors.
WORKERS:
• Slavery was an institution deeply rooted in the ancient world,
both in the Mediterranean and in the Near East, and and not
even Christianity when it emerged and triumphed as the state
religion (in the fourth century) seriously challenged this
institution. Under Augustus there were still 3 million slaves in a
total Italian population of 7.5 million.
• With establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of
slaves tended to decline and the users of slave labour had to
turn either to slave breeding or to cheaper substitutes.
• The Roman agricultural writers paid a great deal of attention to
the management of labour. Columella, a first-century writer
who came from the south of Spain, recommended that
landowners should keep a reserve stock of implements and
tools, twice as many as they needed, so that production could
be continuous, ‘for the loss in slave labour time exceeds the
cost of such items’.
• The position of slave in Roman Empire was miserable as they
were forced to work on the estate for 10 to 18 hours.
SOCIAL DIVISION
(A) Presbyterian: (i) The Aristocratic class (ii) Second Class
(B) Plebeian: (i) The lower Class (ii) Slaves
• The social structures of the empire as follows: Senators, Equites
(horse men and knights), the respectable section of the people
(middle class), lower class and finally the slaves.
• In the early third century when the Senate numbered roughly
1,000, approximately half of all senators still came from Italian
families. By the late empire,the senators and the Equites
had merged into a unified and expanded aristocracy.
• The ‘middle’ class now consisted of the considerable mass of
persons connected with imperial service in the bureaucracy.
Below them were the vast mass of the lower classes known
collectively ashumiliores (literally- ‘Lower’).They comprised a
rural labour force.
• The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle
echelons, was a comparatively affluent group because it drew
the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in
buying up assets like land. There was a great deal of
corruption, especially in the judicial system and in the
administration of military supplies.
JEWISH WAR
• Roman people were polytheists and used to worship several
gods and goddesses. Their popular deities were Jupiter, Mars,
Juno, Minerva and Isis.
• One of the most important religious sects practiced in the
Roman Empire from about the first to the fourth
century was Mithraism.
• The other great religious tradition in the empire was Judaism.
It considered Jehova as the creator of the universe.
• But Judaism was not a monolith either, and there was a great
deal of diversity within the Jewish communities of late
antiquity. Thus, the ‘Christianisation’ of the empire in the fourth
and fifth centuries was a gradual and complex process.
• Polytheism did not disappear overnight, especially in the
western provinces, where the Christian bishops waged a
running battle against beliefs and practices they condemned
more than the Christian laity (the ordinary members of a
religious community as opposed to the priests or clergy who
have official positions within the community) did.
• The boundaries between religious communities were much
more fluid in the fourth century than they would become
thanks to the repeated efforts of religious leaders, the powerful
bishops who now led the Church, to rein in their followers and
enforce a more rigid set of beliefs and practices.
LATE ANTIQUITY
‘Late antiquity’ is the term now used to describe the final,
fascinating period in the evolution and break-up of the Roman
Empire and refers broadly to the fourth to seventh centuries. The
fourth century itself was one of considerable ferment, both cultural
and economic.
Cultural features of the Roman world from the Fourth
to Seventh Centuries:
Emperors and their Achievements
I. Constantine’s Achievements
a. Overexpansion of the Empire:
b. Capital at Constantinople: The other area of innovation was
division of Roman Empire into east and west and the creation of a
second capital at Constantinople (at the site of modern Istanbul in
Turkey, and previously called Byzantium), surrounded on three sides
by the sea.
c. Christianity was made official religion: At the cultural level, the
period saw momentous developments in religious life, with the
emperor Constantine deciding to make Christianity the official
religion, and with the rise of Islam in the seventh century.
d. Monetary sphere: Constantine founded the new monetary system
on gold and there were vast amounts of this in circulation.
Constantine’s chief innovations were in the monetary sphere, where
he introduced a new denomination, the solidus, a coin of 4½ gm of
pure gold that would in fact outlast the Roman Empire
itself. Solidi were minted on a very large scale and their circulation
ran into millions.
II. Diocletian’s Achievements
a. Abandons territories of little economic and strategic
importance: Overexpansion had led Diocletian to ‘cut back’ by
abandoning territories with little strategic or economic value.
b. Duces: Diocletian also fortified the frontiers, reorganised
provincial boundaries, and separated civilian from military functions,
granting greater autonomy to the military commanders (duces),
who now became a more powerful group.
III. Justinian’s Achievements:
a. Justinian Code
b. Expansion of Empire: The reign of Justinian is the highwater mark
of prosperity and imperial ambition. Justinian recaptured Africa
from the Vandals (in 533) but his recovery of Italy (from the
Ostrogoths) left that country devastated and paved the way for the
Lombard invasion.
c. Monetary Sphere: Monetary stability and an expanding
population stimulated economic growth. Egypt contributed taxes of
over 2½ million solidi a year (roughly 35,000 lbs of gold) in the
reign of Justinian in the sixth century.
i. Glass factories established

ii. Introduction of Solidus
iii. Urban Prosperity
DOWNFALL OF THE EMPIRE
• The general prosperity was especially marked in the East where
population was still expanding till the sixth century, despite the
impact of the plague which affected the Mediterranean in the
540s.
• In the West, by contrast, the empire fragmented politically as
Germanic groups from the North (Goths, Vandals, Lombards,
etc.) took over all the major provinces and established
kingdoms that are best described as ‘post-Roman’
• The Visigoths in Spain was destroyed by the Arabs between
711 and 720, that of the Franks in Gaul (c.511-687) and that of
the Lombards in Italy (568-774). These kingdoms
foreshadowed the beginnings of a different kind of world that
is usually called ‘medieval’
• By the early seventh century, the war between Eastern Rome
and Iran had flared up again, and the Sasanians who had ruled
Iran since the third century launched a wholesale invasion of all
the major eastern provinces (including Egypt).
• Roman and Sasanian empires had fallen to the Arabs in a series
of stunning confrontations.
• Those conquests, extended up to Spain, Sind and Central Asia,
began, in fact, with the subjection of the Arab tribes by the
emerging Islam state.
SUMMARY
• The Roman empire was spread over a vast region. It was
spread into three continents— Europe, West Asia and North
Africa.
• Many languages were spoken by the people of the Roman
empire. Officially Latin and Greek languages were patronised
by the empire.
• The political evolution of the Roman empire resembles an
interesting novel, which no reader wants to leave in-between.
It is divided into two parts—early empire and late antiquity.
• Roman empire was founded by Augustus who ruled from 27
BCE to 14 CE and brought to an end the chaotic condition
prevailing in the Roman empire.
• During Augustus’ reign, Roman empire made unprecedented
growth in the field of literature. He gave a new look to the
Roman army which played an important role in expanding the
Roman empire.
• The economic reforms introduced by Augusts, not only made
the people of Roman empire prosperous but also helped in
strengthening the very foundation of the empire.
• Augustus appointed Tiberius his successor who ruled from 14
to 37 CE.
• Trojan was a famous Roman emperor who ruled from 98 to
117 CE. He made an immense contribution in expanding the
frontier of Roman empire.
• The first and the second centuries were known for a period of
peace, prosperity and economic expansion but the third
• century brought the first major signs of internal strain.
• Shapur I, the Iranian ruler had eradicated the Roman army and
even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.
• At the same time a whole series of Germanic tribes began to
move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and the entire
period saw repeated invasions of a whole line of provinces
that stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern
Germany.
• In Roman society there was system of the nuclear family. The
family was used to be patriarchal in nature. The literacy rate
was casual. The cultural diversity of the empire was reflected
in many ways.
• There were some regional languages spoken as Aramaic in
the near East, Coptic spoken in Egypt, Punic and Berber in
North Africa, Celtic in Spain and the north-west.
• The empire had a significant economic infrastructure of
harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive oil factories, etc.
Production was traded and consumed in huge quantities, and
they came mainly from Spain.
• The Roman people were polytheists and used to worship
several gods and goddesses. Their popular deities were
Jupiter, Mars, Juno, Minerva and Isis.
• One of the most important religious sects of Roman empire
was Mithraism. The otherpopular sect ‘Judaism’ was
worshipped by Jehova. The Judaism considered Jehova as
the creator of the universe.
• Slavery was a tradition in the Mediterranean and in the near
east, as warfare became less widespread. With the
establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of
slaves tended to decline and the users of slave labour had to
turn either to slave breeding.
• The position of the slave in the Roman empire was very
miserable. They were forced to work on the estate for 10 to 18
hours a day.
• The late Roman aristocracy was extremely wealthy but not
more powerful than the military leaders who came almost
entirely from non-aristocratic backgrounds. The middle class
was made of large mass of persons connected with grand
service in the bureaucracy and also with prosperous
merchants and farmers in the eastern provinces.
• The monetary system of the empire broke with the silv er-
based currencies of the first three centuries. The late Roman
bureaucracy, both the higher and middle echelons, was a
comparatively affluent group because it drew the bulk of its
salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets
like land.
• Large expansion of Roman territory was in a less advanced
state. Transhumance was spread in the countryside of
Numidia. These pastoral and semi-nomadic communities
were often on the move, carrying their oven-shaped huts
(called mapalia). As Roman estates expanded in North Africa,
the pastures of those communities were hugely reduced and
their movements more tightly regulated. Even in Spain the
north was much less developed, and inhabited largely by a
Celtic-speaking peasantry that lived in hilltop villages called
castella.
• The Emperor Constantine decided to make Christianity the
official religion in the fourth century and the Emperor
Diocletian (284-305) fortified the frontiers, reorganized
provincial boundaries, and separated civilian from military
functions, granting greater autonomy to the military
commanders.
• The traditional religious culture of the classical world, both
Greek and Roman, had been polytheist.
• The Visigoths in Spain was destroyed by the Arabs between
711 to 720, that of the Franks in Gaul (c.511-687) and that of
the Lombards in Italy (568-774). These kingdoms
foreshadowed the beginning of a different kind of world that is
usually called ‘medieval’.
• Roman and Sasanian empires had fallen to the Arabs in a
series of stunning confrontations. Those conquests, extended
upto Spain, Sind and Central Asia, began in fact with the
subjection of the Arab tribes by the emerging Islamic state.
Important terms:
• Caliphate: Islamic state led by a supreme religion

• Annals: Record of events year by year.
• Papyrus: A reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the
river Nile from which paper is made.
• Mediterranean: A sea connected to the Atlantic ocean.
• Aristocracy: A form of government in which power lies in the
hands of a small ruling group who are bom in a highest social
class.
• Conscription: The compulsory enlistment of people in some
sort of national service.
• The Euphrates:The longest and one of the most historically
important rivers of Western Asia.
• Denarius: A small silver coin first minted about 211 BC.
• Barbarians: Person who is perceived to be uncivilized.
• Aramaic: The language spoken by a large group of the north-
east.
• Coptic: The language spoken in Egypt.
• Punic: The language spoken in North Africa
• Berber: The language spoken in North Africa
• Celtic: The language spoken in Spain and the north-west.
• Dressel 20: A container carried the Spanish olive oil.
• Amphorae: The large storage container capacities between
one-half and two and one half tons
• Draconian: Severity
• Frankincense: An aromatic resin obtained from trees of the
genus Boswellia
• Echelon: A rank/position of an authority in an organisation.
• Intelligentsia: A social class of people engaged in complex
mental labour aimed to spread culture and are interested in
politics, literature, etc.
• Authoritarian: The authoritarian believes that people should
obey his authority and rules even if he is wrong.
• Antiquity: Any period before the Middle Ages (476-1453) or
ancient past.
• Archaeological: The study of cultures of the past, and the
periods of history by examining the remains of buildings and
objects.
• Polytheist: The worship of or belief in many Gods.
Principate: The first period of the Roman Empire from 27 BCE –
284 CE
Class 11 Notes Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands
Important terms:
• Bedouins: The nomadic tribe of Arabia.

• Umma: The society founded by Prophet Muhammad.
• Hizrat: The event of Prophet Muhammad’s emigration from
Mecca to Medina.
• Zakat: A religious tax collected from Muslims.
• Jaziya: A tax imposed upon the non-Muslims.
• Dhimmis: They were the protected people who paid tax to
the government for the protection of their life and property.
• Synagogues: Places of worship for the Jews.
1. Rise of Islam
Three Phases – Faith, Community & politics
(a) Faith :
Polytheistic Arabs :
• The Arabs divided into Qabilas. Each tribe had its own god or
goddess, who was worshipped as an idol (sanam) in a shrine

(masjid).
• The polytheistic Arabs were vaguely familiar with the notion of

a Supreme God, Allah (possibly under the influence of the
Jewish and Christian tribes living in their midst), their
attachment to idols and shrines was more immediate and
stronger.
Prophet Muhammad:
• He was born in Mecca in 570.
• During 612-32, the Prophet Muhammad preached the worship

of a single God, Allah, and the membership of a single
community of believers (umma). This was the origin of Islam.
• Around 612, Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger

(rasul) of God who had been commanded to preach that Allah
alone should be worshipped.
• In 622, Muhammad was forced to migrate with his followers to

Medina. Muhammad’s journey from Mecca (hijra) was a turning
point in the history of Islam, with the year of his arrival in
Medina marking the beginning of the Muslim calendar.
Scene before – 12 AD
• Between 950 and 1200, Islamic society was held together not
by a single political order or a single language of culture
(Arabic) but by common economic and cultural patterns.
• The Muslim population, less than 10 per cent in the Umayyad

(a prosperous clan of the Quraysh tribe) and early Abbasid
periods, increased enormously.
• The identity of Islam as a religion and a cultural system

separate from other religions became much sharper, which
made conversion possible and meaningful.
(b) Community
• Muhammad was to found a community of believers (umma)

bound by a common set of religious beliefs.
• The community would bear witness (shahada) to the existence

of the religion before God as well as before members of other
religious communities. Muhammad’s message particularly
appealed to those Meccans who felt deprived of the gains from
trade and religion and were looking for a new community
identity.
• Those who accepted the doctrine were called Muslims.
• They were promised salvation on the Day of Judgment

(qiyamat) and a share of the resources of the community while
on earth.
• The Muslims soon faced considerable opposition from affluent
Meccans who took offence to the rejection of their deities and
found the new religion a threat to the status and prosperity of
Mecca.
(c) Polity
• After Muhammad’s death in 632 AD political authority was
transferred to the Umma with no established principle of

succession.
• This created opportunities for innovations but also caused

deep divisions among the Muslims.
• The biggest innovation was the creation of the institution

of caliphate, in which the leader of the community (amir al-
muminin) became the deputy (khalifa) of the Prophet.
• The twin objectives of the caliphate were to retain control over
the tribes constituting the umma and to raise resources for the
state.
• The main duties of the Khalifas were to safeguard and spread

Islam.
2. Modern Islam
• By twenty-first century there are over 1 billion Muslims living in

all parts of the world.
• They are the citizens of different nations with different

languages and dresses.
3. Early Islam
• United in its observance of the sharia in ritual and personal
matters
• It was defining its religious identity.
• Islam laid special stress on the principle of equality and

believed that all men are the descendants of Allah.
• Islam strongly opposed idol worship.
• Reciting Kalma (holy chants), Namaz (prayer), Roza (fast), Zakat

(alms tax) and Hajj are five pillars of Islam.
• Even tribes outside Mecca considered the Kaba holy and
installed their own idols at this shrine, making annual
pilgrimages (hajj) to the shrine.
4. Social Scenario – Before Prophet Muhammad
• Before 612 AD – Jahiliyyah is an Islamic concept of the period

of time and state of affairs in Arabia before the advent of Islam.
It is often translated as the “Age of Ignorance”.
• The Jahiliyyah age was age of the tribes.
• In the seventh century, prior to rise of Islam, Arabia was

socially, economically, politically and religiously backward.
Arabia was dominated by Bedouins, a nomadic tribe moving
from dry to green areas.
• Institution of slavery was prevalent, trade was not developed,

tribes indulged in loot and plunder.
• The principle of ‘Might is Right’ due to lack of central authority.
5. Change in Social scenario – After Prophet Muhammad (After

612 AD)
• In Medina, Muhammad created a political order from all three

sources which gave his followers the protection they needed as
well as resolved the city’s ongoing civil strife.
• The umma was converted into a wider community to include

polytheists and the Jews of Medina under the political
leadership of Muhammad.
• Muhammad consolidated the faith for his followers by adding

and refining rituals and ethical principles.
• The community survived on agriculture and trade, as well as an

alms tax (zakat).
• In addition, the Muslims organised expeditionary raids (ghazw)

on Meccan caravans and nearby oases. These raids provoked
reactions from the Meccans and caused a breach with the Jews
of Medina.
• After a series of battles, Mecca was conquered and
Muhammad’s reputation as a religious preacher and political
leader spread far and wide.
• Muhammad now insisted on conversion as the sole criterion

for membership of the community.
• Medina became the administrative capital of the emerging

Islamic state with Mecca as its religious centre.
• The Kaba was cleansed of idols as Muslims were required to

face the shrine when offering prayers.
• Muhammad was able to unite a large part of Arabia under a

new faith, community and state.
6. Political Factors of the Caliphates

After death of Muhammad in 632 AD – The biggest innovation
for creation of the institution of caliphat are as follows:
a) Umayyads and Polity
• The third caliph, Uthman (644-56) was assassinated and Ali

became the fourth caliph
• The rifts among the Muslims deepened after Ali (656-61)

fought two wars against those who represented the Meccan
aristocracy.
Ali’s supporters and enemies later came to form the two main
sects of Islam: Shias and Sunnis.
Ali established himself at Kufa and defeated an army led by
Muhammad’s wife, Aisha, in the Battle of the Camel (657). He
was, however, not able to suppress the faction led by Muawiya,
a kinsman of Uthman and the governor of Syria.
• The first Umayyad caliph, Muawiya became the next caliph in
661, and founded the Umayyad dynasty in 661 which lasted
till 750.
• Muawiya moved his capital to Damascus and adopted the

court ceremonies and administrative institutions of the
Byzantine Empire.
b) Abbasid Revolution
• A well-organised movement, called dawa, brought down the

Umayyads and replaced them with another family of Meccan
origin, the Abbasids (descendants of Abbas, the Prophet’s
uncle) in 750.
• The Abbasids came to power in 750. The foundation Abbasids

dynasty was laid by Abu-ol-Abbas.
• Under Abbasid rule, Arab influence declined, while the

importance of Iranian culture increased. The Abbasids
established their capital at Baghdad
• The ninth century witnessed the downfall of Abbaside empire,

which created space for the emergence of several sultanates
•
c) Break-up of the Caliphate and the Rise of Sultanate
• The Abbasid state became weaker from the ninth century

because Baghdad’s control over the distant provinces declined,
and because of conflict between pro-Arab and pro-Iranian
factions in the army and bureaucracy.
• In 810, a civil war broke out-between Amin and Mamun, sons

of the caliph Harun al-Rashid.
• From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, there was a

series of conflicts between European Christians and the Arab
states.
7. Economic factors –
a) Agriculture
• The economic condition of the Islamic world, during medieval

period was very prosperous.
• Agriculture was the principal occupation of the settled

populations in the newly conquered territories
• The lands conquered by the Arabs that remained in the hands
of the owners were subject to a tax (kharaj), which varied from
half to a fifth of the produce, according to the conditions of
cultivation.
• When non-Muslims started to convert to Islam to pay lower

taxes, this reduced the income of the state. To address the
shortfall, the caliphs first discouraged conversions and later
adopted a uniform policy of taxation.
• Agricultural prosperity went hand in hand with political stability
• Islamic law gave tax concessions to people who brought land

under cultivation.
b) Urbanisation
• Islamic civilisation flourished as the number of cities grew

phenomenally.
• Among this class of garrison-cities, called misr (the Arabic

name for Egypt), were Kufa and Basra in Iraq, and Fustat and
Cairo in Egypt.
• Their size and population surged, supported by an expansion

in the production of foodgrains and raw materials such as
cotton and sugar for urban manufactures
• A vast urban network developed, linking one town with

another and forming a circuit.
c) Commerce
• Political unification and urban demand for foodstuffs and

luxuries enlarged the circuit of exchange.
• Geography favoured the Muslim empire, which spread between

the trading zones of the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean
• For five centuries, Arab and Iranian traders monopolised the

maritime trade between China, India and Europe.
• This trade passed through two major routes, namely, the Red
Sea and the Persian Gulf.
• High-value goods suitable for long-distance trade, such as

spices, textile, porcelain and gunpowder, were shipped from
India and China to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Aydhab and
the Gulf ports of Siraf and Basra.
8. The Legend of Learning and Culture

a) Development of various literary forms, literature &
litterateurs
• For religious scholars (ulama), knowledge (ilm) derived from

the Quran and the model behaviour of the Prophet (sunna) was
the only way to know the will of God and provide guidance in
this world. Before it took its final form, the sharia was adjusted
to take into account the customary laws (urf) of the various
regions as well as the laws of the state on political and social
order (siyasa sharia).
• A group of religious-minded people in medieval Islam, known

as Sufis, sought a deeper and more personal knowledge of
God through asceticism (rahbaniya) and mysticism. The Sufis
were liberal in their thought and they dedicated their lives for
the service of humanityand propagation of Islam.
• In the eighth and ninth centuries, ascetic inclinations were
elevated to the higher stage of mysticism (tasawwuf) by the
ideas of pantheism and love.
Pantheism is the idea of oneness of God and His creation
which implies that the human soul must be united with its
Maker. Unity with God can be achieved through an intense love
for God (ishq), which the woman-saint Rabia of Basra (d. 891)
preached in her poems.
ayazid Bistami (d. 874), an Iranian Sufi, was the first to teach
the importance of submerging the self (fana) in God. Sufis used
musical concerts (sama) to induce ecstasy and stimulate
emotions of love and passion.
• Scholars with a theological bent of mind, such as the group
known as Mutazila, used Greek logic and methods of
reasoning (kalam) to defend Islamic beliefs. Philosophers
(falasifa) posed wider questions and provided fresh
answers. Ibn Sina (980-1037), a doctor by profession and a
philosopher, did not believe in the resurrection of the body on
the Day of Judgment.
• Adab (a term which implied literary and cultural
refinement) forms of expressions included poetry (nazm or
orderly arrangement) and prose (nathr or scattered words)
which were meant to be memorised and used when the
occasion arose. Geography and travel (rihla) constituted a
special branch of adab.
• The Samanid court poet Rudaki (d. 940) was considered the
father of New Persian poetry, which included new forms such
as the short lyrical poem (ghazal) and the quatrain (rubai,
plural rubaiyyat). The rubai is a four-line stanza in which the
first two lines set the stage, the third is finely poised, and the
fourth delivers the point. The rubai reached its zenith in the
hands of Umar Khayyam (1048-1131), also an astronomer and
mathematician, who lived at various times in Bukhara,
Samarqand and Isfahan.
• Mahmud of Ghazni gathered around him a group of poets
who composed anthologies (diwans) and epic poetry

(mathnavi). The most outstanding was Firdausi (d. 1020), who
took 30 years to complete the Shahnama (Book of Kings), an
epic of 50,000 couplets which has become a masterpiece of
Islamic literature. The Shahnama is a collection of traditions
and legends (the most popular being that of Rustam).
b) Books of moral lessons and amusement
• The catalogue (Kitab al-Fihrist) of a Baghdad bookseller, Ibn
Nadim (d. 895), describes a large number of works written in

prose for the moral education and amusement of readers. The
oldest of these is a collection of animal fables called Kalila wa
Dimna (the names of the two jackals who were the leading
characters) which is the Arabic translation of a Pahlavi version
of the Panchtantra.
• The most widespread and lasting literary works are the stories
of hero-adventurers such as Alexander (al-Iskandar) and

Sindbad, or those of unhappy lovers such as Qays (known as
Majnun or the Madman). These have developed over the
centuries into oral and written traditions. The Thousand and
One Nights is another collection of stories told by a single
narrator, Shahrzad, to her husband night after night.
• In his Kitab al-Bukhala (Book of Misers), Jahiz of Basra (d. 868)
collected amusing anecdotes about misers and also analysed
greed.
• From the ninth century onwards, the scope of adab was
expanded to include biographies, manuals of ethics

(akhlaq), Mirrors for Princes (books on statecraft) and, above
all, history (tarikh) and geography.
c) Developments by 10th Century
• By the tenth century, an Islamic world had emerged which was

easily recognisable by travellers.
• Religious buildings were the greatest external symbols of this

world. Mosques, shrines and tombs from Spain to Central Asia
showed the same basic design – arches, domes, minarets and
open courtyards – and expressed the spiritual and practical
needs of Muslims.
• In the first Islamic century, the mosque acquired a distinct

architectural form (roof supported by pillars) which
transcended regional variations.
d) Desert – Palaces developed
• The Umayyads built ‘desert palaces’ in oases, such as Khirbat

al-Mafjar in Palestine and Qusayr Amra in Jordan, which served
as luxurious residences and retreats for hunting and pleasure.
• The palaces, modelled on Roman and Sasanian architecture,

were lavishly decorated with sculptures, mosaics and paintings
of people.
c) Art Forms
• The rejection of representing living beings in the religious art
of Islam promoted two art forms: calligraphy (khattati or the

art of beautiful writing) and arabesque (geometric and vegetal
designs).
9. Development of Three aspects of human civilisation
• The history of the central Islamic lands brings together three
important aspects of human civilisation: religion, community

and politics.
• These three circles merge and appear as one in the seventh

century. In the next five centuries the circles separate.
• The Muslim community was united in its observance of the

sharia in rituals and personal matters. It was no more
governing itself (poltics was a separate circle) but it was
defining its religious identity.
SUMMARY
• Prior to the rise of Islam, Arabia was quite backward socially,
politically, economically and religiously in the 7th century.
• Before the rise of Islam, Arabia was dominated by the
Bedouins, a nomadic tribe.
• Family was the basic unit of the Arabian society. Patriarchal
family system was prevalent in which the head of the family
was the eldest male member.
• The position of the women in the society was very deplorable.
• Date-palm and milk were the main constituents of their food
items.
• Institution of slavery was also prevalent in the society. The
slaves were treated ruthlesslyand were severely punished if
broke the social norms. k
• Prior to the rise of Islam, the trade was not much developed. It
was because Bedouins Iwere always indulged in loot and
plunder and trade routes were not safe.
• The principle of‘Might is right’ prevailed in the society prior to
the rise of Islam, because there was lack of a central authority.
• Prophet Muhammad is regarded as one of the greatest
personalities in the world history. He was born at Mecca in
570.
• Reciting Raima, Namaz, Rauja, Zakat and Hajj are five pillars
of Islam.
• Islam laid special stress on the principle of equality and
believed that all men are the descendants of Allah.
• Islam strongly opposed idol worship.
• The successors of Prophet Muhammad were called Khalifas
(Caliphs).
• The main duties of the Khalifas were to safeguard and spread
Islam.
• The Umayyad dynasty was founded by Muawiya in 661. The
rule of this dynasty continued till 750.
• The Abbasids came to power in 750. The foundation of
Abbasids dynasty was laid down by Abu-ol-Abbas in 750.
• 9th century witnessed the downfall of the Abbasid empire.
Taking the advantage of this, several sultanates emerged.
• The economic condition of Islamic world, during the medieval
period was very prosperous.
• During medieval period, a new sect arose among the people
having faith in Islamic doctrines, known as sufi sect.
• The Sufis were liberal in their thought and they dedicated their
lives for the service of humanity and propagation of Islam.
• Ibn Sina was a great philosopher and a medical practitioner
from Arabia. He was also known as Avicenna in Europe.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 5 Nomadic Empires
Important Terms:
• Barbarian: A person who is uncultured and behaves in a rough

or cruel manner and is ignorant of good taste.
• Kiyat: A group of families related to the Boijigid clan
• Anda: Real or blood brother
• Confederacy: A union of states, groups of people or political
with the same aim.
• Tuman: A group of ten thousand soldiers
• Noyan: Captain of army unit
• Naukar: Bonded man, a rank to common but intimate people
• Ulus: Conquered but not fixed territory
• Tama: Military contingents
• Quriltais: An assembly of chieftains
• Qubcur: A tax imposed on nomads for communication facility
provided to them.
• Yam: Courier system
• Qanat: Underground canal in the arid plateau in Iran
• Paiza: A pass or permit to move from one place to another.
• Bjg:A tax imposed on traders
• Yasa: A code of law promulgated by Genghis Khan in 1206.
Nomadic Empires can be said to be an imperial

formation constructed by nomadic groups. The Mongols, under the
leadership of Genghis Khan, established a transcontinental empire
straddling Europe and Asia during the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries.
Sources:
• The steppe dwellers themselves usually produced no literature,
so our knowledge of nomadic societies comes mainly from
chronicles, travelogues and documents produced by city-based
litterateurs. These authors often produced extremely ignorant
and biased reports of nomadic life.
• The imperial success of the Mongols attracted many travelers.
These individuals came from a variety of backgrounds –
Buddhist,Confucian, Christian, Turkish and Muslim. Many
of them produced sympathetic accounts and others hostile.
• The most outstanding sources of Mongols are Igor de
Rachewiltz’s ‘The Secret History of Mongol’ and ‘the
Travelogues of Marco Polo’.
Rise of Mongol tribe:
In the early decades of the thirteenth century the great empires of

the Euro-Asian continent realised the dangers posed to them by the
arrival of a new political power in the steppes of Central Asia:
Genghis Khan (d. 1227) had united the Mongol people.
Background:
• The Mongols were a diverse body of tribal people, spoke
similar languages.
• Some of the Mongols were pastoralists while others were
hunter-gatherers.The pastoralists tended horses, sheep and
cattle, goats and camels.
• They lived nomadic life in the steppes of Central Asia in a tract
of land in the area of the modern state of Mongolia. This was a
majestic landscape with wide horizons, rolling plains, ringed by
the snow-capped mountains, Gobi desert and drained by rivers
and springs.
• Agriculture was possible in the pastoral regions but
the Mongols did not take to agriculture. The Mongols lived in
tents and travelled with their herds from their winter to
summer pasture lands.
• These groups were constantly engaged in war with each other.
• Mongol society was patriarchal in nature.
Life and Career of Genghis Khan:
• Genghis Khan was born in 1162 CE, near the Onon Riverin the
north of present-day Mongolia.
• His original name was Temujin, he was the son of Yesugei, the
chieftain of the Kiyat clan.
• His father was murdered by a tribe at an early age and his
mother, Oelun-eke, raised Temujin, his brothers and step-
brothers in great hardship.
• Genghis Khan faced many problems in his childhood. Temujin
was captured and enslaved for many years.
• Soon after his marriage, his wife, Borte, was kidnapped, and he
had to fight to recover her.
• During these years of hardship he also managed to make
important friends. The young Boghurchu was his first ally and
remained a trusted friend; Jamuqa,his blood-brother was
another.
• Temujin became the dominant personality in the politics of the
steppe lands, a position that was recognised at an assembly of
Mongol chieftains, where he was proclaimed the ‘Great Khan of
the Mongols’ with the title Genghis Khan, the ‘Oceanic Khan’or
‘Universal Ruler’.
His conquests: China, Transoxiana, Khwarazm, Samarqand,
Herat, Azerbaijan Russia between 1219 to 1222 CE
• The first of his concerns was to conquer China, divided at this
time into three realms:the Hsi Hsia dynasty in the north-

western provinces,Chin dynasty ruled north China and the
Sung dynasty in south China.
• By 1209, the Hsi Hsia were defeated, the ‘Great Wall of
China’ was breached in 1213 and long drawn-out battles

against the Chin continued until 1234 but Genghis Khan was
satisfied enough with the progress of his campaigns to return
to his Mongolia
• Sultan Muhammad, the ruler of Khwarazm, executed Mongol
envoys worried of Mongol invasion. In the campaigns between
1219 and 1221 the great cities – Otrar, Bukhara, Samarqand,
Balkh, Gurganj, Merv, Nishapur and Herat – surrendered to
the Mongol forces.
• Towns that resisted were devastated by Mongols. A Mongol
prince was killed during the siege operation at Nishapur.
• Mongol forces in pursuit of Sultan Muhammad pushed
into Azerbaijan and defeated Russian forces. Another wing

followed the Sultan’s son, Jalaluddin, into Afghanistan and
the Sindh province.
Why did Genghis Khan return to Mongolia without touching
India?
At the banks of the Indus, Genghis Khan considered returning to
Mongolia through North India and Assam, but the heat, the natural
habitat and the ill portents reported by his Shaman soothsayer
made him change his mind.
Genghis Khan died in 1227.
His Achievements:
His ability to innovate and transform different aspects of
steppe combat into extremely effective military strategies was the
most important reason behind his astounding success.
• Organised the army: He made great efforts to organise the
army. Strict discipline was maintained in the army. He improved
and restructured the army to blend the typical skills of the tribe
with the army. The horse-riding skills of the Mongols and the
Turks provided speed and mobility to the army. Their
abilities as rapid-shooting archers from horseback were further
perfected during regular hunting expeditions which doubled
chance of victory over the enemies.
• Rigorous training & prepartion: The steppe cavalry had
always travelled light and moved quickly, but now it brought all
its knowledge of the terrain. They carried out campaigns in
the depths of winter, treating frozen rivers as highways to
enemy cities and camps.. He learnt the importance of siege. His
engineers prepared light portable equipment, which was used
against opponents with devastating effect.
The Mongols after Genghis Khan
The Mongol expansion after Genghis Khan’s death can be divided
into two distinct phases –
(i) The first which spanned the years 1236-42 when the major gains
were in the Russian steppes, Bulgaria, Poland and Hungary.
(ii) The second phase including the years 1255-1300 led to the
conquest of all of China, Iran, Iraq and Syria.
The Mongol military forces met with few reversals in the decades
after the 1260s the original impetus of campaigns could not be
sustained in the West.
Social, Political and Military Organisation
Social Organisation
• Among the Mongols all the able-bodied, adult males of the
tribe bore arms: they constituted the armed forces when the
occasion demanded.
• The unification of the different Mongol tribes and subsequent
campaigns against diverse people introduced new members
into Genghis Khan’s army. It included groups like theTurks,
Chinese and Arabs who had accepted his authority willingly.
• The society included groups like the Turkic Uighurs, the
defeated people like – the Kereyits. It was a body of
heterogeneous mass of people.
Military Organisation
• Genghis Khan worked to systematically erase the old tribal
identities of the different groups who joined his confederacy.
His army was organised according to the old steppe system of
decimal units. Any individual who tried to move from his
allotted group without permission received harsh punishment.
• He divided the army into four units and they were required to
serve under his four sons and specially chosen captains of his
army units called noyan.
• The soldiers who had served Genghis Khan loyally through
grave adversity for many years were publicly honoured some of
these individuals as his ‘blood brothers’ and others were given
special ranking as his bondsmen, a title that marked their close
relationship with their master.
Political Organisation
The civil system was based on Ulus system. Genghis Khan assigned
the responsibility of governing the newly-conquered people to his
four sons. These comprised the four ulus.
• The eldest son, Jochi, received the Russian steppes and it
extended as far west as his horses could roam.

• The second son, Chaghatai, was given the Transoxanian steppe
and lands north of the Pamir Mountain adjacent to those of his

brother.
Genghis Khan had indicated that his third son, Ogodei, would
•
succeed him as the Great Khan and on accession the Prince

established his capital at Karakorum.
• The youngest son, Toluy, received the ancestral lands of
Mongolia. Genghis Khan envisaged that his sons would rule the
empire collectively, and to underline this point, military
contingents of the individual princes were placed in each ulus.
• The sense of a dominion shared by the members of the family
was underlined at the assembly of chieftains, quriltais, where

all decisions relating to the family or the state for the
forthcoming season campaigns, distribution of plunder,
pasture lands and succession were collectively taken.
Development in Trade & communication in Mongolia
• Yam: Genghis Khan had already fashioned a rapid courier
system called yam that connected the distant areas of his

regime.
• Qubcur tax: For the maintenance of this communication
systemthe Mongol nomads contributed a tenth of their herd –

either horses or livestock – as provisions. This was called the
qubcur tax, a levy that the nomads paid willingly for the
multiple benefits that it brought.
• Territory linking: Once the campaigns had settled, Europe and
China were territorially linked with Mongolia. Commerce and

travel along the Silk Route reached its peak under the
Mongols but, the trade route extended up to Mongolia.
• Baj tax: Communication and ease of travel was vital to retain
the coherence of the Mongol regime and travellers were given

a pass for safe conduct. Traders paid the baj tax for the same
purpose, all acknowledging thereby the authority of the
Mongol Khan.
•Pressure groups: Mongols waged their successful wars against
China, Persia, Russia etc there was a strong pressure group
within the Mongol leadership that advocated the massacre of
all peasantry and the conversion of their fields into pasture
lands.
But by the 1270s, Genghis Khan’s grandson, Qubilai
Khan appeared as the protector of the peasants and the cities.
The legal code of law – Yasa
• Genghis Khan promulgated Yasa (the code of law) at the
Assembly of Mongol Chieftains (quriltai) of 1206. It has
elaborated on the complex ways in which the memory of the
Great Khan was fashioned by his successors.
• In its earliest formulation the term was written as yasa which
meant ‘law’,‘decree’ or ‘order’. Yasa concern administrative
regulations: the organisation of the hunt,the army and the
postal system.
By the middle of the thirteenth century the Mongols had emerged
as a unified people and just created the largest empire the world
had ever seen. They ruled over very sophisticated urban societies,
with their respective histories, cultures and laws. Although the
Mongols dominated the region politically, they were a numerical
minority. The one way in which they could protect their identity and
distinctiveness was through a claim to a sacred law given to them
by their ancestor. The yasa was in all probability a compilation of
the customary traditions of the Mongol tribes but in referring to it
as Genghis Khan’s code of law.
Conclusion
• For the Mongols, Genghis Khan was the greatest leader of all
time: he united the Mongol people. He freed them from
interminable tribal wars and Chinese exploitation.He brought
them prosperity, fashioned a grand transcontinental empire
and restored trade routes and markets that attracted distant
travelers and traders.
• Genghis Khan ruled the diverse body of people and
faiths. Although the Mongol Khans themselves belonged to a
variety of different faiths – Shaman, Buddhist, Christian and
eventually Islam, they never let their personal beliefs dictate
public policy.
• The Mongol administration was a multi-ethnic,multilingual,
multi-religious regime that did not feel threatened by its
pluralistic constitution.
• Today, after decades of Soviet control, the country of Mongolia
is recreating its identity as an independent nation. Genghis
Khan appeared as an iconic figure for the Mongol People,
mobilising memories of a great past in the forging of national
identity that can carry the nation into the future.
• Comparison with the Mongol Empire.Mongols provided
ideological models for the Mughals of India.Timur, another
monarch who aspired to universal dominion, hesitated to
declare himself monarch because he was not of Genghis
Khanid descent.
SUMMARY
• Mongols were the nomadic tribes who inhabited in central
Asia.
• Mongols were divided into many groups. These groups
were constantly engaged in wars with each other.
• Mongol society was patriarchal in nature. Birth of a son was
considered to be the sign of prosperity.
• Genghis Khan played an outstanding role in the
establishment of Nomadic Empire.
• Genghis Khan was born in 1162 CE. His childhood name
was Temujin. His father Yesugei was Kiyat’s tribe chief.
Oelun-eke was the name of his mother.
• Genghis Khan faced many problems in his childhood as his
father was murdered by a tribe.
• With the help of some persons like Jamuqa, Boghuruchu,
Tughril Khan, etc. he successfully defeated some powerful
tribes.
• Quriltai bestowed upon Temujin, the title of Genghis Khan
in 1206. He ruled upto 1227 CE.
• During his reign, Genghis Khan conquered the region of
northern China and Qara Khita.
• Genghis Khan brought some changes in the area under his
rule. In the history of Mongol, Genghis Khan is known as a
national hero.
• The nomadic people were mainly non-vegetarians. They ate
the meat of different animals like sheep, goat, etc. The main
diet of the nomadic people was meat and milk.
• Silk clothes were imported from China, while woollen
clothes were prepared by themselves. The rich used to
wear expensive clothes while the dress of common people
was very simple.
• Trade was also in practice and carried out with
neighbouring countries.
• In 1209, Genghis Khan defeated Hsi, Hsia of China.
• Mongols occupied Otsar, Bukhara, Samarqand, Maru,
Herat, Nishapur and Balkh between 1219 to 1222 CE.
• Genghis Khan organised his forces as per the old steppe
system of decimal units. The important institution of
Mongolian state was the army.
• Strict discipline was maintained in the army. The authority
of the king could not be challenged.
• Civil system was based on the Ulus system.
• Yam was the military rank enjoyed by Mongols.
• Ogodei, Guyuk and Mongke were the successors of the
Genghis Khan.
• Qubilai Khan was the founder of Yuan dynasty. He founded
this dynasty in 1260 and ruled till 1294.
• The steppe inhabitants had no literature of their own. Most
of our knowledge regarding the nomadic society was mainly
derived from the chronicles, travelogues and documents
produced by cities based literature.
• We find most significant information regarding the
expansion of transcendental Mongol empire from Chinese,
Mongolian, Persian, Arabic, Italian, Latin, French and
Russian sources.
• Two most outstanding sources of Mongols are Igor de
Rachewiltz’s ‘The Secret History of Mongol’ and ‘the
Travelogues of Marco Polo’.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 6 The Three Orders
Important terms:
• Tithe: A kind of tax collected by the church from the

peasants in France. It was l/10th of the total produce.
• Manor: Dwelling area of the landlord.
• Fief: The land given by the lord to the knight.
• Pope: The supreme authority of the church
• Friars: A group of monks who moved from place to place,
preaching to the people and living on charity.
Due to socio-economic and political changes, Western Europe

society was divided into three orders between the ninth and
sixteenth centuries. After the fall of the Roman Empire, many
groups of Germanic People occupied the regions of Italy, Spain and
France.
The three orders are three social categories: Christian priests,
landowning nobles and peasants.The term ‘feudalism’ has been
used by historians to describe the economic, legal, political and
social relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era.
The Three order
First Order
Priests (The Clergy)
– The Catholic Church
– Europe guided by bishops and clerics.

– Pope lived in Rome
– Women could not be become priests
– Monks – The church and Society

Second Order
Nobles
– Vassals of the king
– They enjoyed a privileged status

– Absolute control over property
– Could raise troops
– Even coin his own money
Third Order
– Peasants
– Free peasants and serfs
– Serfs cultivated plots of land, but these belonged to the lord.

A Manorial Estate: refer to page No. 136. of the textbook.
Explanation:
1. THE CLERGY
• Church was a powerful institution. The Pope, the head of the
Catholic Church, lived in Rome. Bishops were religious nobility.
• The church played a major role in influencing the Medieval
European society.
• They collected the tithe, a tax from the peasants.
• Church ceremonies copied several formal feudal customs.
•Some Christians chose to live in isolation in abbeys. (‘Abbey’ is
derived from the Syriac abba, meaning father. An abbey was
governed by an abbot or an abbess)
2. NOBILITY
• The word ‘Feudalism’ is derived from the German word ‘feud’
which means ‘a piece of land’. Feudalism was a division of
society that initially developed in medieval France, then in
England and southern Italy.
• It was a kind of agricultural production relationship between
lords and peasants.
• The nobility had a privileged role in the social process with
absolute control over his land. They raised troops that were
called ‘Feudal Levies’. The King of France was linked to his
people through the system of ‘vassalage’. The King was
accepted as Seigneur, i.e. lord. The nobility lived in manor
houses.
• The cavalry and peasant soldiers were called knights. Minstrels
and bards toured France, singing tales of brave kings and

knights.
3. THE PEASANTRY
• Peasants and Serfs were two kinds of cultivators in medieval
Europe.
•Free peasants laboured for cultivating the lord’s fields to
provide labour rent. They paid a direct tax, called taille, to the
king. European monarchs were called New Monarchs.
The Anglo-Saxons had a Great Council, which the king consulted
before imposing any tax. This developed into the Parliament, with
the House of Lords (its members – the lords and the clergy), and
the House of Commons. The English monarch, Charles the First,
ruled England from 1629 till 1640 without calling the Parliament.
Factors affecting Social and Economic Relations.
i. The Environment
ii. Land use

iii. New Agricultural Technology
iv. Urbanisation
.Cathedral – Towns:
From the twelfth century, large churches – called cathedrals – were
being built in France. These belonged to the monasteries.
Cathedrals were built of stone. The area around the cathedrals
became more populated and they became centres of pilgrimage.
Small towns developed around them. Stained glass was used for
windows of the Cathedrals. During the day the sunlight would make
them radiant and after sunset the light of candles would make them
visible to people outside. The stained glass narrated the stories in
the Bible through pictures.
Two of the more well-known monasteries were those established by
St Benedict in Italy in 529 and of Cluny in Burgundy in 910.
The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century
In Europe economic expansion slowed down. This was due to three
factors:
1. In Northern Europe, by the end of the thirteenth century the
warm summers of the previous 300 years had given way to
bitterly cold summers. Seasons for growing crops were reduced
by a month.
2. Trade was hit by a severe shortage of metal money because of
a shortfall in the output of silver mines in Austria and Serbia.
This forced government to reduce the silver content of the
currency and to mix it with cheaper metals.
3. Ships carrying goods from distant countries had started
arriving in European ports. The ships came with rats carrying
deadly bubonic plague infection (the Black Death).
Political Changes:
• In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, European kings
strengthened their military and financial power. The new
monarchs, Louis XI in France, Maximilian in Austria, Henry VII in
England and Isabelle and Ferdinand in Spain were absolutist
rulers, who started the process of organising standing armies.
• Decline of feudalism and lordship in the sixteenth century
paved the way for the rise of nation-state in Europe.
• French, German and Russian Revolutions took place in 1789,
1848 and 1917 CE respectively. These revolutions inspired the
people across the world and gave a rich legacy of liberty and
equality to reconstruct the society in a new way.
Rise of ‘Fourth Order’ – New Towns and Townspeople
• Expansion in agriculture was accompanied by growth in three
related areas: population, trade and towns.
• The towns of the Roman Empire had become deserted and
ruined after its fall. But from the eleventh century, as
agriculture increased and became able to sustain higher levels
of population, towns began to grow again
• Towns offered the prospect of paid work and freedom from the
lord’s control, for young people from peasant families.
• The bigger towns had populations of about 30,000. They could
be said to have formed a ‘fourth’ order.
GUILD: The basis of economic organisation was the guild. Each
craft or industry was organised into a guild, an association which
controlled the quality of the product, its price and its sale. The
‘guild-hall’ was a feature of every town; it was a building for
ceremonial functions, and where the heads of all the guilds met
formally.
Sources:
Hever Castle in England, Salisbury Cathedral in England, Nemours
Castle in France, Canterbury Tales written by Chaucer.
Timeline:
i. Early History of France: refer to Page No. 134 of the text book.
ii. Eleventh to Fourteenth Centuries – refer to Page No. 149 of the
text book
iii. The New Monarchy: refer to Page No. 150
Key Words
Feudalism, Abbey
Doon de Mayence: A thirteenth century French poem to be sung
recounting the adventures of Knights.
Monastery: The word ‘monastery’ is derived from the Greek word
‘monos’, meaning someone who lives alone.
The Black Death: Ships with rats carrying the deadly bubonic
plague infection in Western Europe between 1347 and 1350.
Fourth Order: The bigger towns had populations of about 30,000.
They could be said to have formed a ‘fourth order’.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 7 Changing Cultural Traditions
Important terms:
• Renaissance: A French word meaning rebirth.

• Renaissance man: A person with many interests and skills.
• Document of Indulgences: A document issued by the church
which guaranteed a written promise to absolve the holder of
all his sins.
• Humanism: A movement which gave priority to present life
rather than life thereafter.
Significant changes took place in Europe from fourteenth to

seventeenth centuries which influenced the cultural traditions of
Europe. From the nineteenth century, historians used the term
‘Renaissance’ to describe the phenomenon that mark this change of
cultural traditions of the period.
Meaning of Renaissance
• The term ‘Renaissance’ literally means ‘rebirth’, this French
word was first used by a Swiss scholar, Jacob Burckhardt, in

1860. During the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries, a new
humanist culture popularised the idea that man is an individual.
Italian universities were centres of legal studies .
• Renaissance meant revival of the ancient Greek and Latin
culture. It first began in Italy, followed by Rome, Venice and
Florence.
• The term ‘Renaissance Man’ is often used to describe a person
with many interests and skills, because many of the individuals
who became well known at this time were people of many
parts. They were scholar-diplomat-theologian-artist combined
in one.
• Renaissance aroused the spirit of equality among the people
and attacked on the superstitions and rituals prevailing in the
society.
• Social, political and economic life of the people were deeply
affected by Renaissance.
Causes of Renaissance
• Contact of the East and the West: With the expansion of
trade between the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic countries,

the ports on the Italian coast revived. From the twelfth century,
as the Mongols opened up trade with China via the Silk
Route and as trade with western European countries also
increased, Italian towns played a central role. They no longer
saw themselves as part of a powerful empire, but as
independent city-states.
• Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks: In 1453
Ottoman Turks defeat the Byzantine ruler of Constantinople. In

the late fourteenth century, long-distance trade declined, and
then became difficult after the Turks conquered
Constantinople. Italians managed to do business with Turks,
but were now required to pay higher taxes on trade. The
possibility that many more people could be brought into the
fold of Christianity made many devout Christian Europeans
ready to face adventure.
• Crusades: The ‘Crusades’ against the Turks began as a religious
war between Christians and Muslims.
• Decline of Feudalism: By the end of sixteenth century,
feudalism began to decline paving the way for new order in the
society.
• Rise of new towns & trade: Expansion in agriculture was
accompanied by growth in three related areas: population,

trade and towns. From the fourteenth to the end of the
seventeenth century, towns were growing in many countries of
Europe. A distinct ‘urban culture’ also developed. Towns –
particularly Florence, Venice and Rome – became centres of art
and learning. One of the most vibrant cities was Venice,
another was Genoa.
• Rise of the new middle class: With the downfall of feudalism
a mew middle-class emerged which mainly comprised the

townspeople. They began to think of themselves as more
‘civilised’ than rural people.
• Rise of nations: A new concept of nation-state emerged as
people were more inclined to a liberal society based on

equality and freedom. King was no more the supreme
authority. Nation-state received more power and vigour from
‘Reformation;.
Effects of Renaissance
(a) BEGINNING OF MODERN AGE
i) Humanism: Humanism was one of the movements that started in
Italy in fourteenth century. Italian universities were centres of legal
studies. Francesco Petrarch is known as ‘Father of Humanism’.
He suggested a shift from the study of law to the ancient Roman
culture and texts. The term ‘humanism’ was first used by Roman
lawyer and essayist Cicero. Humanists thought that they were
restoring ‘true civilisation’ after centuries of darkness, for they
believed that a ‘Dark Age’ had set in after the collapse of the
Roman Empire. The period from the fifth to fourteenth centuries
was the Middle Ages, and the Modern Age started from fifteenth
century.
• Humanistic art: In the fifteenth century, Florence was
recognised for its wo prominent Renaissance men. Dante

Alighieri (1265-1321), an eminent poet and philosopher of
Italy who wrote on religious themes (he is known for his classic
‘The DIvine Comedy‘), and Giotto (1267-1337), an artist who
painted lifelike portraits, very different from the stiff figures
done by earlier artists. From then it developed as the most
exciting intellectual city in Italy and as a centre of artistic
creativity.
• Humanistic literature, Humanities stream: By the early fifteenth
century, the term ‘humanist’ was used for masters who taught
grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy. The
Latin word humanitas, from which ‘humanities’ was derived,
had been used many centuries ago to mean culture. These
subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion, and
emphasised skills developed by individuals through discussion
and debate. Giovanni Boccaccio was the greatest writer and
humanist who wrote Decameron. The universities of Padua
and Bologna had been centers of legal studies.
• Humanists reached out to people in a variety of ways. Though
the curricula in universities continued to be dominated by law,
medicine and theology, humanist subjects slowly began to be
introduced in schools, not just in Italy but in other European
countries as well.
The revival of Italian cities
: Western Europe was being reshaped by feudal bonds and unified

under the Latin Church and Eastern Europe under the Byzantine
Empire, and Islam was creating a common civilisation further west,
Italy was weak and fragmented. The ports on the Italian coast were
revived. From the fourteenth to the end of the seventeenth century
towns were growing in many countries of Europe. A distinct ‘ Urban
Culture’ also developed Florence, Venice and Rome became centers
of art and learning. The invention of printing at the same time made
books and prints available to many people. A sense of history also
developed in Europe. Religion came to be seen as something
which each individual should choose for himself. The church’s belief
was overturned by scientists. (refer to the Map at page 153)
Printing Press:
• Johannnes Gutenberg invented the first printing press in 1455.
• The first printing press was set up by Caxton in 1477 in Europe.

• The invention of printing press increased the volume of books.
It also helped in the spread of education.
The Arab’s Contribution: In the fourteenth century, Arabs
translated Ancient Greek and Roman n texts. They
called Plato as Aflatun and Aristotle Aristu in Arabic. Noted Muslim
writers during this time were Ibn Sina (‘Avicenna’ in Latin) and Ibn
Rushd (‘Averroes’ in Latin), Ptolemy wrote in Greek Almagest on
astronomy. Muslim writers were regarded as men of wisdom in the
Italian world.
ii) Rationalism
• Viewpoint: It developed the ideas among the people and they
abandoned the superstitious beliefs and rituals that prevailed
in the entire society. It paved the way for new invention which
changed the way of life.
• Rationalist art: A thousand years after the fall of Rome,
fragments of art were discovered in the ruins of ancient Rome
and other deserted cities. Their admiration for the figures of
‘perfectly’ proportioned men and women sculpted so many
centuries ago. Artists’ concern to be accurate was helped by
the work of scientists. To study bone structures, artists went to
the laboratories of medical schools. The anatomy, geometry,
physics, as well as a strong sense of what was beautiful, gave a
new quality to Italian art, which was to be called ‘realism’ and
which continued till the nineteenth century.
• Rationalist Literature: The greatest revolution of the sixteenth
century was the mastery of the technology of printing. For this,
Europeans were indebted to other peoples – the Chinese, for
printing technology, and to Mongol rulers because European
traders and diplomats had become familiar with it during visits
to their courts. (This was also the case with three other
important innovations – firearms, the compass and the abacus.)
• Knowledge of geometry helped them understand perspective
and that by noting the changing quality of light, their pictures
acquired a three – dimensional quality. Anatomy, geometry,
physics, as well as a strong sense of what was beautiful, gave a
new quality to Italian art, which was to be called ‘realism’.
iii) Scientific viewpoint
• Viewpoint: Scientific Revolution was another characteristic of
this era. Not the God, but the nature- the source of all creation
– was a revolution in thought. People became more rational
and scientific in their approach towards life of mankind during
Renaissance movement. Scientists used the method of
experimentation, observation and new thoughts, which was just
contrary to the Christian beliefs.
• Development of Science: Scientific discoveries of Copernicus,
Galileo, Kepler and Issac Newton brought about new changes
in the world. Copernicus asserted that the earth rotates around
the sun. The revolution in science reached at its climax with
Newton’s theory of gravitation. The theory of earth as a part of
the sun centred system was made popular by
Kepler’s Cosmographical Mystery.
• Art: Donatello made many life-like statues in 1416. Vesalius, a
Belgian professor of medicine, was the first to dissect the

human body. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) had an amazing
range of interests from botany and anatomy to mathematics
and art. He painted the Mona Lisa and The Last
Supper. Michelangelo Buonarroti painted the Sistine chapel,
made the sculpture of the Pieta and the Dome of St. Peter’s
Church.
Aspirations of women – The new ideal of individuality and
citizenship excluded women. Men from aristocratic families
dominated public life and were the decision-makers in their
families. A few women were intellectually very creative and sensitive
about the importance of a humanist education. Women’s writings
revealed their conviction that they should have economic power,
property and education to achieve an identity in a world dominated
by men
(b) REFORMATION MOVEMENT
The church mainly influenced the life of people a lot. Reformation

movement was a protest movement that took place in the sixteenth
century against the church and the pope. In 1517, a young German
monk called Martin Luther (1483-1546) launched a campaign
against the Catholic Church. He asked his followers to have
complete faith in God, for faith alone could guide them to the right
life and entry into heaven. This movement – called the Protestant
Reformation – led to the churches in Germany and Switzerland
breaking their connection with the Pope and the Catholic Church.
Causes of Reformation Movement: Autocracy of the Church
and Catholic Corruption
• Luther argued that a person did not need priests to establish
contact with God. In 1517 he wrote the ‘Ninety-Five

Theses’, challenging the authority of the church.
• However, Luther did not support radicalism. The Catholic
Church itself did not escape the impact of these ideas, and
began to reform itself from within.
•William Tyndale (1494-1536), an English Lutheran who
translated the Bible into English in 1506, defended
Protestantism. He said that clergy had forged the process,
order and meaning of the ancient texts particularly because it
was in Greek and Latin, inaccessible to the common man.
Consequences of Reformation
• Niccolo Machiavelli wrote about human nature in the
fifteenth chapter of his book, The Prince (1513). Machiavelli

believed that ‘all men are bad and ever ready to display their
vicious nature partly because of the fact that human desires are
insatiable’. The most powerful motive Machiavelli saw as the
incentive for every human action is self-interest.
• Counter Reformation Movement came into being as a result
of Reformation Movement. Many defects had come into

Catholicism but Roman Catholic did not pay heed to it.
According to this movement, the church tried to reform itself
of some of its objectionable practices. For instance, the Bishops
were now appointed on the basis of their ability.
Result of Renaissance
• An important change that did happen in this period was that
gradually the ‘private’ and the ‘public’ spheres of life began to
become separate: the ‘public’ sphere meant the area of
government and of formal religion; the ‘private’ sphere
included the family and personal religion. The individual had a
private as well as a public role. He was not simply a member of
one of the ‘three orders’; he was also a person in his own right.
An artist was not just a member of a guild, he was known for
himself.
• In the eighteenth century, this sense of the individual would be
expressed in a political form, in the belief that all individuals
had equal political rights.
• Another development was that the different regions of Europe
started to have their separate sense of identity, based on
language.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 8 Confrontation of Cultures
Important terms:
• Cosmography: Science of mapping universe.

• Reconquista: It means reconquest.
• Capitulaciones: Agreement made by the Spanish
rulers, who used to award the right to govern the
newly acquired lands to the leaders of successful
expeditions.
• Conquistador’s: It refers to Spanish conquerors and
their soldiers who established their empire in the
new world.
• Quips: A system followed by Inca people which
helped them in remembering things.
It reflects the encounters between European and the people of the

America between fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. The fifteenth
century was the age of geographical discoveries mainly influenced
by new scientific inventions, travellers’ accounts, political and
religious motives, etc.
Reasons:
• In 1942, a Spanish sailor Christopher Columbus discovered
America. Later on, Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci came to

South America in 1499 and called it a New World.
• Economic motives spurred the European voyages and

discoveries.
• The invention of compass in 1380 helped the sailors to sail
independently in different directions.
• Astrolabe was invented which helped the sailors to look

beyond the normal vision and helped them to avoid the marine
danger.
• The Americas are home to many native tribes; the world’s

largest river – the Amazon flows here. There were communities
of the natives such as the Arawakian Lucayos and the Caribs.
1. Native American Culture
(a) Small Subsistence Economies

(i) Arawaks (Bahamas)
(b) Developed Culture
(i) Aztecs (Mexico)
(ii) Mayas (Central America)
(iii) Incas (West Coast & South America)
THE ARAWAKS (BAHAMAS)
The Arawakian Lucayos lived on a cluster of hundreds of small

islands in the Caribbean Sea, today known as the Bahamas, and the
Greater Antilles.
Economic activities of Arawaks (Bahamas)
(a) They produced food collectively to feed everyone in the
community.
(b) They had self-sufficient economy.
(c) They were skilled boat-buildiers, they sailed the o.pen sea in
dugout canoes (canoes made from hollow tree trunks).
(d) They lived by hunting, fishing and agriculture
(e) They grew food products like- corn, sweet potatoes, tubers and
cassava.
Religious & social life of Arawaks (Bahamas)
(a) Polygamy was common in their society.
(b) They were animist (they believe that even objects regarded by
modern science as ‘inanimate’ may have life or a soul).
(c) Shamans played an important role as healers and intermediaries
between this world and that of the supernatural
(d) They were superstitions.
Cultural & Features of Arawaks (Bahamas)
(a) They preferred negotiations to conflict.
(b) They were very generous host.
(c) The art of weaving was highly developed – the hammock was
one of their specialties.
** People called the Tupinamba lived on the east coast of South
America, and in villages in the forests (the name ‘Brazil’ is derived
from the brazilwood tree).
Political Features of Arawaks (Bahamas)
(a) They were governed by oligarchy as they were organised under
clan elders.
(b) They had no army.
(c) There existed no religious institution.
THE AZTECS (of Mexico)
In the twelfth century, the Aztecs had migrated from the north into
the central valley of Mexico (named after their god Mexitli).
Social life of Aztecs
(a) They had hierarchical society.
(b) Nobility was dominant as the nobles chose from among them a
supreme leader who ruled until his death.
(c) The king was regarded as the representative of the sun on earth.
(d) Warriors, priests and nobles were the most respected groups,
but traders also enjoyed many privileges and often served the
government as ambassadors and spies.
(e) They engaged in war.
(f) Aztec women were given special status in the society.
Economic Activities of Aztecs
(a) The Aztecs undertook reclamations. They made chinampas,
artificial islands, in Lake Mexico.
(b) They made canals between fertile lands.
(c) They cultivated food products like – Corns, beans, pumpkin,
potatoes, etc.
(d) They had agrarian economy. Land was owned not by individuals
but by clans.
Cultural Activities of Aztecs
(a) They gave special attention the schooling of their children.
(b) Children of the nobility attended the calmecac and were trained
to become military and religious leaders.
(c) Others went to the tepochcalli in their neighbourhood, which
was the center of learning.
Political Activity of Aztecs
(a) In 1325 the capital city Tenochtitlan was built.
(b) The king was their sole leader.
(c) The made conquests and reclaimed territories as land was
limited.
(d) They conquered people.
(e) In the early sixteenth century, the Aztec empire was showing
signs of strain due to discontent among recently conquered
peoples.
THE MAYAS (of Central America)
The Mayan culture of Mexico developed remarkably between the
eleventh and fourteenth centuries, but in the sixteenth century they
had less political power than the Aztecs. The important Mayan
civilisation were Mexico, Honduras, EI-Slavador and Guatemala.
Social life of Mayas
(a) Their religious ceremonies were based on agriculture.
(b) Their social relation was based on agrarian system.
Economic Activities of Mayas
(a) They were engaged in corn cultivation.
(b) Efficient agricultural production generated surplus, which helped
the ruling classes, priests and chiefs to invest in architecture and in
the development of astronomy and mathematics
(c) This surplus helped ruling classes priests and chiefs to invest in
architecture and in the development of astronomy and
mathematics.
Cultural Activities of Mayas
(a) Made significant development of architecture.
(b) They progressed of astronomy and mathematics.
(c) They devised a pictographic form of writing.
(d) They made Maya Calendar
Political Activity of Mayas
(a) They had less political power.
(b) Their ruling class was strong.
The Incas were also known as the Quechuas. The capital city –
Cuzco was established by the first Inca emperor, Manco Capac in
the twelfth century. They spoke Quechan language. The Aztecs and
the Incas shared some common feature, e.g, hierarchical societies
with no private ownership of resources, and were very different
from European culture.
VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION (by Europeans)
• The voyages of discovery were pion eered by explorers from

Spain and Portugal.
• The magnetic compass was used by Europeans for the voyages.
• The printed version of Ptolemy’s Geography was available in

1477.
• The Vikings of Norway had reached North America in the

eleventh century.
• Portugal gained independence from Spain in 1139.
• Christopher Columbus had reached South America. He also

reached the Guanahani Island in the Bahamas in 1492. The two
continents were named after Amerigo Vespucci, a geographer
from Florence.
• Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca emperor from the ruler,
Atahualpa in 1532.
• Brazil was occupied by the Portuguese under command
of Pedro Alvares Cabral. They exploited Brazilwood. In 1601,

King Philip II of Spain publicly banned forced labour.
Conquest, Colonies and the Slave-Trade
• The uncertain voyages had a lasting consequences for Europe,

the Americas and Africa. From the fifteenth century, European
maritime projects produced knowledge of continuous sea
passages from ocean to ocean. Before this, most of these
passages had been unknown to Europeans. In the late fifteenth
and early sixteenth centuries, all these feats were
accomplished.
• For Europe, the ‘discovery’ of the Americas had consequences

for others besides the initial voyagers. Europe became familiar
with new crops from America, notably potatoes and chillies.
These were then taken by Europeans to other countries like
India.
• For the native people of the Americas, the immediate

consequences were the physical decimation of local
populations, the destruction of their way of life and their
enslavement in mines, plantations and mills.
• The sudden destruction of the two major civilisations – those of
the Aztecs and the Incas – in America highlights the contrasts
between the two cultures in combat. Both with the Aztecs and
the Incas, the nature of warfare played a crucial role in
terrorizing local inhabitants psychologically and physically.
• The enslavement of the population was a sharp reminder of the

brutality of the encounter. Slavery was not a new idea, but the
South American experience was new in that it accompanied the
emerging capitalist system of production. Working conditions
were horrific, but the Spanish regarded the exploitation as
essential to their economic gain.
Conclusion
In the early nineteenth century, European settlers in the South
American colonies were to rebel against Spain and Portugal and
become independent countries, just as in 1776 the thirteen North
American colonies rebelled against Britain and formed the United
States of America.
Latin America: South America today is also called ‘Latin America’.
This is because Spanish and Portuguese, two of the main languages
of the continent, are part of the Latin family of languages. The
inhabitants are mostly native European (called Creole), European,
and African by origin. Most of them are Catholics. Their culture has
many elements of native traditions mixed with European ones.
Class 11Notes Chapter 9 The Industrial Revolution
Important terms:
• Industrial Revolution: Use of machinery in industries and its

effects on the English societies.
• Iron-Smelting Kilns: Blast furnace.
• Stapler: A small device used for putting staples into paper,
etc.
• Sepoy: Indian soldier in the service of the British.
• Vagrant: A person without a settled home or regular work.
• Carding: A process prior to spinning cotton or wool.
• Orient: The countries to the east of Mediterranean.
• Luddism: A movement led by the charismatic General, Ned
Ludd
Meaning & Background

• The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used by European scholars
– George Michelet in France and Friedrich Engles in Germany.
• It refers to the great change in the field of industries when the
production of goods by hand in the houses were replaced with
the help of machines in factories.
• The transformation of industry and the economy in Britain
between the 1780s and the 1850s is called the ‘first industrial
revolution’.
• It was used for the first time in English by the philosopher and
economist Arnold Toynbee (1852-83), to describe the changes
that occurred in British industrial development between 1760
and 1820. These dates coincided with those of the reign of
George III.
• It revolutionised the techniques and organisation of production
in the later half of the eighteenth century.
CAUSES
(i) Economic – There was remarkable economic growth from the
1780s to 1820 in the cotton and iron industries, in coal mining, in
the building of roads and canals and in foreign trade.
(ii) Political – The series of incidents occurred in British industrial
development between 1760 and 1820. These dates coincided with
those of the reign of George III.
** Why Britain?:
It had been politically stable since the seventeenth century, with
England, Wales and Scotland unified under a monarchy. This meant
that the kingdom had common laws, a single currency and a market
that was not fragmented by local authorities. Besides, England had
great domestic and international market under its control which
helped in the growth of Industrial Revolution.
• Towns – From the eighteenth century, many towns in Europe
were growing in area and in population. Population of most of
the European cities doubled between 1750 and 1800. The
largest of them was London, which served as the hub of the
country’s markets, with the next largest ones located close to it.
London had also acquired a global significance.
• Finance – The Bank of England was founded in 1694.
• Coal & Iron – Coal and Iron ore were important raw
materials. Abraham Darby invented the blast furnace in 1709.
World’s first iron bridge was built during this period
• Agricultural Revolution – In the eighteenth century, England
had been through a major economic change, later described as
the ‘agricultural revolution’. This was the process by which
bigger landlords had bought up small farms near their own
properties and enclosed the village common lands. The
agricultural revolution laid down the foundation of the
Industrial Revolution.
(iii) Geographical –
• In the seventeenth century, Wales and Scotland were unified.
London was the largest city as well as a city of global trade.
England had a number of colonies in Asia, Africa and Europe.
These helped in obtaining the raw material for industries.
• By the eighteenth century, the centre of global trade had
shifted from the Mediterranean ports of Italy and France to the
Atlantic ports of Holland and Britain.
CONSEQUENCES
(i) Positive Effects
The onset of textile industry also helped in the emergence of
Industrial Revolution.
(a) Invention of Machines in Cotton Industry:
• The flying shuttle loom invented by John Kay in 1733
revolutionsed the textile industry.
• The spinning jenny
• The water frame
• The mule
• Powerloom
Road Map of Industrial Revolution
(b) Increase in Production
(c) Introduction of Railways & Canals
Railways took the industrialization to the second stage.
• Thomas Savery built a model steam engine the Miner’s Friend
in 1698.
• Another steam engine was built by Thomas Newcomen in
1712. The steam engine had been used only in coal mines
until James Watt developed a perfect steam engine in 1769
and established the Soho Foundry in Birmingham.
• James Brindley built the First English Canal in 1761. The ‘canal
mania’ prevailed from 1788 to 1796.
• The first steam locomotive, Stephenson’s Rocket, appeared in
1814.
• Richard Trevithick devised an engine – the ‘Puffing Devil’ in
1801 and a locomotive – ‘The Blutcher’ in 1814.
• The First railway line ran between Stockton and Darlington..
•The ‘little railway mania’ prevailed from 1833 to 1837 and the
bigger ‘mania’ from 1844 to 1847.
Advantages and Disadvantages – In the 1830s, the use of canals
revealed several problems. The congestion of vessels made
movement slow on certain stretches of canals, and frost, flood or
drought limited the time of their use. The railways now appeared as
a convenient alternative. About 6,000 miles of railway was opened
in Britain between 1830 and 1850, most of it in two short bursts.
During the ‘little railway mania’ of 1833-37, 1400 miles of line was
built, and during the bigger ‘mania’ of 1844-47, another 9,500 miles
of line was sanctioned.
(d) Changed life
• Profits: Some rich individuals who took risks and invested
money in industries in the hope that profits could be made,
and that their money would ‘multiply’. In most cases this
money – capital – did multiply. Wealth, in the form of goods,
incomes, services, knowledge and productive efficiency, did
increase dramatically.
• Huge population: The number of cities in England with a
population of over 50,000 grew from two in 1750 to 29 in 1850.
This pace of growth was not matched with the provision of
adequate housing, sanitation or clean water for the rapidly
growing urban population.
(ii) Negative Effects
(a) Condition of workers: There was, at the same time, a massive
negative human cost. This was evident in broken families, new
addresses, degraded cities and appalling working conditions in
factories. The condition of workers was quite miserable. They
became victims of restlessness, epidemics and diseases.
(b) Employment of Women and Children in industries: The Industrial
Revolution was a time of important changes in the way that
children and women worked. The earnings of women and children
were necessary to supplement men’s meagre wages. Factory
managers considered child labour to be important training for
future factory work
(c) Protest Movement
• Meaning: Industrialisation led to greater prosperity for some,

but in the initial stages it was linked with poor living and
working conditions of millions of people, including women and
children. This sparked off protests, which forced the
government to enact laws for regulating conditions of work.
• Luddism – Luddism (1811-17) fought for the workers affected
by new machines. It was led by the charismatic General Ned
Ludd. Its participants demanded a minimum wage, control over
the labour of women and children, work for those who had lost
their jobs because of the coming of machinery, and the right to
form trade unions so that they could legally present these
demands.
• Result: The government reacted by repression and by new laws
that denied people the right to protest. For this reason they
passed two Combination Acts and supported Corn Laws.
Through the Act of 1833 more children were put to work in
coal mines.
Reform laws
• Laws were passed in 1819 prohibiting the employment of
children under the age of nine in factories and limiting the
hours of work of those between the ages of nine and sixteen to
12 hours a day
• The Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 banned children under 10
and women from working underground.
• The Ten Hours’ Bill was introduced in 1847, after more than 30
years of agitation. It limited the hours of work for women and
young people, and secured a 10-hour day for male workers.
• Fielder’s Factory Act in 1847 prohibited children and women
from working more than 10 hours a day.
• In eighteenth century, England witnessed the “Agricultural
Revolution and the process of ‘enclosure’.
THE DEBATE
• Until the 1970s, historians used the term ‘industrial revolution’
for the changes that occurred in Britain from the 1780s to the
1820s. From then, it was challenged, on various grounds.
Industrialisation had actually been too gradual to be
considered a ‘revolution’. It carried processes that already
existed towards new levels. England had changed in a regional
manner, prominently around the cities of London, Manchester,
Birmingham or Newcastle, rather than throughout the country.
• Indicators of economic change occurring before and after
1815-20 suggest that sustained industrialisation was to be seen
after rather than before these dates.
• The word ‘industrial’ used with the word ‘revolution’ is too
limited. The transformation extended beyond the economic or
industrial sphere and into society and gave prominence to two
classes: the bourgeoisie and the new class of proletarian
labourers in towns and in the countryside
Class 11 Notes Chapter 10 Displacing Indigenous Peoples
Important terms:
• Colonial: Belonging to a country that controls another

country.
• Oral History: To write history or to dictate others so that
it could have been recorded.
• Native: Citizens of the colonized countries. ‘The Hopis’
are California’s native tribes.
• Subsistence Economy: It means to produce as much as
required for the fulfillment of their basic necessities.
• Settler: People who settle at a place of which they are
not inhabitants.
• Wampum Belt: A belt made of colored shells.
• Indigenous people: People belonging naturally to a
place.
• Multiculturalism: A policy that implies a treatment of
equality for the cultures of native Europeans and Asian
emigrants.
• Terra Nullius: A policy that implies recognizing no one’s
right over a given piece of land.
Sources
• Oral History of natives
• Historical and fiction work written by natives
• Galleries and Museums of native art
Why Weren’t We Told? by Henry Reynolds

•
EUROPEAN IMPARTATION
• The American empires of Spain and Portugal did not expand

after the seventeenth century.
• During that time other countries like France, Holland and

Britain began to extend trade activities and establish colonies
in America, Africa and Asia.
• Ireland also was virtually a colony of England, as the

landowners there were mostly English settlers.
• Prospect of profit drove people to establish colonies.
• Nature of the control on the colonies varied.
• Trading companies became political power in South Asia,

defeated rulers, retained administrative system.
• Collected taxes and built railway to make trade easier,

excavated mines and established big plantation.
• Africa was divided as colonies among Europeans.
Settlers & Natives
The word ‘Settler‘ is used for Dutch in South Africa, the British in
Ireland. New Zealand and Australia and Europeans in America.
The native people led a simple life. They did not clam their rights
over land.
NORTH AMERICA: The Native Peoples
• The inhabitants might have come from Asia through a land

bridge across the Bering straits, 30000 years before.
• They used to live in groups along river valley before the advent
of Europeans.
• They ate fish and meat, and cultivated vegetables and maize.
• Goods were obtained not by buying, but by gifts. They

believed in subsistence economy.
• They spoke numerous language but those are not available in
written form.
• They were friendly and welcoming to Europeans.
• The Europeans gave the them blankets, iron vessels, guns,

which was a useful supplement for bows and arrows to kill
animals, and alcohol in exchange of local products.
• The natives had not known alcohol earlier, and they became
addicted to it, which suited the Europeans, because it enabled
them to dictate terms of trade. (The Europeans acquired from
the natives an addiction to tobacco.)
Comparative Study between American natives and Europeans

(a) Natives
• They were uncivilized ‘noble savage’.
• To the natives, the goods they exchanged with the Europeans

were gifts, given in friendship.
• They were not aware of the market.
• They were not happy with the greed of the Europeans.
• The natives were afraid that the animals would take revenge for
this destruction as the Europeans slaughtered hundreds of
beavers for fur.
• They identified forest tracks invisible to the Europeans.
• Accounts of historical anecdotes were recorded by each tribe.
(b) Europeans
• They were civilized in terms of literacy, an organised religion

and urbanism.
• Gift, were commodities which they would sell for a profit.
• They assessed everything with the value in the market.
• To get furs, they had slaughtered hundreds of beavers.
• They killed wild animals to protect farms.
• European imagined the forest to be converted into green
cornfields.
THE GOLD RUSH AND GROWTH OF INDUSTRIES
• In the 1840s, traces of gold were found in the USA, in

California. This led to the ‘Gold Rush’, when thousands of eager
Europeans hurried to America in the hope of making a quick
fortune.
• This led to building of railway lines across the continent.
• Industries developed to manufacture railway equipment.
• To produce machinery which would make large-scale farming

easier
• Employment generation led to growth of towns and factories.
• In 1860, the USA was an undeveloped economy, but within 30

years, in 1890 it was the leading industrial power in the world.
Natives Constitutional Rights in North America
**British colonies in America declared a war against England in 1776
to gain independence.The War of Independence of the colonies
continued till 1783.
• Democratic Rights: The ‘democratic spirit’ which had been the

rallying cry of the settlers in their fight for independence in the
1770s, came to define the identity of the USA against the
monarchies and aristocracies of the Old World. The natives
were denied the democratic rights (the right to vote for
representatives to Congress and for the President), because it
was only for white men.
• Right to Property: The concept of private property emerged

and people wanted that their constitution included the
individual’s ‘right to property’, which the state could not
override. But this right was exclusive only to the Whites.
Winds of change
• From 1920s, things began to improve for the native peoples of

the USA and Canada.
• White Americans felt sympathy for the natives. In the USA,
the Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934, which gave natives in
reservations the right to buy land and take loans.
• In the 1950s and 1960s, the US and Canadian governments

thought of ending all special provisions for the natives in the
hope that they would ‘join the mainstream’.
• In 1954, in the ‘Declaration of Indian Rights’ prepared by

them, a number of native peoples accepted citizenship of the
USA.
• In Canada, the Constitution Act of 1982 accepted the existing

aboriginal and treaty rights of the natives.
• American President Abraham LIncoln played a key role in the

abolition of the slavery.
AUSTRALIA
Backgroud:
• Dutch explorer Williem Jansz reached Australia in 1606.
• A.J Tasman followed the route of Jansz and found New

Zealand. The Tasmanian islands are named after him.
• British explorer, James Cook, reached the island of Botany Bay

in 1770 and named it New South Wales.
• The ‘aborigines’ (a general name given to a number of different

societies) began to arrive from New Guinea, which was
connected to Australia by a land-bridge on the continent, over
40,000 years ago.
• In the late eighteenth century, there were between 350 and 750
native communities in Australia each with its own language.
• There is another large group of indigenous people living in the

north, called the Torres Strait Islanders. The term ‘Aborigine’ is
not used for these as they are believed to have migrated from
elsewhere and belong to a different race.
Early Settlers:
• Early settlers were convicts deported from England.
• When their jail term ended, were allowed to live as free people
in Australia on condition that they did not return to Britain.
• Since they had no other alternative but to stay there, they felt
no hesitation about ejecting natives from land they took over
for cultivation.
• Natives were employed in farms under conditions of work so

harsh that it was little different from slavery.
• Later, Chinese immigrants provided cheap labour but they did

not want to depend on non-whites for they banned Chinese
immigration.
•Till 1974, such was the popular fear that ‘dark’ people from
South Asia or Southeast Asia might migrate to Australia in
large numbers that there was a government policy to
keep ‘non-white’ people out.
Things changed
• In 1968, people were electrified by a lecture by the
anthropologist W.E.H. Stanner, entitled ‘The Great Australian

Silence’ – the silence of historians about the aborigines.
• From 1974, White Australia’ policy ends, Asian immigrants
allowed entry. Since then a ‘multiculturalism’ has been official

policy in Australia, which gave equal respect to native cultures
and to the different cultures of the immigrants from Europe
and Asia
• In 1992, the Australian High Court declares that terra
nullius was legally invalid, and recognised native claims to land

from before 1770
• In 1995, the National Enquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal

and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families.
• Agitations led to a public apology for the injustice done to
children in an attempt to keep ‘white’ and ‘coloured’ people
apart. On 26 May, 1999 ‘a National Sorry Day’ was observed as
an apology for the children ‘lost’ from the 1820s to the 1970s.
Class 11Notes Chapter 11 Paths to Modernization
Important terms:
• Soviet: Elected council of peasants and workers

• Daimyo: Lords of the domain under their possession.
• Shogun: Official title of sell-Taishogun.
• Zaibastu: Large business houses controlled by individual
families.
• Triangular trade: Trade carried out among three countries.
• Comintern: Communist International
• Meiji: Enlightened rule
• Fukoku Kyohei: Government slogan given during Meiji period,
which means rich country and strong army.
• Dim sum: Touch your heart.
Sources
• Official Record
• Dynastic history
• Scholarly writings
• Popular literature
• Religious Literature
Introduction:
Different societies have evolved their distinctive modernities. The
Japanese and Chinese cases are very instructive in this regard. Japan
succeeded in remaining free of colonial control and achieved fairly
rapid economic and industrial progress throughout the twentieth
century. The Chinese resisted colonial exploitation and their own
bureaucratic landed elite through a combination of peasant
rebellion, reform and revolution. Both these countires are situated
in far East Asia, yet, they present a marked physical contrast.
JAPAN
Physical Features
• Japan is a string of islands, the four largest being Honshu,

Kyushu, Shikoku and Hokkaido.
• There is no major river system.
• More than 50 per cent of the land area of the main islands is
mountainous and Japan is situated in a very active earthquake
zone.
• There are various homogenous ethnic group, like there are a

small Ainu minority and Koreans who were forcibly brought as
labour when Korea was a Japanese colony.
• Language spoken in mostly Japanese.
• Japan lacks a tradition of animal rearing.
• Rice is the staple crop and fish the major source of protein.
• Raw fish (sashimi or sushi) has now become a widely popular
dish around the world as it is considered very healthy.
Political System
• Japan became a modern country from the days of
petty daimyo of Japan.

• In the twelfth century the imperial court lost power to shoguns,
who in theory ruled in the name of the emperor, with the help
of samurais (the warrior class) and daimyo with their capital in
Edo (modern Tokyo).
• In the sixteenth century, Samurai insured peace and order.
• Japan was divided into more than 250 domains under the rule
of lords called daimyo.
In the late sixteenth century, three changes laid the pattern for
future development.
1. The peasantry was disarmed and only the samurai could carry
swords. This ensured peace and order, ending the frequent
wars of the previous century.
2. The daimyo were ordered to live in the capitals of their

domains, each with a large degree of autonomy.
3. The land surveys identified owners and taxpayers and graded

land productivity to ensure a stable revenue base.-
• By the mid-seventeenth century, Japan had the most

populated city in the world – Edo – but also had two other
large cities – Osaka and Kyoto.
• Growth of a commercial economy and a vibrant
culture blossomed in the towns, where the fast growing class of
merchants patronised theater and the arts.
• Increased use of money and creation of stock market led the

economy in new ways.
• Social and intellectual changes took place – such as the study

of ancient Japanese literature – led people to question the
degree of Chinese influence and study of ancient Japanese
literature promoted.
The Meiji Restoration
• The Meiji restoration is termed as one of the most momentous

events in the Japanese history.
• There was demands for trade and diplomatic relations. In 1853,

the USA demanded Japan that the government sign a treaty
that would permit trade and open diplomatic relations.
• Japan lay on the route to China which the USA saw as a major
market. At that time, there was only one Western country that
traded with Japan, Holland.
• In 1868, a movement removed Shogun and brought Emperor

to Edo. This was made the capital and renamed Tokyo, which
means ‘eastern capital’.
• British dominance in Asia alerted Japan, and scholars there
wanted to learn European modern ideas. Many scholars and
leaders wanted to learn from the new ideas in Europe; others
sought to exclude the Europeans even while being ready to
adopt the new technologies they offered. Some argued for a
gradual and limited ‘opening’ to the outer world.
• To develop their economy and build a strong army, the

government with the slogan slogan ‘fukoku kyohei’ (rich
country, strong army), created a sense of nationhood among
the people and transform subjects into citizens.
• The government also built the ’emperor system’ – a system,

where mperor along with the bureaucracy and the military,
exercised power. The Emperor was treated with reverence as he
was considered a direct descendant of the Sun Goddess but he
was also shown as the leader of westernisation. His birthday
became a national holiday, he wore Western-style military
uniforms.
Meiji Reforms
1. Administrative Reforms: The Meiji government imposed a new
administrative structure by altering old village and domain
boundaries to integrate the nation. In 1871, feudalism was
abolished under the Meiji rule.
2. Economic Reforms: Another Meiji reforms was the modernising
of the economy. Japan’s first railway line, between Tokyo and
the port of Yokohama, was built in 1870-72. In 1872, modern
banking institutions were launched. Zaibatsu (business families)
dominated the economy.
3. Industrial Reforms: Textile machinery was imported from

Europe, and foreign technicians were employed to train
workers, as well as to teach in universities and schools, and
Japanese students were sent abroad. The number of people in
manufacturing increased. Over half of those employed in
modern factories were women. The size of factories also began
to increase.
4. Agricultural Reforms: Funds were raised by levying an

agricultural tax.
5. Constitutional Reforms: In 1889, Japan adopted the a new

constitution. The Meiji Constitution had created a Diet and
declared emperor as the commander of the forces, it was
based on a restricted franchise.
6. Educational Reforms: A new school system began to be built

from the 1870s. Schooling was compulsory for boys and girls
and by 1910 almost universal. Tuition fees were minimal. Tokyo
Universtiy was established in 1877.
7. Military Reforms: All young men over twenty had to do a

period of military service. A modern military force was
developed. The military and the bureaucracy were put under
the direct command of the emperor.
Re-emergence of Japan as a Global Economic Power
During the 1930, Japan excercised imperialist policy and invaded

China to extend its colonial empire. Japan’s attempt to carve out a
colonial empire ended with its defeat by the Allied forces. However,
it was defeated in the World War II when US dropped atomic
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It resulted in huge destruction
of masses. Under the US-led Occupation (1945-47) Japan was
demilitarised and a new constitution introduced. Japanese
philosopher Miyake Setsurei (1860-1945) argued that each nation
must develop its special talents in the interest of world civilisation:
The rapid rebuilding of the Japanese economy after its shattering
defeat was called a post-war ‘miracle’.
• The new constitution had Article 9, the so-called ‘no war clause’
that renounces the use of war as an instrument of state policy.
• Agrarian reforms, the re-establishment of trade unions and an
attempt to dismantle the zaibatsu or large monopoly houses
that dominated the Japanese economy were also carried out.
• Constitution was democratised.
• Political parties were revived and the first post-war elections

held in 1946.
• Suffrage was given to women in the elections of 1946.
• There was close relation between the government, bureaucracy

and industry.
• Japan also introduced better goods at cheaper rates in the

market with its advanced technologies.
• US support, as well as the demand created by the Korean and

the Vietnamese wars also helped the Japanese economy.
• The 1964 Olympics held in Tokyo, it symbolised the maturity of

Japan’s economy.
• The introduction of network of high-speed Shinkansen or

bullet trains, started in 1964, which ran at 200 miles per hour,
added to it prosperity.
• In 1960s several pressure groups protested against industrial

pollution. Industrialisation was pushed with utter disregard
with the growth of civil society movements, due to its harmful
effect on health and the environment.
• Government action and new legal regulations helped to
improve conditions.
CHINA
Physical Features
• China is a vast continental country that spans many climatic

zones.
• The core is dominated by three major river systems: the Yellow

River (Huang He), the Yangtse River (Chang Jiang – the third
longest river in the world) and the Pearl River.
• A large part of the country is mountainous.
• There are divergent ethnic group – Han, Uighur, Hui, Manchu

and Tibetan.
• Major languages spoken are Chinese and Cantonese.
• Chinese food reflects this regional diversity. Southern or

Cantonese cuisine include dim sum (literally touch your heart),
an assortment of pastries and dumpling. While, in the north,
wheat is the staple food while in Szechuan spices have created
a fiery cuisine. In eastern China, both rice and wheat are eaten.
History of China
• The beginning of modern China can be traced to its first

encounter with the West in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.
• During 1839-42, British won the first opium war in China and
snatched power from the Qing dynasty. The second opium war
was fought in 1856-60.
• It revolves around three questions – a) How to regain

Sovereignty b) End the humiliation of Foreign Occupation c)
Bring out equality and development.
• There were three views:

i) Liang Qichao used traditional ideas in new and different way
to meet Western challenges. He popularised Chinese
nationalism.
ii) Republican revolutionaries Sun Yat Sen inspired by the ideas
from the Japan and the West. He was the founder of the
modern China and established a republic in 1911 AD.
iii) The Communist Party of China (CCP) wanted to end age-old
inequalities and dispel foreigners.
• Later, the Guomindang (the National People’s Party) along with

the CCP strived to unite Chinese.
• Chiang Kai Shek, leader of the Guomindang, militarised China.
• Mao Zedong, CCP leader, organised a Soviets or peasant

councils and fought Japanese colonisation.
•When Guomindang (the National People’s Party) intensified
attacks, the Soviets shifted the base to Yanan, after a ‘Long
March’. The Communist Party captured power and established
the People’s Republic in 1949.
Establishing the Republic:
• Manchu dynasty overthrown and a republic established in 1911

under Sun Yat-Sen. He studied medicine but was greatly
concerned about the fate of China.
• Yat-Sen’s programme was called the Three Principles – These

were nationalism – this meant overthrowing the Manchu who
were seen as a foreign dynasty, as well as other foreign
imperialists; democracy or establishing democratic
government; and socialism regulating capital and equalizing
landholdings..
• Revolutionaries asked for – driving out the foreigners to

control natural resources, to remove inequalities, reduce
poverty.
• Advocated reforms – use of simple language, abolish foot

binding and female subordination, equality in marriage and
economic development.
• Sun Yat-sen’s ideas became the basis of the political

philosophy of the Guomindang which were identified the ‘four
great needs – clothing food, housing and transportation.
• After the death of Sun, Chiang Kaishek (1887-1975) emerged

as the leader of the Guomindang. He launched military
campaign to control the ‘warlords’, regional leaders who had
usurped authority, and to eliminate the communists.
• He advocated a secular and rational ‘this-

worldly’ Confucianism.
• He encouraged women to cultivate the four virtues of ‘chastity,

appearance, speech and work’ and recognise their role as
confined to the household.
The Guomindang despite its attempts to unite the country failed

because of its shallow social and political vision:
• Sun Yat-Sen’s programme of regulating capital and equalising

land – was never carried out.
• the party ignored the peasantry and the rising social

inequalities. It sought to impose military order rather then
address the problems faced by the people.
The rise of the Communist Party of China
When the Japanese invaded China in 1937, the Guomindang

retreated. The long and exhausting war weakened China. Prices rose
30 per cent per month between 1945 and 1949, and utterly
destroyed the lives of ordinary people.
Factors
. Rural China faced two crises
(a) Ecological Factors:
• Soil Exhanstion
• Deforestation
• Floods
(b) Socio – Economic Factors
• Exploitative land-tenure systems
• Indebtedness
• Primitive Technology
• Poor Communications
The CCP had been founded in 1921, soon after the Russian
Revolution. Mao Zedong (1893-1976), who emerged as a major
CCP leader, took a different path by basing his revolutionary
programme on the peasantry. His success made the CCP a powerful
political force that ultimately won against the Guomindang. In 1949,
Communist Government was established in China and began a new
age in the history of China.
Establishing the New Democracy 1949-65
The Peoples Republic of China government was established in 1949.
It was based on the principles of the ‘New Democracy’, an alliance
of all social classes.
• Critical areas of the economy were put under government

control.
• Private enterprise and Private ownership of land were

abolished.
• The Great Leap Forward movement launched in 1958 was a

policy to galvanise the country to industrialise rapidly.
• Mao was able to mobilise the masses to attain the goals set by
the Party. His concern was with creating a ‘socialist man’ who
would have five loves: fatherland, people, labour, science and
public property.
• Liu Shaochi (1896-1969) and Deng Xiaoping (1904-97) tried to
modify the commune system as it was not working efficiently.
The steel produced in the backyard furnaces was unusable
industrially.
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
• The conflict between the concept of ‘socialist man’ and those

who objected to his emphasis on ideology rather than
expertise led Mao to launch the Great Proletarian Cultural
Revolution in 1965.
• The Red Guards, mainly students and the army, was used for a
campaign against old culture, old customs and old habits.
• Students and professionals were sent to the countryside to

learn from the masses.
• Ideology became more important than professional

knowledge. Denunciations and slogans replaced rational
debate.
• The Cultural Revolution began a period of turmoil, weakened

the Party and severely disrupted the economy and educational
system.
• In 1975, the party once again laid emphasis on greater social

discipline and the need to build an industrial economy.
Reforms of 1978 Deng Xiaoping
• Deng Xiaoping kept party control strong while introducing a

socialist market economy.
• In 1978, the Party declared its goal as the Four

Modernisations – science, industry, agriculture and defence.
• ‘The Fifth Modernisation’ proclaimed that without

Democracy the other modernisations would come to nothing.
• in 1989, on the seventieth anniversary of the May Fourth

movement many intellectuals called for a greater openness and
an end to ‘ossified dogmas’ (su shaozhi).
• Student demonstrators at Tiananmen Square in Beijing were

brutally repressed.
• The post-reform period has seen the emergence of debates on

ways to develop China.
• Growing revival of traditional ideas of Confucianism and

arguments that China can build a modern society based on its
own traditions rather than simply copying the West.
The Story of Taiwan
• Taiwan had been a Japanese colony since the Chinese ceded it

after the 1894-95 war with Japan.
• The Cairo Declaration (1943) and the Potsdam Proclamation

(1949) restored sovereignty to China.
• The GMD, under Chiang Kai-shek went on to establish a
repressive government forbidding the freedom of
speech, political opposition banned.
• They excluded the local population from positions of

power.they carried out land reforms that increased agricultural
productivity and modernised the economy s
• Transformation of Taiwan into a democracy after the death of

Chiang in 1975.
• Martial law lifted in 1987 and opposition parties were legally

permitted.
• Diplomatically most countries have only trade missions in

Taiwan instead of complete diplomatic ties because it (Taiwan)
is considered to be part of China.
• The question of re-unification with the mainland remains a

contentious issue but “ Cross Strait” relations (that is between
Taiwan and China) have been improving.
• China may be willing to tolerate a semi-autonomous Taiwan as

long as it gives up any move to seek independence.
Two Roads to Modernisation
• The histories of Japan and China show how different historical

conditions led them on widely divergent paths to building
independent and modern nations.
• Japan was successful in retaining its independence and using
traditional skills and practices in new ways.
• In the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) China faced a humiliating

defeat. On 17 April 1895, Treaty of Shimonseki was signed
between China and Japan, ending the First Sino-Japanese War.
• The Chinese became vulnerable after their defeat and declared

that both China and Japan needed reforms for modernisation.
• Sino-Japanese war served the basis for the Anglo-Japanese

alliance in 1902.
• The Chinese path to modernisation was very different.
• Foreign imperialism, both Western and Japanese, combined

with a hesitant and unsure Qing dynasty to weaken
government control.
• The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw a rejection of

traditions and a search for ways to build national unity and
strength.
Class 12Notes Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones
• Seal: It generally contained animal motifs and signs from a

script.
• Hoards: Generally metal objects and jewellery kept by
people inside containers.
• Stratigraphy: The study of historical layers.
• Motif: Name of animal, used by the Harappans on seals to
mark some sort of trademark.
• Proto-Shiva: A seal that shows a figure seated in a yogic
posture surrounded by animals has been designated as
Proto-Shiva, an early form of one of the deities of Hinduism.
• Lingas: The polished stones were often worshipped as
symbols of the God Shiva.
• Shamans: These were the groups of men and women who
claimed to have magical and healing powers and ability to
communicate with the other world.
• Art: It referred to painting, sculpture, pottery and seal
making.
• Culture: Term used for a group of objects, distinct in style,
found specifically within a geographical area and period of
time.
• Pictographs: Picture-like signs to represent letters or words.
• The Great Bath: Best known building in Mohenjodaro for
bath.
• Granaries: Buildings where grains were stored.
Time Line:
• 1862 Alexander Cunningham appointed as the first Director

General of Archaeological Survey of India.
• 1921 D.R. Sahni discovered Harappa.
• 1992 R.D. Banneijee discovered Mohenjodaro
• 1924 Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of Indus
Valley Civilisation.
• 1953 Kalibangan was excavated by A. Ghosh.
• 1955 S.R. Rao discovered Lothal.
• 1968 Sanghal was discovered by S.S. Talwar and R.S.
Bisht.
Key concepts in nutshells
1. Period:-
1. Early Harappan culture – Before 2600 BCE
Time Line 1
Major Periods in Early Indian Archaeology
2 million BP
Lower Palaeolithic
(Before Present)
80,000 Middle Palaeolithic
35,000 Upper Palaeolithic
12,000 Mesolithic
10,000 Neolithic (early agriculturists and pastoralists)
6,000 Chalcolithic (first use of copper)
2600 BCE Harappan civilization
1000 BCE Early iron, megalithic burials
600 BCE – 400

Early Historic
CE
2. Mature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE
3. Late Harappa culture – After 1900 BCE
4. Extent of Harappan civilisation:-
1. Northern boundary- Manda Southern Boundary-

Daimabad
2. Eastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western boundary-
Sutkagendor Characteristics of the Harappan Civilisation.
1. Subsistence strategies
1. The Harappans ate wide range of plants and animal

products.
2. Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of

cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.
3. The bones of wild species found suggest the Harappans

hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from
other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also
found.
4. Agricultural technologies:
• Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate

that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate
from this that oxen were used for ploughing.
• Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites

in Cholistan and at Banawali. Evidence of a ploughed field
at Kalibangan has also been found.
• Traces of irrigation canals have been found at Shortugahi

in Afghanistan.
• Traces of rainwater harvesting found in Dholavira in

Gujarat through water reservoirs.
2. MOHENJODARO: A planned urban city
Two Sections of settlement:-
1. The Citadel
• These were constructed on mud brick platforms and were

walled, which meant that it was physically separated from
the Lower Town
• These include the warehouse – a massive structure of

which the lower brick portions remain.
• The upper portions, probably of wood, was – the Great
Bath. It was a large rectangular tank in courtyard
surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
2. The Lower Town
• It had carefully planned drainage system. The roads and

streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern.
• It provides examples of residential buildings. Many were

centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.
• Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with
drains connected through the wall to the street drains.
• The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in

which it was found (the Citadel, with several distinctive
buildings), has led scholars to suggest that it was meant
for some kind of a special ritual bath.
3. Social differences
1. Burials: At burials in Harappan site,s the dead were generally
laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the
burial pit was made. Some graves contain pottery and
ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be
used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of
both men and women.
2. Looking for “luxuries”: The artefacts are classified as
utilitarian and luxuries by the archaeologists. Utilitarian
objects are of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary
materials such as stone or clay. Luxuries are those items if
they are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with
complicated technologies. The situation becomes more
complicated when we find what seem to be articles of
daily use, such as spindle whorls made of rare materials such
as faience.
4. Craft Production
1. Chanhudaro is a tiny settlement exclusively devoted to craft

production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-
working, seal-making and weight-making.
2. The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable.
3. Techniques for making beads differed according to the

material.
4. Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely

flaked into the final form.
5. Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and

more recently at Dholavira.
6. Nageshwar and Balakot were specialised centres for making

shell objects – including bangles, ladles and inlay.
7. Centres of production: Archaeologists identified centres of

production by looking for raw materials and tools used.
8. Waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. Sometimes,

larger waste pieces were used up to make smaller objects.
9. These traces suggest that apart from small, specialised

centres, craft production was also undertaken in large cities
such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
5. Strategies for procuring material
1. Procured from the subcontinent and beyond: The
Harappans procured materials for craft production in various
ways.
2. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was

one important means of transporting goods and people
across land routes.
3. Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been

to send expeditions, which established communication with
local communities.
4. Contact with distant lands: archaeological finds suggest

that copper was also probably brought from Oman, on the
southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.
5. Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE

refer to copper coming from a region called Magan, perhaps
a name for Oman.
6. Other archaeological finds include Harappan seals, weights,

dice and beads which suggests contacts with regions named
Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and
Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.
7. It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or

Mesopotamia was by sea. Mesopotamian texts refer to
Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, we find depictions of
ships and boats on seals.
6.
7. Seals, Script, Weights
1. Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance

communication. The sealing also conveyed the identity of
the sender.
2. An enigmatic script: Harappan seals usually have a line of
writing, probably containing the name and title of the owner.
Scholars have also suggested that the motif (generally an
animal) conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.
3. Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26

signs. Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it
was evidently not alphabetical as it has just too many signs –
somewhere between 375 and 400. The script was written
from right to left.
4. Weights: Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of

weights, usually made of a stone called Chert and generally
cubical, with no markings.
5. Metal scale-pans have also been found.
8. Ancient Authority
1. There are indications of complex decisions being taken and

implemented in Harappan society.
2. Palaces and kings: A large building found at Mohenjodaro

was labelled as a palace by archaeologists but no spectacular
finds were associated with it. A stone statue was labelled and
continues to be known as the “priest-king”.
3. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan

society had no rulers, whereas other archaeologist feels that
there was no single ruler but several rulers, Mohenjodaro
had a separate ruler, Harappa another. While some believe
that there was a single state.
9. The End of the Civilisation
1. There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature

Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been
abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of
population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and
western Uttar Pradesh.
2. Several explanation for the decline of Harappan civilisation

are climatic changes, deforestation, excessive floods, the
shifting and/or drying up of rivers.
3. The end was evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the

script, distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from a
standardised weight system to the use of local weights; and
the decline and abandonment of cities.
10. Discovering the Harappan Civilisation
• When Harappan cities fell into ruin, people gradually forgot all
about them.
• Cunningham’s confusion: The first Director-General of the

ASI, Cunningham used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist
pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth
and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements. A site like
Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese
pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city.
• A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman.

He noted the object, but unsuccessfully tried to place it within
the time-frame with which he was familiar. It is not surprising
that he missed the significance of Harappa.
• A new old civilisation: In 1924, John Marshall, Director-

General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new
civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.
• It was then that the world knew not only of a new civilisation,
but also of one contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.
• Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units,
measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the
stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the artefacts
recovered from the same unit were grouped together.
Time Line 2 Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology
Nineteenth
Century Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal
1875
Twentieth
Century M.S Vats beings excavations at Harappa
1921
1925 Excavations begin at mohenjodaro
1946 R.E.M wheeler excavates at Harappa
1955 S.R Rao beings excavations at Lothal
1960 B.B Lal and B.K Thapar being excavations at Kalibangan
1974 M.R Mughal beings exploration in Bahawalpur
1980 A team of German and Italian archaeologists beings surface e
1986 American team beings excavations at Harappa
1990 R.S Bisht beings excavations at Dholavira
• New techniques and questions: Since the 1980s, there has

also been growing international interest in Harappan
archaeology.
• Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad have been jointly

working at both Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
• They are using modern scientific techniques including surface

exploration to recover traces of clay, stone, metal and plant
and animal remains as well as to minutely analyse every scrap
of available evidence. These explorations promise to yield
interesting results in the future.
Problems of Piecing Together the Past
• It is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the

ancient civilisation. Rather, it is material evidence that allows
archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life. This
material could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household
objects, etc.
• Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds

generally decompose, especially in tropical regions. What
survive are stone, burnt clay (or terracotta), metal, etc.
• Classifying finds: One simple principle of classification is in
terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory,
etc. The second, is in terms of function. Archaeologists have
to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an
ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.
• Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect

evidence. For instance, though there are traces of cotton at
some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to
depend on indirect evidence including depictions in
sculpture.
• Problems of interpretation: Early archaeologists thought

that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may
have had a religious significance.
• Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious

beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which
seem to depict ritual scenes.
• Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature

worship.
• Several reconstructions remain speculative at present
Class 12 Notes Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns
o Janapada: The land where the people belonging to a clan

or tribe had settled.
o Dhammo Mahanatta: Officer appointed by Ashoka to
spread the message of his Dharma.
o Matriliny: This term is used when descent is traced
through mother.
o Tamilakam: The name of the ancient Tamil country which
included the parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Kerala.
o Megaliths: Stone structures which were built by some
communities of South India over the grave of the dead.
o Vellators: The big zamindars.
o Agrahara: The land which Brahmanas got as land grants.
Key concept in nutshell

Several developments in different parts of the subcontinent (India)
the long span of 1500 following the end of Harappan Civilization:-
• Rigveda was composed along the Indus and its tributaries.
• Agricultural Settlements emerged in several parts of the

subcontinent.
• New mode of disposal of the dead like making megaliths.
• By C 600 BCE growth of new cities and kingdoms.
• 600 BCE major turning point in early Indian history.
• Growth of sixteen Mahajanapadas. Many were ruled by kings.
• Some known as ganas or sanghas were oligarchies
• Between the 600 BCE and 400 BCE Magadha became the most
powerful Mahajanapada.
• Emergence of Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya (C 321

BCE) founder of the empire extended control upto Afghanistan
and Baluchistan.
• His grandson Ashoka, the most famous ruler conquered

Kalinga.
• Variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan

Empire archaeological finds especially sculpture, Ashoka’s
Inscriptions, Literary sources like Indica account.
New Notions of Kingship
• By C 200 BCE emergence of new chiefdoms and kingdoms in

several parts of the subcontinent.
• Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam, known from

Sangam text.
• Most of these states including Satavahanas and Shakas had

control over long distance trade networks.
• Kushanas (C First century BCE to first century CE) ruled over a

vast kingdom extending from central Asia to North West India.
• Their history has been reconstructed from Inscriptions, Coins

and sculptures which convey a sense of the notions of kingship.
• History of the Guptas (4th century CE ) has been reconstructed
from literatures, coins and inscriptions including Prashastis.
• What did subjects think about their rulers? Historians have

tried to know this by examining stories contained in the Jatakas
and Panchatantra.
• Strategies for increasing agricultural production
• use of plough with iron plough share, introduction of

transplantation and use of irrigation through wells, tanks, less
commonly canals.
• Land grants to religious institutions or Brahmanas, to extend

agriculture to new areas or to win allies by making grants of
land.
• Emergence of urban centres such as Pataliputra, Ujjayani,

Puhar, Mathura etc.
• In the towns different types of people used to live such as

washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, religious
teachers, merchants, kings.
• Artisans and traders organized themselves in guild or shrenis.
• Trade both in the subcontinent and with east and north Africa,
West Asia, South East Asia, China.
• India used to export spices, fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth,

medicinal plants.
• Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of the coinage.
Punch marked coins made of silver and copper were amongst
the earliest to be minted and used. The first gold coins were
issued (CE)by the Kushanas.
• James Prinsep an officer in the mint of the East India Company

was able to decipher Ashokan Brahmi in 1838.
• Limitations of Inscriptional evidence letters are very faintly

engraved, damaged or letter missing, not sure about the exact
meaning of the words.
1. Prinsep and Piyadassi

• In the 1830s James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East
India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two

scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. He found
that most of these mentioned a king referred to
as Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant to behold”.
• There were a few inscriptions which also referred to the king

as Asoka, one of the most famous rulers known from
Buddhist texts.
2. The Earliest States:
• The sixteen mahajanapadas: The sixth century BCE is an era
associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron,
the development of coinage, etc.
• Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention, amongst other
things, sixteen states known as mahajanapadas. Although
the lists vary, some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala,
Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti occur frequently.
Clearly, these were amongst the most important
mahajanapadas.
• While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some,

known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies where power
was shared by a number of men, often collectively called
rajas.
• Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often
fortified.
• From c. sixth century BCE onwards, Brahmanas began

composing Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras. These
laid down norms for rulers (as well as for other social
categories), who were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas.
• some states acquired standing armies and maintained

regular bureaucracies. Others continued to depend on
militia, recruited, more often than not, from the peasantry.
• First amongst the sixteen: Magadha: Between the sixth

and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day
Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada.
• It was a region where agriculture was especially productive.

Besides, it was also rich in natural resources and animals like
elephant, which ws an important part of the army, could be
procured from the forest spreads of the region. Ganga and
its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient
communication.
• Magadha attributed its power to the policies of individuals:

ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara,
Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known,
and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.
• Rajagaha (the Prakrit name for presentday Rajgir in Bihar)
was the capital of Magadha initially. In the fourth century
BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-day Patna.
3 An Early Empire
• The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of

the Mauryan Empire.
• Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the empire (c. 321
BCE), extended control as far northwest as Afghanistan and
Baluchistan, and his grandson Asoka, arguably the most
famous ruler of early India, conquered Kalinga (present-day
coastal Orissa).
• Sources of Mauryan Empire: Account of Megasthenes (a
Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya)
called Indica, Arthashastra probably composed by Kautilya or
Chanakya, the minister of Chandragupta, later Buddhist,
Jaina and Puranic literature. Besides,the inscriptions of Asoka
(c. 272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars are often regarded
as amongst the most valuable sources.
• Dhamma: Ashoka used the inscriptions to proclaim what he
understood to be dhamma, which included respect towards
elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and those who
renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly,
and respect for religions and traditions other than one’s own.
According to him, this would ensure the well-being of
people in this world. Special officers known as dhamma
mahamatta, were appointed to spread the message of
dhamma.
• Administering Centres: There were five major political
centres in the empire – the capital Pataliputra and the
provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini,
Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
• It is likely that administrative control was strongest in areas

around the capital and the provincial centres. These were
wisely chosen as both Taxila and Ujjayini being situated on
important long-distance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri
(literally, the golden mountain) was possibly important for
tapping the gold mines of Karnataka.
• Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital

for the existence of the empire.
• Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees

for coordinating military activity.
• In the nineteenth century, the emergence of the Mauryan
Empire was regarded as a major landmark, as India
was under colonial rule during that time.
• Some of the archaeological finds associated with the

Mauryas, including stone sculpture, were considered to be
examples of the spectacular art typical of empires.
• Nationalist leaders in the twentieth century regarded Ashoka

as an inspiring figure as the inscriptions suggested that was
more powerful and industrious, as also more humble than
later rulers who adopted grandiose titles.
3. New Notions of Kingship
• By the second century BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms

emerged in several parts of the subcontinent.
• This development was mainly seen in the Deccan and further

south, including the chiefdoms of
the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam (the name of
the ancient Tamil country, which included parts of present-
day Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, in addition to Tamil Nadu),
proved to be stable and prosperous.
• Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas who ruled
over parts of western and central India (c. second century
BCE-second century CE) and the Shakas, a people of Central
Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north-western
and western parts of the subcontinent, derived revenues
from long-distance trade.
• Divine kings:
• One means of claiming high status was to identify with a
variety of deities. The Kushanas (c. first century BCEfirst
century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from
Central Asia to northwest India followed this strategy.
They adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, installed
colossal statues in shrines.
• By the fourth century there is evidence of larger states,
including the Gupta Empire. These states dpended
on samantas, men who maintained themselves through local
resources including control over land.
• The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar

Inscription) composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the court
poet of Samudragupta, arguably the most powerful of the
Gupta rulers (c. fourth century CE).
4. A Changing Countryside
• Popular perception: Anthologies such as the Jatakas and the

Panchatantra gave a glimpse of subject-king relation. For
instance, one story known as the Gandatindu Jataka
describes the plight of the subjects of a wicked king.
• Kings frequently tried to fill their coffers by demanding high
taxes, and peasants particularly found such demands
oppressive.
• Certain strategies aimed at increasing production to meet

growing demand for taxes also were adopted. For
example, the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in
fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of the Ganga and
the Kaveri from c. sixth century BCE. Also production of
paddy was dramatically increased by the introduction of
transplantation.
• Another strategy adopted to increase agricultural production

was the use of irrigation, through wells and tanks, and less
commonly, canals.
• The benefits of increased production led to a growing

differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture as it
was not equally distributed.
• The stories of Buddhist tradition refers to the term

‘gahapati’ which was often used in Pali texts to designate
the second and third categories. Tamil literature mentions
large landowners or vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar and
slaves or adimai.
• With rising differences questions of control over land must

have become crucial, as these were often discussed in legal
texts.
• During early centuries of common era, grants of land were

made and many of which were recorded in inscriptions. For
instance, according to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not
supposed to have independent access to resources such as
land.
• Land grants provide some insight into the relationship

between cultivators and the state.
5. Towns and Trade
• Major towns were located along routes of communication.

Some such as Pataliputra were on riverine routes. Some were
near the coast, from where sea routes began. Many cities like
Mathura were bustling centres of commercial, cultural and
political activities.
• A wide range of artefacts have been recovered from the

excavations in these areas. These include fine pottery bowls
and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black
Polished Ware, probably used by rich people, and
ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide
range of materials – gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass,
shell and terracotta.
• By the second century BCE, we find short votive inscriptions

in a number of cities. Sometimes, guilds or shrenis,
organisations of craft producers and merchants, are
mentioned as well.
• From the sixth century BCE, land and river routes criss-
crossed the subcontinent and extended in various
directions. Rulers often attempted to control the routes,
possibly by offering protection for a price.
• Those who traversed these routes included peddlers who
probably travelled on foot and merchants who travelled with
caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals.
• Spices, especially pepper, were in high demand in the Roman

Empire, as were textiles and medicinal plants, and these were
all transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean.
• Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of

coinage. Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper (c.
sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest to be
minted and used.
• Attempts were made to identify the symbols on punch-

marked coins with specific ruling dynasties.
• The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were
issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the
north-western part of the subcontinent c. second century
BCE.
• The first gold coins were issued c. first century CE by the

Kushanas. The widespread use of gold coins indicates the
enormous value of the transactions that were taking
place. Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued
by the Gupta rulers. From c. sixth century CE onwards, finds
of gold coins taper off.
• Coins were also issued by tribal republics such as that of the

Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana (c. first century CE).
• Hoards of Roman coins have been found from
archaeological sites in south India. It is obvious that networks
of trade were not confined within political boundaries: south
India was not part of the Roman Empire, but there were close
connections through trade.
6. How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

• Brahmi: Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages
are derived from Brahmi, the script used in most Asokan

inscriptions. It was only after decades of painstaking
investigations by several epigraphists that James Prinsep was
able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.
• Kharosthi: Kharosthi is the script used in inscriptions in the
northwest. The coins of Indo-Greek kings, who ruled over the

area (c. second-first centuries BCE), contain the names of
kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts. European
scholars who could read the former compared the
letters. With Prinsep identifying the language of the
Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, it became possible to read
longer inscriptions as well.
• Epigraphists and historians after examining all these
inscriptions, and finding that they match in terms of content,

style, language and palaeography, come to a
conclusion. Historians have to constantly assess statements
made in inscriptions to judge whether they are true,
plausible or exaggerations.
Time Line 2
Major Advance in Epigraphy
Eighteen Century
1784 Founding of the Asiatic Society (Bengali)
Nineteenth
century
1810s Colin Mackenzie collects over 8,000 inscriptions in
1838 Decipherments of Asokan Brahmi by James Prinsep
1877 Alexander Caunningham publishes a set of asokan
1886 First issue of Epigraphia carnatica, a journal of sout
1888 First issue of Epigraphia Indica
Twentieth Century
1965-66 D.C Sircar publishes Indian Epigraphy and Indian Ep
• Limitations: However, it is probably evident that there are

limits to what epigraphy can reveal. Sometimes, there are
technical limitations, or inscriptions may be damaged or letters
missing.
• Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about the exact

meaning of the words used in inscriptions.
• Although several thousand inscriptions have been discovered,
not all have been deciphered, published and translated.
• Thus epigraphy alone does not provide a full understanding of

political and economic history. Also, historians often question
both old and new evidence.
Timeline:
Major Political and Economic Developments
c.600-500 BCE — Paddy transplantation; urbanisation in the Ganga
valley; mahajanapadas; punch-marked coins
c. 500-400 BCE — Rulers of Magadha consolidate power
c. 327-325 BCE — Invasion of Alexander of Macedon
c. 321 BCE — Accession of Chandragupta Maurya
c. 272/268-231 BCE — Reign of Asoka
c. 185 BCE — End of the Mauryan empire
c. 200-100 BCE — Indo-Greek rule in the northwest; Cholas, Cheras
and Pandyas in south India; Satavahanas in the Deccan
c. 100 BCE-200 CE — Shaka (peoples from Central Asia) rulers in the
northwest; Roman trade; gold coinage
c. 78 CE? — Accession of Kanishka
c.100-200 CE — Earliest inscriptional evidence of land grants by
Satavahana and Shaka rulers
c. 320 CE — Beginning of Gupta rule
c. 335-375 CE — Samudragupta
c. 375-415 CE — Chandragupta II; Vakatakas in the Deccan
c. 500-600 CE — Rise of the Chalukyas in Karnataka and of the
Pallavas in Tamil Nadu
c. 606-647 CE — Harshavardhana king of Kanauj; Chinese pilgrim
Xuan Zang comes in search of Buddhist texts
c. 712 — Arabs conquer Sind
Class 12 Notes Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class
• A number of important changes occurred in the economic and

political life of India during the period from 600 BCE to 600 CE.
• The changes occurred during this period had left a deep mark
on the contemporary society.
• A new change began to occur with the expansion of
agriculture.
• Emergence of different crafts and distinct social groups also
witnessed during this period.
• Social disparities began to increase as a result of unequal
distribution of wealth.
• Historian made use of textual tradition for many reasons.
• According to the text written in ancient the most popular and
famous is Mahabharata, which was composed between 500
BCE and 500 CE.
• Historians believed that it was written by Ved Vyasa, but most
of the Historians think that it is the creation of many authors.
• In the beginning, Mahabharata was known by the name of Jail
and held only 8800 verses. Later on the number of verses
increased to one lakh.
• An important work began in 1919 under the leadership of V.S.
Sukthankar, a famous Sanskrit scholar who took up cudgels to
prepare a critical edition of Mahabharata.
• Many types of social institutions existed in this period these
were as follows;
o Monogamous family
o Polyandrous family
o Polygons family
o Consanguineous family
o Patrilineal family
o Matrilineal family
o Neolocal family
o Rural family
o Urban family
o Joint family
o Nuclear family
• Kinship is a system of relation between such relatives which
determine our relationship on the basis of lineage. These
relations were based on lineage or vansha are developed by a
family.
• Patriliny means that the descent which is traced from father to
son, then grandson and great grandson.
• Patriliny was prevalent even before the Mahabharata, yet
Mahabharata strengthen it.
Historians often use textual traditions to understand the socio-
economic changes of the society. In this case, it is very necessary
to keep in mind who composed what and for whom. The language
and the ways in which the text is circulated are also important.
Kinship, Marriage Rules and Different Practices:
• Families usually form parts of larger network of people
defined as relative or ‘Kinfolks’ while familial ties are often
regarded as ‘natural’ and based on blood they are defined
in many different ways.
• It is more difficult to reconstruct the familial relationships of
ordinary people than elite families.
• Mahabharata reinforced the ideal of patriliny as valuable.
Under patriliny, sons could claim the throne or other
resources of their fathers when the latter died.
• The idea of patriliny is also accepted in the Rigveda.
• Daughters had no claims to the resources of the household.
Also marrying them into families outside the kin was
desirable. Kanyadan or the gift of a daughter in marriage
was an important religious duty of the father.
• From 500 BCE, codes of social behaviour were compiled in
Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras written in Sanskrit. The
most important Dharmashastra was Manusmriti compiled
between 200 BCE and 200 CE.
• Codes of social behaviour were given by the Brahmanas.
There were eight forms of marriage, of which the first four
were considered as good, while the remaining were
condemned.
• People were classified according to their gotras. Two
important rules about gotras were:
• Women were expected to give up their father’s golra and
adopt their husband’s gotra.
• Members of the same gotra could not many
• In case of Satavahana rulers, it was evident that many of
the wives of Satavahana rulers retained the names of their
father’s gotra as against Brahmanical rule.
• Endogamy or marriage within the kingroup was prevalent
among several communities in South India.
Social Differences:
• The Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras contained rules

about the ideal ‘occupations’ of the four categories or
varnas.
• Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas,
perform sacrifices and get sacrifices performed; Kshatriyas
were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer
justice; Vaishyas were engaged in agriculture, pastoralism
and trade; and Shudras were assigned to serve the three
‘higher’ varnas.
• According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be the
kings. But in reality political power was effectively open to
anyone w’ho could muster (assemble) support and
resources and rarely depended on birth.
• Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani was a Brahmana who destroyed
the pride of Kshatriyas. He ordered that there was no inter-
marriage amongst members of the four varnas.
• Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession
were sometimes organised into shrenis or guilds. There
were other categories like Nishada (people living in forest)
beyond the four varnas in society. Ekalavya is supposed to
have belonged to this class.
• Sometimes those who spoke non-Sanskrit languages were
labelled as Mlechchhas and looked down upon.
• Brahmanical scriptures developed a sharper social divide by
classifying certain social categories as ‘untouchable’.
• Those who performed ‘polluting’ activities like, handling
corpses and dead animals were designated as ‘Chandalas’.
• The Manusmriti laid down the duties of Chandalas, these
were—they had to live outside the village, use discarded
utensils and wear clothes of the dead and ornaments of
iron.
• Historians got hints of different social realities about the
Chandalas from the non-Brahmanical texts.
Social Status and Right to Property:
• According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be

divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents,
with a special share for the eldest.
• Women had no claim in her paternal estate, but were
allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of
their marriage as stridhana.
• According to Brahmanical text, apart from gender, criterion
for regulating access to wealth was varna. The only
‘occupation’ prescribed for Shudras was servitude (slavery),
while a variety of occupations were listed for men of first
three varnas.
• The Buddhists recognised the differences in society, but did
not regard these as natural or inflexible. They rejected the
idea of claims to status on the basis of birth.
• There were other possibilities as well; situations where men
who were generous were respected, while those who were
miserly were criticised.
• The Buddhists developed an alternative understanding of
social inequalities and the institutions required to regulate
social conflict.
• The institution of kingship was based on human choice, with
taxes as a form of payment for services rendered by the
king.
The Mahabharata:
The Great Indian Epic
• VS Sukthankar, a noted Indian Sanskritist, with his team

initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the
Mahabharata. It involved collecting Sanskrit manuscripts of
the texts written in a variety of scripts, from different parts of
the country.
• First historians accepted the texts written in Sanskrit as the
main source, but later they also relied on works in Pali,
Prakrit and Tamil to reconstruct social histories.
The Singificance of Mahabharata:
• Historians examine whether texts were written in Prakrit,

Pali or Sanskrit languages. They try to find out about the
authors whose perspectives and ideas shaped the text.
• The Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata is far simpler than
that of the Vedas.
• Historians classify the contents of the text under two broad
heads, , narrative containing stories and didactic containing
prescription and social norms.
• Mahabharata has been written in many phases. It is not the
work of a single author. However, it is traditionally attributed
to a sage named Vyasa.
• Mahabharata contains vivid descriptions of battles, forests,
palaces and settlements.
• One of the most challenging episodes in the Mahabharata is
Draupadi’s marriage with five Pandavas.
• It suggests polyandry ( the practice of a woman having
several husbands) among ruling elites.
• Some historians think that polyandry is undesirable from the
Brahmanical point of view, but it was prevalent in the
Himalayan region due to a shortage of women during war
times.
Different Versions of Mahabharata:
• The versions of the Mahabharata were written in a variety of

languages.
• Several stories from specific regions were added in the
epic. The story of the epic was often retold in different ways.
• Writers like Mahashweta Devi interprets the stories of the
Mahabharata differently.
Important terms
• Kinship: The person belonging the same family.

• Polity: The form or process or system of government.
• Kinfolk: Persons of blood relation.
• Patriliny: System of tracing descent from father to son,
grandson and so on.
• Matriliny: System of tracing descent from mother side.
• Adi Parvan: Adi Parvan is the first section of the Sanskrit
version of the Mahabharata.
• Indra: A god of warfare, rains and valour, one of the
principal deities in the Rigveda.
• Dharmasutras: These are the texts composed in Sanskrit
by Brahmanas.
• Mlechchhas: Shakas were regarded as Mlechchhas.
They were the Central Asian people who had migrated
and settled in the northwestern part of the Subcontinent.
• Majjhima Nikaya: It is a Buddhist text. It forms a part of a
dialogue between a king named Avantiputta and a
disciple of Buddha, named Kachchana.
• Gotras: People of the same kind and same vama.
• Shrenis: Unions of craftsmen and traders in Ancient India.
It was also called guilds.
• Chandals: Untouchables of the ancient India who did
menial works.
• Mahasammata: It means the great elect. A person
chosen by the whole people.
• Nishad: A hunting community.
• Epic: A long poem about the deeds of great men and
women or about a nation’s past history.
• Dwij: During Later Vedic period, people who adopted
sacred thread system was caUedDwij.
• Endogamy: It refers to the system of marriage within the
unit such as caste.
• Polygamy: Practice of having more than one wife.
• Polyandry: Practice of having more than one husband.
• Vamasha: Sanskrit word meaning lineage of a person.
Time Line:
• 500 BCE Ashfadhyayi of Panini, a work of Sanskrit

grammar.
• 500-100 BCE Early Buddhist texts including the Tripitaka
(in Pali)
• 500 BCE-400 CE Ramayana and Mahabharata (in
Sanskrit)
• 200 CE onwards Compilation of the Puranas (in Sanskrit)
• 300 CE Natyashastra of Bharata, a work on dramaturgy
(in Sanskrit)
• 400-500 CE Sanskrit plays a valuable role in the
compilation of Kalidasa’s works on astronomy and
mathematics by Aryabhata and Varahamihira (in
Sanskrit).
Class 12 Notes Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
In the reconstruction of the history of India from 600 BCE to 600

CE, the historians took the invaluable information from Buddhist,
Jain and Brahmanical texts.
• Besides these texts, temples, stupas, monuments, etc also

provide authentic information.
• The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjahan Begum and her successor
played a significant role in the preservation of the Sanchi
Stupa.
• Annans the new sect, that emerged in India in 6th century
BCE. Buddhism and Jainism were most popular.
• Lord Mahavira is regarded as the real founder of Jainism.
• The founder of Buddhism was Lord Buddha.
• Jainism remained continued to India, but Buddha spread to
the other countries.
• Ashoka and Kanishka of Buddhism in distant land.
• Both Jainism and Buddhism gave a rich legacy in different
fields of Indian Society.
• During this period, i.e., 600 BCE to 600 CE, two
Brahamanical sects. Vaishanavism and Shaivism made
considerable progress.
In the reconstruction of the history of India from 600 BCE to 600
CE, the historians had taken information from Buddhist, Jaina and
Brahmanical texts. Besides this a large number of monuments and
inscriptions provided significant information.
The Background of Different Religions:
• Tire mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a turning

point in world history since it saw the emergence of thinkers
like Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle in Greece and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in
India.
• They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the
relationship between human beings and the cosmic
(connected with the whole universe) order.
• There were several pre-existing traditions of thoughts,
religious beliefs and practices. All these we know from
Rigveda which compiled between 1500 and 100 BCE.
• Sacrifices were performed by the heads of the households
for the well-being of the domestic unit.
• More elaborate sacrifices like Rajasuya and Ashvamedha
were performed by chiefs and kings with the help of
Brahmana priests.
• Ideas contained in the Upanishads generated a variety of
questions about life especially meaning of life and possibility
of life after death and rebirth.
• Lively discussions and debates took place in
Kutagarashala, a hut where travelling mendicants took
shelter.
• Thinkers like Mahavira and Buddha questioned the authority
of the Vedas.
The Message of Mahavira:
• According to Jainism, entire world is animated, i.e even

stones, rocks and water have life.
• Non-injury to living beings is central to Jaina philosophy.
According to Jainism, the cycle of birth and rebirth is
shaped through Karma.
• To free oneself from the cycle of Karma, asceticism and
penance are required. Jaina monks and nuns took five
vows. These are:
o to abstain (to decide not to do something) from
killing
o to abstain from stealing
o to abstain from lying
o to observe celibacy (not married and not naring sex)
o to abstain from possessing property.
• Jainism spread to many parts of India. Jaina scholars

produced a wealth of literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil
languages.
The Buddha: The Enlightened Soul
• Gautama Buddha was one of the most influential teachers
of that time whose message spread across the sub-
continent, Central Asia to China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
• Siddhartha was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He was
deeply shocked when he saw an old man, a sick man and a
corpse. He left the palace and set out in search of his own
truth.
• After attaining enlightment, he came to be known as the
Buddha or the enlightened one.
• For the rest of his life, he taught dhamma or the path of
righteous living.
The Teachings of Buddha:
• According to Buddhism, the w’orld is transient (anicca) and

constantly changing and it is also soulless (anatta). Within
this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human
existence.
• Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action
as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain
self-realisation and nibbana.
Followers of the Buddha:
• Buddha founded a ‘Sangha’, an organisation of monks who

became teachers of ‘dhamma’. As they lived on alms, they
were known as ‘bhikkhus’.
• Later women also entered the ‘Sangha’ and were known as
bhikkhuni. Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami
was the first woman to become ‘bhikkhuni’. Buddha’s
followers included kings, wealthy men, gahapatis and also
ordinary people like workers, slaves and craft people.
• Buddhism appealed to many people dissatisfied with
existing religious practices and confused by the rapid social
changes taking place around them.
Sculpture of Buddha Period:
• The enlightenment of Buddha was showed by different

symbols by many early sculptors. For e.g. the Bodhi trees
(symbolises an event in the life of Buddha), the empty seat
(indicates the meditation of the Buddha), the stupa
(represents the mahaparinibbana), the wheel of dharma
(shows first serman of the Buddha at Sarnath).
• Shalabhanjika was another feature of sculptural art which
was regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into
the decoration of the stupa.
• Some of the finest depictions of animals like elephants,
horses, monkeys and cattle are also found in the stupas.
• Gajalakshmi, the Goddess of good fortune, and the serpent
are also found.
New Religious Traditions During Buddha Period:
• Buddha was regarded as a human being who attained

enlightenment and nibbana through his own efforts. Later
the concept of Bodhisatta was developed.
• Buddhism was divided into Hinayana and Mahayana
Buddhism. This period also saw the emergence of Shaivism
and Vaishnavism.
• In such worship, the bond between the devotee and the
God was visualised as one of love and devotion or bhakti.
The temples to house images of Gods and Goddesses were
being built with a tail-structure known as the Shikhara over
the central shrine.
• One of the unique features of early temples was that some
of these were hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial caves.
Explanation of Religions:
• 19th century European scholars were more familiar with the

statues of Buddha and Bodhisattas which were evidently
based on Greek models. But they were sometimes could
not understand the sculptures of gods and goddesses with
multiple arms and heads or with combinations of human
and animal forms.
• Art historians have tried to explain the meaning of
sculptures with the help of textual references (e.g.
Puranas), but it was not an easy task.
• Many rituals, religious beliefs and practices were not even
recorded in a permanent visible form, these were only
practised by the respective communities.
Stupa
s:
• Buddhist literature mentions several Chaityas which are

places associated with the Buddha’s life.
• Stupa contained relics (bodily remains of Buddha or objects
used by him) regarded as sacred, the entire stupa came to
be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and
Buddhism.
• According to a Buddhist text ‘Ashokavadana’, Asoka
distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important
town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.
• By the second century BCE, a number of stupas in Bharhut,
Sanchi and Sarnath were built.
• Stupas were built from the donations made by- king, guilds,
common people ‘bhikkhus’ and ‘bhikkhunis’.
• The structure of stupas comprised several parts, Anda
(semi circular mound of Earth), Harmika (balcony-like
structure), Yasthi (like mast) and Chhatri or umbrella.
• The early Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut wrere plain but the
gateways were richly carved and installed at the four
cardinal points.
The Great Sanchi Stupa:
• The Great Stupa at Sanchi in the state of Madhya Pradesh

is one of the most wonderful ancient buildings. 19th century
Europeans were very interested in the Stupa at Sanchi.
• The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan
Begum provided money to preserve the site of Sanchi
Stupa.
• John Marshall wrote important volumes on Sanchi.
• The discovery of Sanchi has transformed our understanding
of early Buddhism. It stands as an example of the
successful restoration and preservation of ancient site by
the Archaeological Survey of India.
Amaravati Stupas:
• In 1854, Walter Elliot visited Amaravati and collected

several sculpture panels and discovered the remains of
Western gateway.
• He came to the conclusion that the structure at Amaravati
was one of the most significant Buddhist stupas.
• Unfortunately, Amaravati did not survive as sculptures
from this site were removed from the site instead of
preserving things where they were found
Class 12Notes Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers Perceptions of Society
• Many foreign travellers visited India during medieval

period. They came to India for several motives.
• Most of the travellers who came to India wrote their
accounts.
• The accounts of these travellers dealt with various
aspects. Some travellers accounts deal with the affairs of
the court whereas few accounts are focussed on religious
issues.
• Some travellers create about the contemporary style of
architecture and monuments, whereas other depicts the
social and economic life.
• The travellers who visited India presented the true picture
of Indian civilisation in their accounts.
• Al-Biruni, a great scholar of central Asia, came to India in
the 11th century. He arrived India during the invasion of
Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Al-Biruni was bom on 4 Sept. 973 at Khwarizm in
Uzbekistan.
• Al-Biruni was well-versed in many languages. Languages
such as Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit were
known to him.
• Al-Biruni’s most outstanding work ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ was
written in Ghazni and was concerned India. It was also
known as Tarikh-ul-Hind and Tahqiq-ma-lil-Hind.
• Al-Biruni has thrown a light on caste system prevailing in
the Hindu society.
• According to Al-Biruni’s description India’s economic
condition was very good.
• Al-Biruni’s real name was Abu-Abdullah Muhammad. He
was fond of travelling and wanted to increase his
knowledge by establishing his contact with the people of
different countries.
• He travelled thirty years of his life.
• The great traveller of Morocco died in 1377, but the
account written by him ‘Rihla’ is of immense wealth.
• After returning to Morocco in 1354 he (Ibn Battuta) was
ceremoniously welcomed by ‘Sultan’, Abu Iram.
• Sultan Abu Iram appointed Ibijuzayy to help Battuta to
compile his account ‘Rihla’.
• Rihla was written in Arabic. In it describe whatever he
saw in India.
• Undoubtedly Tlihla’ is considered as an invaluable source
of Indian History in the 14th century.
• Francois Bernier was a French traveller who came to
India in 17th century.
• Francois Bernier was a great French doctor, philosopher
and an historian who remained in India from 1656 to 1688
and wrote his famous book entitled. “Travels in the
Mughal court”.
• Francois has given great detail about Indian Kharkhenas.
Town, land ownership system and social evil, i.e. sati
system.
• Abdur Razzaq the great Iranian scholar came to India in
15th century. He was born in 1413 and was appointed the
Qazi of Samarqand under Shah Rokh Khan.
• Abdur Razzaq stayed in the court of Vijayanagara
empireDeva Raya II from 1442-1443 and gave a vind
description about the Vijayanagara kingdom.
• Duarte Barbosa was a Portugese official in south India,
who travelled Vijayanagara Empire during the reign of
Krishna Deva Raya in 1518.
• Among the other important travellers who came to India in
medieval period were Antonio Monserrate, Peter Mundy,
Jean Baptisite Tavernier, Franciso Pelesart and Nikolo
Muncci.
Our knowledge of the past can be enriched through the’descriptions

of social life provided by travellers who visited the sub-continent.
Generally, they recorded everyday activities and practices of
common men along with the descriptions of the kings. Al-Biruni, Ibn
Battuta and Francois Bernier were three famous travelers who
visited the sub-continent from 11th century to 17th century.
Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind:
• Al-Biruni was born in 973 at Khwarizm in present day

Uzbekistan.
• He was well-versed in different languages like Syriac,
Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit.
• In 1017 with the invasion of Khwarizm, he arrived in Ghazni
as a hostage. But gradually developed a liking for the city
and interest for India.
• When the Punjab became a part of the Ghaznavid empire,
he travelled widely in the Punjab and other parts of Northern
India.
• He spent years in the company of Brahmana priests and
scholars by learning Sanskrit and studying religions and
philosophical texts.
• Al-Biruni wrote ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ in Arabic, in a simple and
lucid manner.
• It is a voluminous text including 80 chapters covering
subjects like religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy,
alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and
measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
• Al-Biruni was familiar with translations and adaptations of
Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit texts into Arabic. However, he was
also critical about the ways in which these texts were
written, and clearly wanted to improve on them.
Al-Biruni’s View About Indian Society:
• According to Al-Biruni, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic

and Persian that ideas and concepts could not be translated
easily from one language to another.
• Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by comparing it
with other societies. He tried to suggest that social divisions
were not unique to India.
• Al-Biruni depended on the Vedas, the Puranas, the
Bhagavad Gita, the works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti, etc.
• Sanskrit texts laid down the rules of caste system from the
point of view of Brahmanas, but in real life the system was
not quite so rigid.
Ibn Battuta and his Book Rihla:
• Ibn Battuta wrote the book ‘Rihla’ in Arabic. This book

provides extremely rich and interesting detail about the
social and cultural life in the sub-continent in the 14th
century.
• Ibn Battuta went to far-off places, exploring new worlds and
peoples.
• Before coming to India, he travelled extensively to Syria,
Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman, Mecca and a few trading ports
on the coast of East Africa.
• When he came to Delhi, Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq was the
Sultan of Delhi. The Sultan was impressed by his
scholarship and appointed him the ‘qazi’ or judge of Delhi.
• He visited Bengal, Assam, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Sumatra
and China.
• He meticulously recorded his observations about new
cultures, peoples, beliefs, values, etc.
• Travelling was not secure at that time. During his travel, Ibn
Battuta was attacked by bands of robbers several times and
was severely wounded.
• Ibn Battuta spent several years travelling through North
Africa, West Asia, parts of Central Asia, the Indian sub-
continent and China and recorded extensively his
experiences.
Battuta’s Description of Indian Society:
• In the 14th century, Indian sub-continent had its contact
from China in the East to North West Africa and Europe in
the West. Ibn Battuta travelled through these lands and
arrived at Delhi in the 14th century after visiting sacred
shrines, meeting with rulers, learned men and people who
spoke Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other languages. He
shared ideas, information and anecdotes.
• While describing Indian society, Ibn Battuta explained the
unfamiliar things like coconut and paan in a unique way.
• Ibn Battuta found the cities of India densely populated and
prosperous. According to him, Delhi was the largest city in
India. He also had the same view for Daulatabad (in
Maharashtra).
• The bazaars (markets) were the places of economic
transactions and also the hub of social and cultural
activities. There were masjids and temples to offer prayers
and also some bazaars marked with spaces for public
performances by dancers, musicians and singers.
• Ibn Battuta found Indian agriculture very productive
because of the fertility of the soil where farmers tend to
cultivate two crops a year.
• Indian manufacturing flourished due to inter-Asian network
of trade and commerce. These were in great demand in
both West Asia and South-East Asia where artisans and
merchants were fetching huge profits.
• Indian textiles, specially cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks,
brocade and satin were also in great demand.
• Ibn Battuta was amazed by the efficiency of the postal
system which was of two kinds, the horse-post called ‘uluq’
and the foot-post called ‘dawa’.
Francois Bernier: A French Traveller
• A number of Portuguese, Dutch, English and French

travellers came to India in the 16th and 17th century. Of
them, Jesuit Roberto Nobili, Duarte Barbosa, Jean-Baptiste
Tavernier and Manucci wrote different aspects of Indian
society.
• French doctor, political philosopher and historian Francois
Bernier spent twelve years (1656 to 1668) in India and was
closely associated with the Mughal court.
• Bernier travelled to several parts of India and wrote detailed
accounts by comparing the situation in India with Europe.
• His works were published in France in 1670-71, and
translated into English, Dutch, German and Italian. His
writings became extremely popular.
Bernier and His View About Contemporary Society:
• As compared to Ibn Battuta, Bernier believed in a different

intellectual tradition where he was more critical. He
compared and contrasted what he saw in India with the
situation in Europe in general and France in particular.
• Bernier’s book ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ is marked by
detailed observations, critical insights and reflection. He
constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary
Europe, generally emphasising the superiority of the latter.
• According to him, the Mughal emperor owned all the lands
and distributed it among his nobles and it led to disastrous
consequences for economy and society. This perception
was supported by most of the travellers of that period.
• As having no legal right over land, landholders could not
pass on their land to their childern. Thus, they avoid any
kind of long-term investment in the sustenance and
expansion of production.
• This crown ownership system of land ruined the agriculture
as well as the living standard of all sections of society,
except the ruling aristocracy w’hich oppressed the peasant
class.
• He explained that because of crown ownership of land,
Indian society has no social group or class between the
poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich. He further
said, “There is no middle state in India”.
• Bernier described Mughal king as the king of “beggars and
barbarians”. But Abul Fazl gave a different account by
describing revenue as a claim made by the ruler on his
subjects for the protection he provides, rather than as rent
on land that he owned.
• Bernier’s descriptions influenced Western theorists from the
18th century onwards. For instance, French philosopher
Montesquieu used this account to develop the idea of
oriental despotism and in the 19th century, Karl Marx used
this account to develop the Asiatic mode of production.
• He also explained that India had a more complex social
reality where artisans had no incentive to improve the
quality of their products as profits were appropriated by the
state. But at the same time, he added that the country used
to exchange its manufacturing goods with the precious
metals
• gold and silver, from outside the sub-continent. Whereas he
also noticed existence of a prosperous merchant community
as well.
• There were all kinds of towns i.e. manufacturing towns,
trading towns, port-towns, sacred centres, pilgrimage towns,
etc.
• The different urban groups included mahajans, sheth,
nagarsheth, hakim or vaid, pundit or mulla, wakii, painters,
architects, musicians, calligraphers, etc.
Views of Travellers about Women:
• Slaves were openly sold in markets with horses, camels

and other commodities.
• I bn Battuta mentioned that there was considerable
differentiation among slaves.
• Slaves were generally used for domestic labour and female
slaves were used for the service of Sultan and to keep a
watch on the nobles.
• Bernier wrote about the practice of’Sati’. He noted that while
some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others
were forced to die.
• Women’s labour was crucial in both agricultural and non-
agricultural production.
• Women from merchant families participated in commercial
activities.
• Travellers’ accounts provide us important information of that
period but many aspects of social life were unnoticed by
them.
IMPORTANT TERMS
• Hindu: The term “Hindu’ was derived from an old Persian

word which was used in 6th century BCE. It referred to the
region towards the east of the river Sindhu, i.e. Indus.
• Antyaja: Those people who were included in the major four
castes prevalent in the Indian society.
• Tarababad: It means the music market in Daultabad.
• Ulaq: Hose postal system.
• Daw: Foot postal system.
• Camp Towns: Those towns which owed their existence and
survival to the imperial camp.
Time Line:
• 973 – Al-Biruni was bom in Uzbekistan

• 1031 – Kitub-ul-Hind in Arabic by Al-Biruni was published
• 1048 – Death fo Al-Biruni
• 1304 – Ibn Battuta bom at Tangier
• 1333 – Ibn Battuta’s reached Sindh
• 1354 – Ibn Battuta’s return to Morocco
• 1377 – Rihla was published
• 1620 – Francisco-Pelsart a Dutch traveller reached India
• 1628 – Petermundy of England visited India
• 1656-68 – Francois Bernier visited India
Class 12 Notes Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions
Key concepts in nutshell
• From eighth to eighteenth century striking features was a

visibility of wide range of gods and goddesses in sculpture and
texts.
• There was integration of cults – composition, compilation

and presentation of puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verses.
• Explicitly meant to be accessible to women and shurdas who

were generally excluded from vedic learning.
• Tantric forms of worship – more prevalent among women.

Often associated with the goddess were forms of worship that
were classifies as Tantric. Tantric practices were widespread in
several parts of the subcontinent they were open to women
and men, and practitioners often ignored differences of caste
and class within the ritual context.
• Bhakti traditions classified into saguna (with athesist) and

nirguna (without from attracts worship of abstract form).
• The Alvars and Narayanars of Tamil Nadu – The worshippers of

Vishnu and Nayanars – devotees of Shiva – common features –
traveled singing hymns in Tamil.
• Alvars and Nayanars initiated movement against caste system

& dominance of Brahamans. Nalayira Divyaprabandanam –
important composition of Alvars equal to four Vedas.
• Status of women – composition of Andal (a women Alvar)

popular, songs of Karaikkal Ammaiyar – were widely sung.
• State patronage in south for Vedic gods rather than Jainism &
Buddhisn, cholas patronized brahamnical tradition, making
land grant as to lord shiva at Gangaikonda Cholapuram bronze
sculpture of shiva.
• Singing of hymns under royal patronage were encountered –

Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal image of Appan,
Sambandan and sundarar in Shiva emples.
• Karnataka saw a new movement under basavanna a brahamana

in court of Chalukyan ruler – his followers Virashaivas (heroes
of Shiva) or Lingayat wearers of Linga) – important community
to this day – who worship shiva in form of a linga. Of the group
of Sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the
Chishtis were the most influential.
• By the sixteenth century the shrine had become very popular,

in fact it was the spirited singing of pilgrims bound for Ajmer
that inspired Akbar to visit the tomb.
• He went there fourteen times, sometimes two or three times a

year to seek blessings for new conquests, fulfillment of vows
and the birth of sons. He also had a mosque constructed with
the composer of the dargah.
• Lingayats challenged ida of caste and questions the theory of

rebirth.They encountered remarriage of widows. North India
saw the emergence of Rajput states which patronized
Brahmans – performed secular and ritual function. The Naths,
Jogis, siddhas also.
• Through guided by ulema, rulers followed a flexible policy

granting religious tax exemptions to non Muslims sometimes.
• Those who accepted Islam in India accepted in principal the

five pillars of faith but these were overlooked with diversion in
practice derived from local customs and affiliations (sunni, shia)
some like in Malabar court adopted local language Sufism –
Sufis were critical of dogmatic definitions & scholastic method
of interpreting – Quran.
• They emphasized interpretation of Quran on basis of personal
experiences. Chishtis – were a part of Sufis – hospices of
khangah were small room & hall for students to live and pray.
• Life in chisti khangah was like the life of a monastery & catered
to all travellers rich or poor. Shaikh Nizamuddin chishti had
many followers.
• The practice of visits to dargahs gained prominence by 14th

century – shrines became very popular.
• Also music, dance and mystical chants were performed to

evoke divine ecstasy. The Bhakti movement saw the emergence
of poet saint like kabir where poems written in form in which
every meaning are inverted.
• The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns

and teachings. These suggest that he advocated a form of
nirguna Bhakti.
• Guru Nanak’s Hymns in the Adi Granth Sahib called “Gurubani”,
are composed in various languages. Mirabai (c. fifteenth –
sixteenth centuries) is perhaps the best known woman poet
within the Bhakti traditions.
• She defied her husband and did not submit to the traditional
role of wife and mother, in stead recognizing Krishna, the
avatar of Vishnu as per lover.
• Historaians draw on a variety of sources to reconstruct histories

of religious traditions.
• Virtually all these religious traditions continue to flourish to
date.
A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices
1. The Bhakti Movement, Islam and Sufi Movement played an

important role in the history of medieval India during eighth to
eighteenth century.
2. Historians suggest that there were at least two processes –

one was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. This
is evident through the composition, compilation and
preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly
meant to be accessible to women and Shudras, who were
generally excluded from Vedic learning.
3. The second process was that of the Brahmanas accepting and
reworking the beliefs and practices of these and other social
categories. In fact, many beliefs and practices were re-shaped
through a continuous dialogue between “great” Sanskritic
Puranic traditions and “little” traditions throughout the land.
4. Instances of integration are evident amongst goddess cults. For
example, worship of the goddess, often simply in the form of a
stone smeared with ochre, was evidently widespread.
5. Often associated with the goddess were forms of worship that

were classified as Tantric.
6. Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of the
subcontinent – they were open to women and men, and
practitioners often ignored differences of caste and class within
the ritual context. Many of these ideas influenced Shaivism as
well as Buddhism, especially in the eastern, northern and
southern parts of the subcontinent.
7. The divergence is perhaps most stark if we compare Vedic and

Puranic traditions.
8. The principal deities of the Vedic pantheon, Agni, Indra and

Soma, become marginal figures. Rather there were glimpse of
Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess in Vedic mantras and had little
in common with the elaborate Puranic mythologies.
9. In spite of these obvious discrepancies, the Vedas continued to

be revered as authoritative.
10. there were sometimes conflicts as well – those who valued

the Vedic tradition often condemned practices that went
beyond the closely regulated contact with the divine through
the performance of sacrifices or precisely chanted mantras.
11. Those engaged in Tantric practices frequently ignored the

authority of the Vedas.
12. Devotees often tended to project their chosen deity, either
Vishnu or Shiva, as supreme. Relations with other traditions,
such as Buddhism or Jainism, were also often fraught with
tension if not open conflict.
13. The singing and chanting of devotional compositions was

often a part of such modes of worship. This was particularly
true of the Vaishnava and Shaiva sects.
The Bhakti Traditions
1. The early bhakti tradition evolved and was characterised by

remarkable diversity. It accommodated and acknowledged
women and the “lower castes”, who were considered ineligible
within orthodox Brahmanical framework, while Brahmanas
remained important intermediaries between gods and
devotees in several forms of bhakti.
2. Historians of religion often classify bhakti traditions into two

broad categories: saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without
attributes).
3. Alvars: Some of the earliest bhakti movements (sixth century)

were led by the Alvars (literally, those who are “immersed” in
devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (literally, leaders who were
devotees of Shiva). They travelled from place to place singing
hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
4. The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest

against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or
attempted to reform the system.
5. Their compositions were as important as the Vedas. One of the
major anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira
Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda,
thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas
in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas.
6. Women’s participation could be widely seen through the

presence of women devotees like – Andal, a woman Alvar
who saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express
her love for the deity; and Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a devotee
of Shiva who adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order
to attain her goal. Their very existence and their compositions
posed a challenge to patriarchal norms.
7. From the second half of the first millennium there is evidence

for states, including those of the Pallavas and Pandyas (c. sixth
to ninth centuries CE). Buddhism and Jainism had been
prevalent in this region and received occasional royal
patronage.
8. One of the major themes in Tamil bhakti hymns is the poets’

opposition to Buddhism and Jainism. The reason behind this
hostility was the competition between members of other
religious traditions for royal patronage
9. Rulers tried to win their support of Nayanars and Alvars.
10. The Chola kings often attempted to claim divine support

and proclaim their own power and status by building splendid
temples that were adorned with stone and metal sculpture to
recreate the visions of these popular saints who sang in the
language of the people.
11. These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva

hymns in the temples under royal patronage.
. The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka
1. In twelfth century, there emerged a new movement in

Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68)
who was initially a Jaina and a minister in the court of
a Chalukya king. His followers were known
as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the
linga).
2. They worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga, and men

usually wear a small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over
the left shoulder.
3. Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with
Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore they do not
practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the
Dharmashastras. Instead, they ceremonially bury their
dead. They also questioned the theory of rebirth.
4. The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution”

attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. The Lingayats also
encouraged certain practices disapproved in the
Dharmashastras.
5. These won them followers amongst those who were

marginalised within the Brahmanical social order.
Religious Ferment in North India
1. In north India this was the period when several Rajput states
emerged. Brahmanas occupied positions of importance,
performing a range of secular and ritual functions. There seems
to have been little or no attempt to challenge their position
directly.
2. At the same time other religious leaders, who did not function
within the orthodox Brahmanical framework, were gaining
ground. These included the Naths, Jogis and Siddhas.
3. Many of these new religious leaders questioned the authority

of the Vedas, and expressed themselves in languages spoken
by ordinary people. Although they were poluar but were not in
a position to win the support of the ruling elites.
4. The coming of the Turks which culminated in the
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in thirteenth century
added a new element which undermined power of many of the
Rajput states and the Brahmanas who were associated with
these kingdoms.
New Strands in the Fabric Islamic Traditions
1. From the seventh century, with th
2. e advent of Islam, the north-western regions became part of

what is often termed the Islamic world.
3. Arab merchants frequented ports along the western coast in

the first millennium CE. Central Asian peoples settled in the
north-western parts of the subcontinent during the same
period.
4. In 711, an Arab general named Muhammad Qasim conquered
Sind, which became part of the Caliph’s domain.
5. In the thirteenth century) the Turks and Afghans established

the Delhi Sultanate which was followed by the formation of
Sultanates in the Deccan and other parts of the subcontinent.
6. Islam continued to be an acknowledged religion of rulers in

several areas even with the establishment of the Mughal
Empire in the sixteenth century as well as in many of the
regional states that emerged in the eighteenth century.
7. Muslim rulers were to be guided by the ulama, who were

expected to ensure that they ruled according to the shari‘a.
8. Rulers often adopted a fairly flexible policy towards their

subjects. Several rulers gave land endowments and granted tax
exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish
religious institutions and also expressed respect and devotion
towards non-Muslim religious leaders. These grants were made
by several Mughal rulers, including Akbar and Aurangzeb.
9. Popular Practice: Islam permeated far and wide, through the

subcontinent, amongst different social strata.
1. All those who adopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five
“pillars” of the faith: that there is one God, Allah, and
Prophet Muhammad is his messenger (shahada); offering
prayers five times a day (namaz/salat ); giving alms (zakat);
fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm); and performing
the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).
2. The universal features were often overlaid with diversities
derived from sectarian affiliations (Sunni, Shi‘a), and the
influence of local customary practices of converts.
3. Arab Muslim traders who settled in Kerala adopted the local

language, Malayalam.
4. The complex blend of a universal faith with local traditions is

best exemplified in the architecture of mosques.
10. Names for communities:
1. The terms ‘Hindu’ and ‘Muslim’ did not gain currency for a
very long time. Historians point out that the term musalman
or Muslim was virtually never used.
2. people were occasionally identified in terms of the region

from which they came.
3. the Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka, Tajika were

people from Tajikistan and Parashika were people from
Persia.
4. Sometimes, terms used for other peoples were applied to

the new migrants. Like, the Turks and Afghans were referred
to as Shakas and Yavanas (a term used for Greeks).
5. A more general term for these migrant communities

was mlechchha, indicating that they did not observe the
norms of caste society and spoke languages that were not
derived from Sanskrit.
6. Such terms had derogatory connotation but it never
denoted a distinct religious community of Muslims in
opposition to Hindus.
7. The term “Hindu” was used in a variety of ways, not

necessarily restricted to a religious connotation.
The Growth of Sufism

Who were sufis?
1. In the early centuries of Islam a group of religious-minded

people called sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in
protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a
religious and political institution.
2. They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic

methods of interpreting the Qur’an and sunna (traditions of the
Prophet) adopted by theologians.
3. Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation through

intense devotion and love for God by following His commands,
and by following the example of the Prophet Muhammad
whom they regarded as a perfect human being.
4. The sufis thus sought an interpretation of the Qur’an on the

basis of their personal experience.
Khanqahs and silsilas:

1. By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a well-developed
movement with a body of literature on Quranic studies and sufi
practices. Institutionally, the sufis began to organise
communities around the hospice or khanqah (Persian)
controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh (in
Arabic), pir or murshid (in Persian). He enrolled disciples
(murids) and appointed a successor (khalifa). He established
rules for spiritual conduct and interaction between inmates as
well as between laypersons and the master.
2. The word silsila literally means a chain, signifying a continuous
link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken
spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. Sufi silsilas
began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world
around the twelfth century.
3. When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah, a Persian term
meaning court) became the centre of devotion for his
followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat
to his grave. This was because people believed that in death
saints were united with God, and were thus closer to Him than
when living. Thus evolved the cult of the shaikh revered
as wali.
Who were radical or be-shari‘a sufis?
Some mystics took to radical interpretation of sufi ideals. Many
scorned the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed
celibacy. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of
asceticism. They were known by different names –
Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc. Because of their
deliberate defiance of the shari‘a they were often referred to as be-
shari‘a, in contrast to the ba-shari‘a sufis who complied with it.
The Chishtis in the Subcontinent
1. Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth

century, the Chishtis were the most influential.
2. Chishti khanqah:
The khanqah was the centre of social life. A well-known example

is the Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice (of fourteenth century) on
the banks of the river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur, on the outskirts of
what was then the city of Delhi.
3. The inmates included family members of the Shaikh, his

attendants and disciples. The Shaikh lived in a small room on
the roof of the hall where he met visitors in the morning and
evening.
4. On one occasion, fearing a Mongol invasion, people from the

neighbouring areas flocked into the khanqah to seek refuge.
5. There was an open kitchen (langar), run on futuh (unasked-for

charity).
Major Teachers of the Chishti Silsila
SUFI TEACHERS YEAR OF DEATH
Shaikh Muinuddin Sijzi 1235
Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar kaki 1235
Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj – j Shakar 1265
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya 1325
Shaikh Nariruddin Chiragh – i Delhi 1356
6. Visitors: From morning till late night people from all walks of
life visited there. Hindu jogis (yogi) and qalandars – came
seeking discipleship, amulets for healing, and the intercession
of the Shaikh in various matters. Other visitors included poets
such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and the court
historian Ziyauddin Barani, all of whom wrote about the Shaikh.
Chishti devotionalism: ziyarat and qawwali
1. Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of sufi saints is prevalent all

over the Muslim world. This practice is an occasion for seeking
the sufi’s spiritual grace (barakat).
2. People expressed their devotion at the dargahs of the five

great Chishti saints for more than seven centuries.
3. The most revered shrine of these is that of Khwaja
Muinuddin, of fourteenth century, popularly known as
“Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).
4. It was evidently popular because of the austerity and piety of

its Shaikh, the greatness of his spiritual successors, and the
patronage of royal visitors.
5. By the sixteenth century the shrine had become very popular;

in fact it was the spirited singing of pilgrims bound for Ajmer
that inspired Akbar to visit the tomb. He went there fourteen
time.
6. Also part of ziyarat is the use of music and dance including
mystical chants performed by specially trained musicians
or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy.
7. The sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine
Names) or evoking His Presence through ‘sama‘ (literally,
“audition”) or performance of mystical music. Sama‘ was
integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with
indigenous devotional traditions.
Languages and communication:
1. The Chishtis adopted local languages. In Delhi, those
associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the
language of the people.
2. Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local

language, which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.
3. Some composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of

divine love using human love as an allegory. For example, the
prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat composed by Malik
Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance of Padmini
and Ratansen, the king of Chittor. Their trials were symbolic of
the soul’s journey to the divine. Such poetic compositions were
often recited in hospices, usually during sama.
4. A different genre of sufi poetry was composed in and around

the town of Bijapur, Karnataka. These were short poems
in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti sufis who
lived in this region during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.
5. These poems were probably sung by women while performing
household chores like grinding grain and spinning. Other
compositions were in the form of lurinama or lullabies
and shadinama or wedding songs. It is through this medium
that Islam gradually gained a place in the villages of the
Deccan.
Sufis and the state
1. A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including

maintaining a distance from worldly power. However, this was
by no means a situation of absolute isolation from political
power.
2. The sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the

political elites. The Sultans in turn set up charitable trusts
(auqaf ) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land
(inam).
3. The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind.
4. Kings did not simply need to demonstrate their association
with sufis; they also required legitimation from them.
5. There were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the

sufis. To assert their authority, both expected that certain
rituals be performed.
New Devotional Paths Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India

Many poet-saints engaged in explicit and implicit dialogue with
these new social situations, ideas and institutions.
Kabir:
1. Kabir (fourteenth-fifteenth centuries) is one of the most

outstanding examples of a poet-saint in this context.
2. Kabirdas (Kabir itself is an Arabic word meaning “great”), was

raised by a poor Muslim family belonging to the community of
weavers or julahas, who were relatively recent converts to
Islam.
3. Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct

but overlapping traditions.
4. The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or

sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh;
the Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in
Rajasthan, and many of his compositions are found in the Adi
Granth Sahib.
5. Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects;
and some are composed in the special language of nirguna
poets, the sant bhasha. Others, known as ulatbansi (upside-
down sayings), are written in a form in which everyday
meanings are inverted.
6. The range of traditions Kabir drew on to describe the Ultimate
Reality include Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also used
terms drawn from Vedantic traditions, alakh (the unseen),
nirakar (formless), Brahman, Atman, etc.
7. Diverse and sometimes conflicting ideas are expressed in these

poems. Some poems draw on Islamic ideas and use
monotheism and iconoclasm to attack Hindu polytheism and
idol worship; others use the sufi concept of zikr and ishq (love)
to express the Hindu practice of nam-simaran (remembrance of
God’s name).
8. His valuable legacy, which is relevant for later generations, was
claimed by several groups which is most evident in later
debates about whether he was a Hindu or a Muslim by birth.
Baba Guru Nanak
1. Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born in a Hindu merchant

family in a village called Nankana Sahib near the river Ravi in
the predominantly Muslim Punjab.
2. He also travelled widely and spent most of his time among

sufis and bhaktas.
3. The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and
teachings. These suggest that he advocated a form of nirguna
bhakti.
4. He rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities

and the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.
5. For Baba Guru Nanak, the Absolute or “rab” had no gender or

form.
6. He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by
remembering and repeating the Divine Name, through hymns
called “shabad ” in Punjab.
7. His attendant was Mardana who played the rabab when Nanak
used to sing the ragas.
8. Baba Guru Nanak organised his followers into a community.
9. He set up rules for congregational worship (sangat) involving
collective recitation.
10. He appointed one of his disciples, Angad, to succeed him

as the preceptor (guru), and this practice was followed for
nearly 200 years.
11. The fifth preceptor, Guru Arjan, compiled Baba Guru

Nanak’s hymns along with those of his four successors and
other religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas (also known as
Raidas) and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. These hymns,
called “gurbani”.
12. In the late seventeenth century the tenth preceptor, Guru
Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru,
Guru Tegh Bahadur, and this scripture was called the Guru
Granth Sahib.
13. Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of the Khalsa
Panth.
Mirabai
1. Mirabai (fifteenth-sixteenth centuries) is the best-known

woman poet within the bhakti tradition.
2. He bhajans were transmitted orally for centuries.
3. She was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar who was

married against her wishes to a prince of the Sisodia clan of
Mewar, Rajasthan. She defied her husband and did not submit
to the traditional role of wife and mother, instead recognising
Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu, as her lover.
4. Her in-laws tried to poison her, but she escaped from the
palace to live as a wandering singer composing songs that are
characterised by intense expressions of emotion.
5. her preceptor was Raidas, a leather worker, which indicates her

defiance of the norms of caste society.
6. After rejecting all her comforts, she donned the white robes of
a widow or the saffron robe of the renouncer.
Conclusion
1. The devotional worship of god with ultimate objective of

attaining moksha (salvation) is called Bhakti. The word ‘Bhakti’
was derived from the root word ‘Bhaj’ meaning to adore. The
impact of bhakti movement on the Indian society was
significant and far-reaching.
2. Virtually all these religious traditions continue to flourish to

date. This continuity has certain advantages for historians as it
allows them to compare contemporary practices with those
described in textual traditions or shown in old paintings and to
trace changes.
Class 12Notes Chapter 7 An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara
• Karnataka Samrajyamu: Historians used the term

Vijayanagara Empire, contemporaries described it as the
• Karnataka Samrajyamu.
• Gajapati: Literally means the lord of elephants. This was the
name of a ruling lineage that was very powerful in Odisha in
the fifteenth century.
• Ashvapati: In the popular traditions of Vijayanagara the
Deccan Sultans are termed as ashavapati of the lord of
horses.
• Narapati: In Vijayanagara Empire, the Rayas are called
narapati or the lord of men.
• Yavana: It is a Sanskrit word for the Greeks and other
peoples entered the subcontinent from the north-west.
• Shikara: The top or very high roof of the temples is called
Shikhar. Generally, it can be seen from a reasonable
distance by the visitors of the temples. Under Shikhar we
find the idol of main God or Goddess.
• Garbhgrah: This is a central point of the main room located
at a central position of the temple. Generally, every devotee
goes near the gate of this room to pay respect and feelings
of devotion to his main duty.
Key concepts in nutshells
• The Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans – Harihara and Bukka asserted

their independence of the Delhi sultanate and established the
kingdom of Vijaynagar on AD 1336.
• Kings and trading class – The warfare depended mainly upon

powerful cavalry. The Portuguese settled on the west coast of
India in attempted to establish their trading and military
stations.
• The climax and decline of Vijay Nagar empire – Krishadeva

Raya was an able administrator, He built dams for irrigation. He
builds magnificent places and temples. Its ruler Rama Raya was
miserably defeated on the battlefield of (Rakshasi – Tangadi)
Talikota in A.D.1565. The victorious armies plundered and
destroyed the city of Vijaynagar.
• Vijaynagar Hampi Architecture – The Vijaynagar architecture

(Hampi Architecture) of the period (1336-1365) was unique
building style evolved by the imperial Vijaynagar empire.
• Hampi Bazar – Portuguese travellers Paes and Nuntiz visited

Hampi in the mid 1500 century. They give an account of Hampi
Bazar thus “in this street lived many merchants and there you
will find all sorts of rubies, diamonds pearls and cloths that you
may wish to buy.
• Building and places – we know today about the Vijaynagar

palaces and buildings are derived from the archeological
excavations at Hampi as no royal palace structures have
survived.
• Kings royal enclosure – Another important building at Hampi is

the kings royal enclosure. Paes tells against the gate there were
two circles in which there were the dancing women richly
arrayed with many jewels of gold and diamonds and many
pearls.
• Mahanavami dibba – The Mahanavami dibba is located on one

of the highest points in the city. It is a very large platform rising
from a base of about 11000 feet to height of a 40 feet. It seems
that is supported a wooden structure.
• Forts of Vijay nagar – in the constant struggle for power, fort

and fortified settlements were a potent symbol of authority.
The rulers of Vijaynagar empire created the cities with the main
object of protection against invasions. The city itself was a
fortress and designed as such in every manner.
• Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of the both a city

and an empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth
century.
• In 1565 the city was sacked and subsequently deserted.
• One of the most prominent water work to be seen among the

ruins in the Hiriya canal.
• In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new

features were in evidence.
• Best exemplified by the raya gopurams or royal gate ways that
often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signaled
the presence of the temple from a great distance.
• The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes.
• Buildings that survive tell us about the way spaces were

organized and used, how they were built, with what materials
and techniques.
History of Vijayanagara
Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an
empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century. In 1565
the city was sacked and subsequently deserted. Although it fell into
ruin in the seventeenth-eighteenth centuries it remained in the
memories of people living in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab,
as Hampi, a name derived from that of the local mother goddess,
Pampadevi.
1. The Discovery of Hampi: The ruins at Hampi were brought to
light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel
Colin Mackenzie. An employee of the English East India
Company, he prepared the first survey map of the site. Much of
the initial information he received was based on the memories
of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of
Pampadevi.
2. Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans: According to tradition and
epigraphic evidence two brothers, Harihara and Bukka,
founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336. This empire included
within its fluctuating frontiers peoples who spoke different
languages and followed different religious traditions. The
Vijayanagara kings competed with contemporary rulers –
including the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of
Orissa – for control of the fertile river valleys. The rulers of
Vijayanagara, who called themselves rayas.
3. The warfare depended mainly upon powerful cavalry. The

Portuguese settled on the west coast of India in attempted to
establish their trading and military stations.
4. Trade in Vijaynagar: Vijayanagara was also noted for its

markets dealing in spices, textiles and precious stones. Trade
was often regarded as a status symbol for such cities, which
boasted of a wealthy population that demanded high-value
exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.
5. The climax and decline of Vijaynagar empire:
1. The first dynasty, known as the Sangama dynasty, exercised

control till 1485. They were supplanted by the Saluvas,
who were replaced by the Tuluvas in 1503.
2. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. His

rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
3. Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples

and adding impressive gopurams to many important south
Indian temples.
4. Strain began to show within the imperial structure following

Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529. His successors were
troubled by rebellious nayakas or military chiefs.
5. During this period, as indeed earlier, the military ambitions

of the Deccan Sultanates resulted in shifting alignments.
Eventually this led to an alliance of the Sultanates against
Vijayanagara.
6. Although the armies of the Sultans were responsible for the

destruction of the city of Vijayanagara, relations between the
Sultans and the rayas were not always or inevitably hostile.
7. In fact the Vijayanagara kings were keen to ensure the

stability of the Sultanates and vice versa.
6. The rayas and the nayakas:
1. Nayakas were military chiefs who usually controlled forts and

had armed supporters. They moved from one area to
another, and in many cases were accompanied by peasants
looking for fertile land on which to settle. They usually spoke
Telugu or Kannada. Many nayakas submitted to the authority
of the kings of Vijayanagara but they often rebelled and had
to be subdued by military action.
2. The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of

the Vijayanagara Empire. They were military commanders
who were given territories to govern by the raya. They
collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons
and traders in the area.
3. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an

effective fighting force with which they brought the entire
southern peninsula under their control.
Vijayanagara – The Capital and its Environs
Vijayanagara, was characterised by a distinctive physical layout and

building style:
1. Water Resources:
Vijayanagara had the natural basin formed by the river

Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction. A number
of streams flow down to the river from the granite
hills. Embankments were built along these streams to create
reservoirs of varying sizes. For the most arid zones of the
peninsula, elaborate arrangements had to be made to store
rainwater. The most important such tank was built in the early
years of the fifteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram
tank. One of the most prominent waterworks to be seen among
the ruins is the Hiriya canal.
2. Fortifications and roads: Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent
by the ruler of Persia to Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in the
fifteenth century, was greatly impressed by the fortifications,
and mentioned seven lines of forts which encircled not only the
city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests. What was
most significant about this fortification is that it enclosed
agricultural tracts. The archaeologists have also found evidence
of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre and the
urban core. This tract was serviced by an elaborate canal
system drawing water from the Tungabhadra. A second line of
fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex,
and a third line surrounded the royal centre, within which each
set of major buildings was surrounded by its own high
walls. Roads generally wound around through the valleys,
avoiding rocky terrain. Some of the most important roads
extended from temple gateways, and were lined by bazaars.
3. The urban core: Archaeologists have found evidence of the
houses of ordinary people along the road. Fine Chinese
porcelain were also found from Muslim residential
quarter. Tombs and mosques were located there but had their
architecture like that of the mandapas found in the temples of
Hampi. Field surveys indicate that the entire area was dotted
with numerous shrines and small temples which proves a
variety of cults existed and were supported by different
communities.
The Royal Centre
The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the
settlement. About thirty building complexes have been identified as
palaces. One difference between these structures and temples is
that the latter were constructed entirely of masonry, while the
superstructure of the secular buildings was made of perishable
materials.
1. The mahanavami dibba: The “king’s palace” has two of the
most impressive platforms, usually called the “audience hall”
and the “mahanavami dibba”. The entire complex is
surrounded by high double walls with a street running between
them. The audience hall is a high platform with slots for
wooden pillars at close and regular intervals. Located on one of
the highest points in the city, the “mahanavami dibba” is a
massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a
height of 40 ft. There is evidence that it supported a wooden
structure. The base of the platform is covered with relief
carvings. Rituals associated with the structure probably
coincided with Mahanavami (literally, the great ninth day) of
the Hindu festival during the autumn months of September
and October. The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige,
power and suzerainty on this occasion.
2. Other buildings in the royal centre: One of the most
beautiful buildings in the royal centre is the Lotus Mahal, so
named by British travellers in the nineteenth century. While
most temples were located in the sacred centre, there were
several in the royal centre as well. One of the most spectacular
of these is one known as the Hazara Rama temple.
The Sacred Centre
1. The sacred centre was situated on the rocky northern end on

the bank of the river Tungabhadra. According to local tradition,
these hills sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva
mentioned in the Ramayana.
2. Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to

dynasties such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and
Cholas.
3. Rulers very often encouraged temple building as a means of

associating themselves with the divine – often, the deity was
explicitly or implicitly identified with the king. Temples also
functioned as centres of learning.
4. The rulers and others often granted land and other resources
for the maintenance of temples. temples developed as
significant religious, social, cultural and economic centres.
5. It is likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was

inspired by the existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and
Pampadevi. In fact the Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on
behalf of the god Virupaksha.
6. In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new

features (like Gopurams and mandapas) were in evidence.
7. The raya gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the
towers on the central shrines, and signalled the presence of the
temple from a great distance.
8. Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and

long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within
the temple complex.
9. The Virupaksha temple was built over centuries. While

inscriptions suggest that the earliest shrine dated to the ninth-
tenth centuries, it was substantially enlarged with the
establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire.
10. Just as the nayakas continued with and elaborated on

traditions of fortification, so they did with traditions of temple
building. In fact, some of the most spectacular gopurams were
also built by the local nayakas.
Conclusion:
Buildings that survive tell us about the way spaces were organised
and used, how they were built, with what materials and
techniques. Although wooden structures are lost, and only stone
structures survive, the descriptions left by travellers allow us to
reconstruct some aspects of the vibrant life of the times. They
convey ideas which the builders or their patrons wished to project
Class 12 Notes Chapter 8 Peasants, Zamindars and
the State
• Raiyat: It is used to denote a peasant in Indo-Persian

sources.
• Hasil: It was the actual amount of revenue collected.
• Khud-kashta Peasants: The peasants who were the
residents of the village in which they had their lands.
• Pahi-kashta: The peasants who generally belonged to
another village.
• Shroff: A money changer who also acts as a banker.
• Amin: The officials that were responsible for imperial
regulations.
• Pargana: An administrative subdivision.
• Jama: The assessed amount and to be collected as
revenue.
• Peasants and agricultural production – Geographical diversity
• Looking for sources – Historical Epic and Records, Important

chronicles – Ain-i-Akbari, Records from Gujarat, Maharashtra
and Rajasthan.
• Peasants and their lands – cultivation was based on the

principle of individual ownership.
• Irrigation and Technology – Expansion of agriculture, monsoon

remained the backbone of Indian agriculture, artificial system
of irrigation had to be devised, agriculture often harnessed
cattle energy.
• An abundance of crops – two major crops – the kharif and the

rabi, new crops came from different parts of the world.
• The village community. Caste and the rural milieu – Rajputs are
mentioned as peasants.
• Panchayats and headman – The panchayats was usually a

heterogeneous body; the headman was chosen through the
consensus of the village elders, functions of the panchayat.
Village artisans.
• The existence of substantial members of artisans. A little

republic – deep inequities based on caste and gender
distinctions.
• Women in agrarian society – women’s role in the production

process, high mortality rates among women, women petitioned
to the panchayat, Hindu and Muslim women inherited
zamindaris.
• Forest and tribes -Beyond settled villages, livelihood came from

the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting
agriculture, jungles provided a good defence. Inroads into
forests – the state required elephants for the army, hunting
expeditions by the Mughals, the spread of commercial
agriculture.
• During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries about 85

percent of the population of India lived in its villages. Both
peasants and landed elites were involved in agricultural
production claimed rights to a share of the produce. This
created relationships of cooperation, competition and conflict
among them.
• The basic unit of agricultural society was the village, inhabited

by peasants who performed the manifold seasonal tasks that
made up agricultural production throughout the year tilling the
soil, sowing seeds, harvesting the crop when it was ripe.
• The panchayat was headman known as muqaddam or mandal.
• Documents from Western India – Rajasthan, Gujarat and

Maharashtra – Record petitions sent by women to the village
panchayat, seeking redress and justice.
• The Zamindars held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat,

meaning property. Milkiyat lands were cultivated for the private
use of zamindars, often with the help of hired or servile labour.
• Zamindars also derived their power form the fact that they
could often collect revenue on behalf of the state, a service for
which they were compensated financially.
• Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each

province. The Ain compiled the aggregates of such lands
during Akbar’s rule. Efforts to measures lands continued under
subsequent emperors. For instance in 1665, Aurangzeb
expressly instructed his revenue of officials to prepare annual
records of the number of cultivators in each village.
• The testimony of an Italian traveler, Giovanni Careri, who

passed through India c, 1690, provides a graphic account about
the way silver traveled across the globe to reach India.
• The Ain is made up of five books (daftars) of which the first

three books describe the administration.
• The Ain completely department from this tradition as it

recorded information about the empire and the people of
India, and the people of India, and thus constitutes a
benchmark for studying India at the turn of the seventeenth
century.
Peasants and Agricultural Production
1. The basic unit of agricultural society was the village, inhabited

by peasants who performed the manifold seasonal tasks.
2. Several kinds of areas such as large tracts of dry land or hilly

regions were not cultivable. Moreover, forest areas made up a
substantial proportion of territory.
3. Sources: The major source for the agrarian history of the
sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries are chronicles and
documents from the Mughal court. Ain-i Akbari of Akbar’s
court meticulously recorded the arrangements made by the
state.
4. Some other sources are detailed revenue records from Gujarat,

Maharashtra and Rajasthan dating from the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries.
5. Besides, the extensive records of the East India Company

provide us with useful descriptions of agrarian relations in
eastern India.
6. All these sources record instances of conflicts between

peasants, zamindars and the state. In the process they give us
an insight into peasants’ perception of and their expectations
of fairness from the state.
7. Peasants and their land: The terms most frequently used to

denote a peasant were raiyat (plural, riaya) or muzarian, kisan
or asami.
8. There is reference of two kinds of peasants in the seventeenth
century – khud-kashta ( they were residents of the village in
which they held their lands) and pahi-kashta (they were non-
resident cultivators who cultivated lands elsewhere on a
contractual basis).
9. An average peasant of north India did not possess more than a

pair of bullocks and two ploughs, most of them possessed
even less.
10. In Gujarat peasants possessing about six acres of land
were considered to be affluent; in Bengal, on the other hand,
five acres was the upper limit of an average peasant farm.
11. Cultivation was based on the principle of individual

ownership. Peasantsbought and sold their lands like other
property owners.
12. The abundance of land, available labour and the mobility

of peasants were three factors that accounted for the constant
expansion of agriculture.
13. Irrigation: Monsoons remained the backbone of Indian

agriculture, as they are even today. But there were crops which
required additional water. Artificial systems of irrigation had to
be devised for this. Irrigation projects received state support as
well.
14. Though agriculture was labour intensive, peasants did use

technologies that often harnessed cattle energy.
15. Agriculture was organised around two major seasonal

cycles, the kharif (autumn) and the rabi (spring).
16. During the seventeenth century several new crops from

different parts of the world reached the Indian subcontinent.
For example, Maize (makka), was introduced into India via
Africa and Spain which gradually became one of the major
crops of western India. Vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and
chillies were introduced from the New World at this time, as
were fruits like the pineapple and the papaya.
The Village Community
1. Apart from individual ownership, lands belonged to a collective

village community as far as many aspects of their social
existence were concerned. There were three constituents of this
community – the cultivators, the panchayat, and the village
headman (muqaddam or mandal).
2. Distinctions: Deep inequities on the basis of caste and other
castelike distinctions meant that the cultivators were a highly
heterogeneous group. Like- despite the abundance of
cultivable land, certain caste groups were assigned menial
tasks. One who tilled the land was known as menials or
agricultural labourers (majur). In Muslim communities menials
like the halalkhoran (scavengers) were housed outside the
boundaries of the village.
3. There was a direct correlation between caste, poverty and

social status at the lower strata of society.
4. In a manual from seventeenth century Marwar, Rajputs are
mentioned as peasants, sharing the same space with Jats, who
were accorded a lower status in the caste hierarchy.
5. Castes such as the Ahirs, Gujars and Malis rose in the hierarchy
because of the profitability of cattle rearing and horticulture.
6. Headman: The village panchayat was an assembly of elders

headed by a headman known as muqaddam or mandal.
7. The headmen held office as long as they enjoyed the

confidence of the village elders, failing which they could be
dismissed by them.
8. The panchayat derived its funds from contributions made by

individuals to a common financial pool.
9. One important function of the panchayat was to ensure that

caste boundaries among the various communities inhabiting
the village were upheld.
10. Panchayats also had the authority to levy fines and inflict
more serious forms of punishment like expulsion from the
community.
11. In addition to the village panchayat each caste or jati in

the village had its own jati panchayat.
12. Village artisans: The distinction between artisans and

peasants in village society was a fluid one, as many groups
performed the tasks of both.
13. Cultivators and their families would also participate in craft
production – such as dyeing, textile printing, baking and firing
of pottery, making and repairing agricultural implements.
14. Village artisans – potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, barbers,

even goldsmiths – provided specialised services in return for
which they were compensated by villagers by a variety of
means,mostly by giving them a share of the harvest, or an
allotment of land, etc.
15. Some British officials in the nineteenth century saw the

village as a “little republic” made up of fraternal partners
sharing resources and labour in a collective. But this was not a
sign of rural egalitarianism because there existed deep
inequities based on caste and gender distinctions.
Women in Agrarian Society
1. Women and men had to work shoulder to shoulder in the

fields, so a gendered segregation between the home (for
women) and the world (for men) was not possible in this
context. But biases related to women’s biological functions did
continue.
2. Artisanal tasks such as spinning yarn, sifting and kneading clay

for pottery, and embroidery were among the many aspects of
production dependent on female labour.
3. Women were considered an important resource in agrarian

society also because they were child bearers in a society
dependent on labour.
4. Marriages in many rural communities required the payment of
bride-price rather than dowry to the bride’s family.
5. According to established social norms, the household was

headed by a male. Thus women were kept under strict control
by the male members of the family and the community.
6. Amongst the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit

property. Women zamindars were known in eighteenth-century
Bengal.
Forests and Tribes
1. Apart from the intensively cultivated lands, India had huge

swathes of forests – dense forest (jangal) or scrubland
(kharbandi) – existed all over eastern India, central India,
northern India (including the Terai on the Indo-Nepal border),
Jharkhand, and in peninsular India down the Western Ghats
and the Deccan plateau.
2. Forest dwellers were termed jangli as their livelihood came

from the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting
agriculture. These activities were largely season specific.
3. Regular hunting expeditions enabled the emperors to travel

across the extensive territories of his empire and personally
attend to the grievances of its inhabitants.
4. The spread of commercial agriculture was an important

external factor that impinged on the lives of the forest-
dwellers.
5. Elephants were also captured and sold.

6. Social factors too wrought changes in the lives of forest
dwellers. Like the “big men” of the village community, tribes
also had their chieftains.
7. New cultural influences also began to penetrate into forested

zones.
The Zamindars
1. The zamindars were a class of people in the countryside that

lived off agriculture but did not participate directly in the
processes of agricultural production.
2. They were landed proprietors who also enjoyed certain social

and economic privileges by virtue of their superior status in
rural society.
3. The zamindars held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat,

meaning property.
4. Zamindars also derived their power from the fact that they
could often collect revenue on behalf of the state.
5. Most zamindars had fortresses (qilachas) as well as an armed
contingent comprising units of cavalry, artillery and infantry.
6. Zamindars spearheaded the colonisation of agricultural land,

and helped in settling cultivators by providing them with the
means of cultivation, including cash loans.
7. Although there can be little doubt that zamindars were an

exploitative class, their relationship with the peasantry had an
element of reciprocity, paternalism and patronage.
Land Revenue System
1. Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of the

Mughal Empire.
2. This apparatus included the office (daftar) of the diwan who

was responsible for supervising the fiscal system of the empire.
3. The land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages – first,

assessment and then actual collection.
4. The jama was the amount assessed, as opposed to hasil, the

amount collected.
5. In the list of duties of the amil-guzar or revenue collector,

Akbar decreed that while he should strive to make cultivators
pay in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be kept
open.
6. Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each

province. The Ain compiled the aggregates of such lands
during Akbar’s rule.
Classification of Lands Under Akbar
The following a listing of criteria of classification excerpted from the
Ain:
The Emperor Akbar in his profound sagacity classified the lands and
fixed a different revenue to be paid by each. Polaj is land which is
annually cultivated for each crop in succession and is never allowed
to lie fallow. Parauti is land left out of cultivation for a time that it
may recover its strength. Chachar is land that has lain fallow for
three or four years. Banjar is land uncultivated for five years and
more. Of the first two kinds of land, there are three classes, good,
midding, and bad. They add together the produce of each sort, and
the third of this represents the medium produce, one-third part of
which is exacted as the royal dues.
The Flow of Silver
1. The Mughal Empire consolidated powers and resources from

the empires of Ming (China), Safavid (Iran) and Ottoman
(Turkey) during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
2. Voyages of discovery and the opening up of the New World

resulted in a massive expansion of Asia’s (particularly India’s)
trade with Europe.
3. An expanding trade brought in huge amounts of silver bullion

into Asia to pay for goods procured from India, and a large
part of that bullion gravitated towards India.
4. SO, the period between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries

was also marked by a remarkable stability in the availability of
metal currency, particularly the silver rupya in India.
5. The testimony of an Italian traveller, Giovanni Careri, who
passed through India c. 1690, provides a graphic account about
the way silver travelled across the globe to reach India.
The Ain-i Akbari of Abu’l Fazl Allami
1. Ain-i Akbari is a compilation of imperial regulations and a

gazetteer of the empire.
2. It is a part of the Akbar Nama and was completed in 1598, after

having gone through five revisions.
3. The Ain gives detailed accounts of the organisation of the

court, administration and army, the sources of revenue and the
physical layout of the provinces of Akbar’s empire and the
literary, cultural and religious traditions of the people.
4. The Ain is made up of five books (daftars), of which the first

three books describe the administration.
5. The first book, called manzil-abadi, concerns the imperial

household and its maintenance. The second book, sipah-abadi,
covers the military and civil administration and the
establishment of servants. This book includes notices and short
biographical sketches of imperial officials (mansabdars),
learned men, poets and artists.
6. The third book, mulk-abadi, is the one which deals with the
fiscal side of the empire and provides information on revenue
rates, followed by the “Account of the Twelve Provinces”.
7. The Ain remains an extraordinary document of its times. By

providing fascinating glimpses into the structure and
organisation of the Mughal Empire and by giving us
quantitative information about its products and people.
Class 12Notes Chapter 9 Kings and Chronicles
▪ Chronicles: It is a continuous chronological record of
events.
▪ Manuscript: The handwritten records.
▪ Divine theory of kingship: The king was believed as the
representative of god, acquired his powers from him and
therefore had to be obeyed.
▪ Sulh-i-kul: It is state policy of religious tolerance.
▪ Jizya: A tax imposed on non-muslims in lieu of military
service.
▪ Mansabdar: All royal officers were known as mansabdars.
▪ Chahar taslim: A form of salutation to the emperor which is
done four times.
▪ Tajwiz: A petion presented to the emperor by a nobleman
recommending an application to the post of a mansabdar
• The production of chronicle (1526 -1707) provides us with the

information on the Mughals and their empires.
• The name Mughal is derived from Mongol.
• From Turkish to Persian – Mughal court chronicles were written

in Persian.
• The making of manuscripts – all books in Mughals was

manuscripts i.e. they were handwritten.
• The Akbarnama and Badshanama – among the important

illustrated Mughal official histories the Akbarnama and
Badshanama.
• A unifying force – sulh-i kul – Abu’l Fazl describes the ideal
sulh-i-kul (absolute peace) .
• Capitals and courts – capital city – the heart of Mughal empire

is capital city where the court assembled.
• Titles and Gifts – The granting of titles to men of merit was an

important aspect of Mughal policy.
• Mughal kings commissioned court historians to write accounts.

These accounts recorded the event of the emperor’s time.
• Babur laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire in India by

defeating the last Lodhi King Ibrahim Lodhi through the battle
of Panipat.
• Modern historians writings in English have termed this original

text or accounts of texts as chronicles, as they present a
continuous chronological record of events.
• The creation of a manuscript involved a number of people

performing a variety of tasks.
• Painters too were involved in the production of Mughal

manuscripts.
• Babur took over the Lodi capital of Agra.
• During the 1560s Akbar had the fort of Agra constructed with
red sandstone quarried from the adjoining regions.
• In the 1570s he decided to build a new capital, Fatehpuri sikri.
• The keeping of exact and detailed records was a major concern

of the Mughal administration.
• Akbar was curious about Christianity and dispatched an
embassy to Goa to invite Jesuit priests.
• The first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur

Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years.
• The Jesuit spoke to Akbar about Christianity and debated its

virtues with the ulama. Two more missions were sent to the
Mughal court at Lahore in 1591 and in 1595.
The Mughals and Their Empire
1. During the sixteenth century, Europeans used the term

‘Mughal’ to describe the Indian rulers of Timurids-Mongols
descendant branch.
2. The founder of the empire, Zahiruddin Babur, was driven from
his Central Asian homeland, Farghana, by the warring Uzbeks.
3. He first established himself at Kabul and then in 1526 pushed

further into the Indian subcontinent in search of territories and
resources for his clan.
4. His successor, Nasiruddin Humayun (1530-40, 1555-56)

expanded the frontiers of the empire, but lost it to the Afghan
leader Sher Shah Sur, who drove him into exile.
5. In 1555 Humayun defeated the Surs.
6. Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) is considered to be the greatest

of all the Mughal emperors.
7. He consolidated his empire and made it the largest, strongest

and richest kingdom of his time.
8. Akbar succeeded in extending the frontiers of the empire to

the Hindukush mountains, and checked the expansionist
designs of the Uzbeks of Turan (Central Asia) and the Safavids
of Iran.
9. Akbar had three successors – Jahangir (1605-27), Shah

Jahan (1628-58) and Aurangzeb (1658-1707).
10. The three rulers maintained and consolidated the various

instruments of governance.
11. The court was the visible centre of Mughal power.
12. After 1707, following the death of Aurangzeb, the power

of the dynasty diminished.
13. In 1857 the last scion of this dynasty, Bahadur Shah Zafar
II, was overthrown by the British.
The Production of Chronicles
1. The production of chronicle (1526 -1707) provides us with the

information on the Mughals and their empires.
2. The authors of Mughal chronicles were invariably courtiers.
3. The histories they wrote focused on events centred on the

ruler, his family, the court and nobles, wars and administrative
arrangements.
4. The titles of the chronicles suggest that in the eyes of their

authors the history of the empire and the court was
synonymous with that of the emperor.
5. Some of the chroniclies are – Akbar Nama – the story of Akbar

was written in Persian by Abu’l Fazl, Shahjahan Nama – story
of Shah Jahan, Alamgir Nama – the story of Alamgir (a title of
the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb).
6. Abdul Hamid Lahori is the author of the Badshah Nama, which
is the official history in three volumes (daftars) of ten lunar
years each.
7. Edited versions of the Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama were

first published by the Asiatic Society in the nineteenth century.
Use of Persian
1. As the Mughals were Chaghtai Turks by origin, Turkish was

their mother tongue. Their first ruler Babur wrote poetry and
his memoirs in this language.
2. But in Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian.
3. It was Akbar who consciously set out to make Persian the

leading language of the Mughal court.
4. Persian was elevated to a language of empire, conferring

power and prestige on those who had a command of it. It was
spoken by the king, the royal household and the elite at court.
5. Later, it became the language of administration.
6. Persian became Indianised by absorbing local idioms. A new

language, Urdu, sprang from the interaction of Persian with
Hindavi.
7. Translations of various books were done, like Babur’s memoirs,

were translated from the Turkish into the Persian Babur Nama.
The Mahabharata was translated as the Razmnama (Book of
Wars).
The making of manuscripts
1. All books in Mughal India were manuscripts, that is, they were
handwritten.
2. The centre of manuscript production was the imperial

kitabkhana.
3. Although it can be translated as library, it was a scriptorium,

that is, a place where the emperor’s collection of manuscripts.
The Painted Image
1. Paintings served not only to enhance the beauty of a book, but

were believed to possess special powers of communicating
ideas about the kingdom and the power of kings in ways that
the written medium could not.
2. The historian Abu’l Fazl described painting as a “magical art”.
3. It had the power to make inanimate objects look as if they

possessed life.
4. The production of paintings portraying the emperor, his court

and the people who were part of it, was a source of constant
tension between rulers and representatives of the Muslim
orthodoxy, the ulama.
The concept of ideal kingdom

1. Divine Light: Abu’l Fazl placed Mughal kingship as the highest
station in the hierarchy of objects receiving light emanating
from God (farr-i izadi). He was inspired by a famous Iranian
sufi, Shihabuddin Suhrawardi (d. 1191) who first developed the
idea. of a hierarchy in which the Divine Light was transmitted
to the king who then became the source of spiritual guidance
for his subjects.
2. Absolute Peace: Mughal chronicles present the empire as
comprising many different ethnic and religious communities.
Abu’l Fazl describes the ideal of sulh-i kul (absolute peace) as
the cornerstone of enlightened rule. In sulh-i kul all religions
and schools of thought had freedom of expression but on
condition that they did not undermine the authority of the
state or fight among themselves.
3. Sovereignty: Abu’l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social
contract: the emperor protects the four essences of his
subjects, namely, life (jan), property (mal), honour (namus) and
faith (din), and in return demands obedience and a share of
resources.
Capitals & Courts
1. The heart of the Mughal Empire was its capital city, where the
court assembled, which frequently shifted during the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries.
2. Babur took over the Lodi capital of Agra. During the 1560s
Akbar had the fort of Agra constructed with red sandstone
quarried from the adjoining regions.
3. In the 1570s he decided to build a new capital, Fatehpur Sikri.
The enormous arched gateway (Buland Darwaza) was meant to
remind visitors of the Mughal victory in Gujarat.
4. Akbar commissioned the construction of a white marble tomb

for Shaikh Salim Chishti next to the majestic Friday mosque at
Sikri.
5. In 1585 the capital was transferred to Lahore to bring the

north-west under greater control.
6. In 1648 the court, army and household moved from Agra to
the newly completed imperial capital, Shahjahanabad. It was a
new addition to the old residential city of Delhi, with the Red
Fort, the Jama Masjid, a tree-lined esplanade with Fig. 9.8 The
Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri 237 bazaars (Chandni Chowk)
and spacious homes for the nobility.
7. The Mughal court’s physical arrangement focused on the

sovereign, mirrored his status as the heart of society.
8. In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king.
The place accorded to a courtier by the ruler was a sign of his
importance in the eyes of the emperor.
9. The forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the person’s

status in the hierarchy. Besides, there were explicit protocols
that governed diplomatic envoys at the Mughal court.
10. On special occasions such as the anniversary of accession

to the throne, Id, Shab-i barat and Holi, the court was full of
life.
11. Gifts & Titles: Grand titles were adopted by the Mughal
emperors at the time of coronation or after a victory over an
enemy. The granting of titles to men of merit was an important
aspect of Mughal polity. Titles could be earned or paid for. A
courtier never approached the emperor empty handed. In
diplomatic relations, gifts were regarded as a sign of honour
and respect.
The Imperial Set up
Households:
1. The Mughal household consisted of the emperor’s wives and

concubines, his near and distant relatives nd female servants
and slaves.
2. Polygamy was practised widely in the Indian subcontinent,

especially among the ruling groups.
3. marriage was a way of cementing political relationships and

forging alliances. The gift of territory was often accompanied
by the gift of a daughter in marriage.
4. In the Mughal household a distinction was maintained between
wives who came from royal families (begams), and other wives
(aghas) who were not of noble birth.
Officials & Recruitments:
1. One important pillar of the Mughal state was its corps of

officers, also referred to by historians collectively as the
nobility, which was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious
groups. For members of the nobility, imperial service was a way
of acquiring power, wealth and the highest possible reputation.
2. Turani and Iranian nobles were present from the earliest phase
of carving out a political dominion.
3. Two ruling groups of Indian origin entered the imperial service

from 1560 onwards – the Rajputs and the Indian Muslims.
4. Iranians gained high offices under Jahangir, whose politically

influential queen, Nur Jahan (d. 1645), was an Iranian.
5. The nobles participated in military campaigns with their armies

and also served as officers of the empire in the provinces.
6. Each military commander recruited, equipped and trained the

main striking arm of the Mughal army, the cavalry.
7. Records: The mir bakhshi supervised the corps of court writers

(waqia nawis) who recorded all applications and documents
presented to the court, and all imperial orders (farman).
8. The akhbarat contained all kinds of information such as

attendance at the court, grant of offices and titles, diplomatic
missions, presents received, or the enquiries made by the
emperor about the health of an officer.
9. The Mughal chroniclers usually portrayed the emperor and his

court as controlling the entire administrative apparatus down
to the village level.
Beyond the Frontiers
1. The diplomatic relationships and conflicts of Mughals with

neighbouring political powers.reflect some tension and political
rivalry arising from competing regional interests.
2. The relation of Mughal kings and the neighbouring countries

of Iran and Turan hinged on the control of the frontier defined
by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan from
the regions of Iran and Central Asia. A constant aim of Mughal
policy was to ward off this potential danger by controlling
strategic outposts – notably Kabul and Qandahar.
3. The relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans was

marked by the concern to ensure free movement for merchants
and pilgrims in the territories under Ottoman control.
4. By the end of the fifteenth century, Portuguese merchants

entered India after the discovery of a direct sea route. The
Portuguese king was interested in the propagation of
Christianity with the help of the missionaries of the Society of
Jesus (the Jesuits). as the Christian missions to India during the
sixteenth century were part of this process of trade and empire
building.
5. Akbar was curious about Christianity and dispatched an
embassy to Goa to invite Jesuit priests. The first Jesuit mission
reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed
for about two years. The Jesuits spoke to Akbar about
Christianity and debated its virtues with the ulama. Two more
missions were sent to the Mughal court at Lahore, in 1591 and
1595.
6. The high respect shown by Akbar towards the members of the

Jesuit mission impressed them deeply. They interpreted the
emperor’s open interest in the doctrines of Christianity as a
sign of his acceptance of their faith.
7. Akbar’s quest for religious knowledge led to interfaith debates

in the ibadat khana at Fatehpur Sikri between learned Muslims,
Hindus, Jains, Parsis and Christians.
8. Akbar’s religious views matured as he gathered knowledge

about their doctrines. he moved away from the orthodox
Islamic ways of understanding religions towards a self-
conceived eclectic form of divine worship focused on light and
the sun.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 10 Colonialism and the Countryside
• Mahals: Estates owned by big zamindars who were called Raja

locally.
• Raja: It is the term for Monarch but often refers to the big
Zamindars in their respective local areas.
• Taluqdars: The owners of Taluq, taluq stood for piece of land
or territorial unit.
• Ryots: Ryots means peasants.
• Jotedars: Rich peasants often owning large farmlands. They
often controlled moneylending and trade at local levels.
Sometimes village headman was also called Jotedar.
• Zamindar: The chain between farmer and the company in the
system called permanent settlement. Zaminadars were
responsible for collection of land revenue and depositing the
same to the Company. They lived life of comfort and luxury.
• Amla: Official of Zamindar who would maintain record and
collect revenue from villages.
• Benami: the literal meaning is anonymous. The term was to
denote transactions wherein real person was hidden behind
insignificant name or person.
• Lathy at: The musclemen of Zamindars.
• Sahukar: Trader who was also in money lending business.
• Rentier: A person who lived on rental income.
• Dewani: The Revenue department of state.
• Permanent Settlement: Land revenue system introduced by
Cornwallis in 1793 in Bengal. Under this system, the land
revenue was collected by Zamindars. Zamindari rights passed
on father to son.
• Ryotwari System: The land revenue system introduced in
Madras and Bombay Presidencies. Under the system,
settlement was made directly with cultivators.
• Bengal – Establishment of colonial rule – New land revenue,

Auction system under Warren Hastings – 1793, Permanent
Revenue settlement in Bengal by Lord Cornwallis.
• Crises in village economy, revenue demand of the state was

fixed.
• The rise of the Jotedars – their land was cultivated through

share croppers.
• Resistance of Zamindars – their land was auctioned frequently.
• The fifth report report submitted to British Parliament 1813.
• The Hoe and the Plough – Shifting agriculture, expensive of
village economy.
• Paharias – hunters, shifting cultivators, food gathers connected

with forests, invaded settled farmers 1770.
• Santhals – Settled in Bengal – practiced cultivation land
demarcated to them known as Daman-i-koh.
• Conflicts with unsettled paharias -1850 – they resisted the

British – Santhal revolt.
• Revolt in the Bombay and Deccan – 1875.
• Burning of account book of moneylenders and shopkeepers.
• New revenue System – Ryotwari system in Bombay Deccan –

direct settlement, land assessed for 30 years subject to periodic
revision.
1. The problem of unpaid revenue
1. In introducing the permanent settlement, the British hoped

to resolve the problems they had been facing since the
conquest of Bengal.
2. The rural economy in Bengal was in crisis with recurrent

famines and declining agricultural output.
3. The problem lay in identifying individuals who could both

improve agriculture and contract to pay the fixed revenue to
the state.
4. The permanent settlement was made with the rajas and

taluqdars of Bengal.
5. They were classified as Zamindars and had to pay the
revenue that was fixed.
6. The Zamindar was not the landowner in the village, but a

revenue collector of the state.
7. The zamindar collected rent from different villages, paid the

revenue to the company,and retained the differences as his
income.
8. He was expected to pay the Company regularly, failing which

his estate could be auctioned.
2. Why zamindars defaulted on payments?

1. High initial demand: The initial demand was very high. It
was felt that if the demand was fixed for all time to come, the
Company would never be able to claim a share of increased
income from land when prices rose and cultivation
expanded. To minimise this anticipated loss, the Company
pegged the revenue demand high, arguing that the burden
on zamindars would gradually decline as agricultural
production expanded and prices rose.
2. Imposition of high demand: This high demand was
imposed in the 1790s, a time when the prices of agricultural
produce were depressed, making it difficult for the ryots
(raiyat, used to designate peasants) to pay their dues to the
zamindar. If the zamindar could not collect the rent, how
could he pay the Company?
3. The revenue was invariable: The revenue was invariable,
regardless of the harvest, and had to be paid punctually. In
fact, according to the Sunset Law, if payment did not come
in by sunset of the specified date, the zamindari was liable to
be auctioned.
4. Powers of Zamindars limited:
The Permanent Settlement initially limited the power of the

zamindar to collect rent from the ryot and manage his
zamindari.
3. The rise of the jotedars
1. A group of rich peasants consolidated their position in the

villages.
2. This class of rich peasant was known as jotedar.
3. The jotedars had acquired vast areas of land.
4. They controlled local trade as well as money

lending,exercising immense power over the poorer
cultivators of the region
5. A large part of their land was cultivated through
sharecroppers (adhiyars or bargadars).
6. When the estate of the zamindar was auctioned for failure to

make revenue payment, jotedars were often amongst the
purchasers.
7. The jotedars were the most powerful in North Bengal, in

some places they were called haoladars, gantidars or
mandals.
4. The accounts of Buchanan
1. Francis Buchanan was a physician and an employee of the

British East India Company.
2. He marched everywhere with a large army of people –

draughtsmen, surveyors, palanquin bearers, coolies.
3. The cost of the travels was borne by the East India Company.
4. He was perceived as an agent of the sarkar.
5. He observed the stones and rocks and different strata and

layers of soil.
6. He searched for minerals and stones that were commercially

valuable, he recorded all signs of irons ore and mica, granite
and saltpetre.
7. He carefully observed the local practices of salt –making and

iron ore mining.
8. Buchanan’s journal were packed with observations.
5. A Revolt in the Countryside: The Bombay Deccan
Through the nineteenth century, peasants in various parts of
India rose in revolt against moneylenders and grain dealers.
One such revolt occurred in 1875 in the Deccan.
1. Account books were burnt
1. The movement began at Supa, a large village in Poona

(present-day Pune) district.
2. It was a market centre where many shopkeepers and

moneylenders lived.
3. On 12 May1875, ryots from surrounding rural areas

gathered and attacked the shopkeepers, demanding their
bahi khatas (account books) and debt bonds.
4. They burnt the khatas, looted grain shops, and in some

cases set fire to the houses of sahukars.
2. A new revenue system
1. As British rule expanded from Bengal to other parts of

India, new systems of revenue were imposed.
2. Since the revenue demand was fixed under the Permanent

Settlement, the colonial state could not claim any share of
this enhanced income.
3. Keen on expanding its financial resources, the colonial

government had to think of ways to maximise its land
revenue.
4. The revenue system that was introduced in the Bombay

Deccan came to be known as the ryotwari settlement.
5. Unlike the Bengal system, the revenue was directly settled
with the ryot. The average income from different types of
soil was estimated, the revenue-paying capacity of the ryot
was assessed and a proportion of it fixed as the share of
the state.
6. The revenue demand was no longer permanent.
3. Revenue demand and peasant debt
1. The first revenue settlement in the Bombay Deccan was

made in the 1820s.
2. The revenue that was demanded was so high that in many

places peasants deserted their villages and migrated to
new regions. In areas of poor soil and fluctuating rainfall
the problem was particularly acute. When rains failed and
harvests were poor, peasants found it impossible to pay
the revenue. However, the collectors in charge of revenue
collection were keen on demonstrating their efficiency and
pleasing their superiors. So they went about extracting
payment with utmost severity. When someone failed to
pay, his crops were seized and a fine was imposed on the
whole village
6. The Deccan Riots Commission
1. When the revolt spread in the Deccan, the Government of

Bombay was initially unwilling to see it as anything serious.
2. But the Government of India, worried by the memory of

1857, pressurised the Government of Bombay to set up a
commission of enquiry to investigate into the causes of the
riots.
3. The commission produced a report that was presented to

the British Parliament in 1878.
4. This report provides historians with a range of sources for

the study of the riot.
Class 12Notes Chapter 11 Rebels and the Raj
• Bell of arms: Store for weapons.

• Firangi: a word of Persian origin, meant white skinned
foreigner.
• Mutiny: Rebellion by soldiers.
• Revolt: Mass uprising by people against ruler.
• Enfield Rifle: Whose cartridge was greased with the fat of
cow and pig, that infuriated Hindus and Moslems alike.
• Resident: The representative of the East India Company to
the native kings, located at the latter’s capital.
• Subsidiary Alliance: A treaty that made native kingdoms
dependent on the company for military power. It was brought
by Lord Wellessely.

• Rebels and the Raj – The revolt of 1857 and its
representation Pattern of Rebellion – People from different

walks of life plunged into the revolt – due to their hatred
against the oppressive policies of the British Centres of the
Revolt – Lucknow, Kanpur, Bareilly, Meerut, Arrah in Bihar.
• Leaders – Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Nana Saheb, Kunwar
Singh, Bakt Khan, Begum Hazrat Mehal, Tatya Tope.
• Awadh revolt – direct annexation policy of Dalhousie – 1856.
Hatred provoked – dispossessed taluqdars of Awadh, Injustice
done to Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh embittered the
people.
• Revolt of the sepoys:
1. Policy of social superiority of British.
2. Interference in religious matters – greased cartridges issues.
• The vision of unity:
1. Hindu Muslim unity
2. Search for alternative powers
3. Rebels established parallel administration, in Delhi, Lucknow,

and Kanpur after capturing centers of British power. Later
they failed.
4. The British policy of repression.
• Repression – 1857 – North India was brought under a strict law

to prolonged attack of British – one from Calcutta to North
India, another from Punjab to recover Delhi, 27,000 Muslims
hanged.
• Image of the Revolt – Pictorial images produced by British and

Indians – posters and cartoons.
• The performance of terror:
1. Execution of rebels Nationalist imageries.
2. Inspiration to nationalists celebration as the first war of

Independence – leaders depicted as heroic figures.
1. PATTERN OF THE REBELLION

How the mutinies began?
1. The sepoys began their action with a signal, firing of the

evening gun or the sounding of the bugle.
2. They seized the bell of the arms and plundered the treasury.
3. They attacked the government buildings – the jail, treasury,

telephone office, record room, bungalows –burning all
records.
4. Everything and everybody connected with the white man

became a target.
5. In major towns like Kanpur, Lucknow, and Bareilly,

moneylenders and rich became the objects of the rebels.
2. Leaders and followers
1. To fight the British, leadership and organisation were
required, and for this, they turned towards the Mughal ruler
Bahadur Shah who agreed to be the nominal leader of the
rebellion.
2. In Kanpur, the sepoys and the people of the town agreed to

support Nana Sahib.
3. In Jhansi, the Rani was forced to assume the leadership of

the uprising.
4. Kunwar Singh, a local Zamindar in Arrah in Bihar, too took

the leadership.
5. The local leaders emerged, urging peasants, zamindars, and

tribals to revolt eg – Shah Mal mobilized the villagers of
pargana Barout in Uttar Pradesh; Gonooa, a tribal cultivator
of Singhbhum in Chotanagpur, became a rebel leader of the
Kol tribals of the region.
3. Rumors and prophecies
1. There was the rumor that the British government had

hatched a gigantic conspiracy to destroy the caste and
religion of the Hindus and Muslim.
2. The rumour said that the British had mixed the bone dust of
cows and pigs into the flour that was sold in the market.
3. The sepoys and the common people refused to touch the

atta.
4. There was a fear and suspicion that the British wanted to
convert Indians to Christianity.
5. The sepoy had the fear about bullets coated with the fats of
cows and pigs, and biting those bullets would corrupt their
caste and religion.
4. Why did the people believe in the rumors?
1. The British adopted policies aimed at reforming Indian

society by introducing Western education, Western ideas,
and Western institutions.
2. With the cooperation of sections of Indian society, they set

up English medium schools, colleges, and universities which
taught Western sciences and the liberal arts.
3. The British established laws to abolished customs like Sati

(1629) and to permit the remarriage of Hindu widows.
4. The British introduced their own system of administration,

their own laws and their own methods of land settlements
and land revenue collection.
5. AWADH IN REVOLT
“A cherry that will drop into our mouth one day”
1. In 1851, Governor General Lord Dalhousie described the

kingdom of Awadh as “a cherry that will drop into our mouth
one day” and five years later it was annexed to the British
Empire.
2. The Subsidiary Alliance had been imposed on Awadh.
3. The terms of this alliance the nawab had to disband his

military force of the British to position their troops within the
kingdom and act in accordance with the advice of the British.
4. Deprived of his armed forces the nawab became increasingly
dependent on the British to maintain law and order within
the kingdom.
5. He could no longer assert control over the rebellious chief

and taluqdars.
6. WHAT THE REBELS WANTED

The vision of unity
1. The rebellion was seen as a war in which both Hindus and

Muslims had equally to lose or gain.
2. The ishtahars (notifications) harked back to the pre-British

Hindu-Muslim past and glorified the coexistence of different
communities under Mughal Empire.
3. In1857, the British spent Rs. 50,000 to incite the Hindu

population against the Muslims but the attempt failed.
7. Against the symbols of oppression
1. The land revenue settlements had dispossessed the

landholders, both big and small and foreign commerce had
driven artisans and weavers to ruin.
2. Every aspect of the British rule was attacked and the firangi
accused of destroying a way of life that was familiar and
cherished.
3. The proclamations expressed the widespread fear that the

British were bent on destroying the caste and religions of
Hindus and Muslims and converting them to Christianity.
4. People were urged to come together and fight to save their
livelihood, their faith, their honor, their identity.
8. IMAGES OF THE REVOLT
1. Official accounts of colonial administration and military men

left their versions in letters and diaries, autobiography and
official histories.
2. The changing British attitudes were evident through the

innumerable memos and notes, assessments of situations.
3. The stories of the revolt that were published in British

newspapers and magazines narrated the in gory detail the
violence of the mutineers.
4. The pictorial images were produced by the British and

Indians – paintings, pencil drawings, cartoons, bazaar prints.
9. Celebrating the saviors
1. British pictures offer a variety of images that were meant to

provoke a range of different emotions and reactions.
2. Some of them commemorate the British heroes who saved

the English and repressed the rebels.
3. “Relief of Lucknow “, was painted by Thomas Jones Barker In

1859.
10. English women and the honour of Britain
1. The British government was asked to protect the honor of

innocent women and ensure the safety of helpless children.
2. Artists expressed as well as shaped these sentiments through
their visual representations of trauma and suffering.
11. The performances of terror
1. The urge for vengeance and retribution was expressed in the

brutal way in which the rebels were executed.
2. They were blown from guns or hung from the gallows.
3. Images of these executions were widely circulated through

popular journals.
4. When Governor General Canning declared that a gesture of

leniency and a show of mercy would help in winning back
the loyalty of the sepoys, he was mocked in the British press.
12. Nationalist imageries
1. The nationalist movement drew its inspiration from the

events of 1857.
2. A whole world of nationalist imagination was woven around

the revolt.
3. It was celebrated as the first war of independence in which

all sections of the people of India came together to fight
against imperial rule.
4. Art and literature had helped in keeping alive the memories

1857.
Class 12Notes Chapter 12 Colonial Cities
Urbanisation, Planning and Architecture
• Kasbah: A small town in the countryside.

• Ganj: Small size fixed market.
• Census: Counting of population
• White Towns: Towns where only European could live.
• Black Towns: Towns where only Indian could live.
• Civil lines: Urban areas where only white people could settle
and live.
• Pet: A Tamil word, which means settlement.
• Purim: A Tamil word stands for a village.
• Dubhasia: Those people who speak English as well as local
language.
• Vellars: A local rural community in Madras.
• Garermath: The east India company built the Fort William in
Calcutta. From the prospective of its security, a vast open
space was left around it. It was locally known as a garer math
or maiden.
• Sources:-
1. Records of the East India company.
2. Census reports
3. Municipal reports.
• The urban population increased from about 10 per cent to 13

per cent during the period 1900-1940.
• During the end of the eighteenth century Madras, Bombay and

Calcutta had developed into important ports.
• The ruling elite built racially exclusive clubs, race courses, and
theaters.
• The development of new modes of transportation such as

horse-drawn carriages, trams, buses etc. facilitated people to
live at a distant place from the places of their work.
• The rulers everywhere tried to express their power through

buildings. Many Indians adopted European styles of
architecture as symbols of modernity and civilization.
• The settlement of the local people were named “Black Town”.

A fortification was built around the “ White Town” to separate
it from the “ Black Town”.
• Difficulties in collecting data:-
1. People were unwilling to give correct information.
2. The figure of mortality and diseases were difficult to collect.
Ports:- Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta.
Forts:- St. George in Madras and Fort William in Calcutta.
1. TOWNS AND CITIES IN PRE-COLONIAL TIMES
What gave towns their character?
1. Towns were defined in opposition to rural areas.
2. Towns represented specific forms of economic activities and

cultures.
3. The people lived by cultivating land, foraging in the forest, or

rearing animals.
4. Towns, by contrast, were peopled with artisans, traders,

administrators, and rulers.
5. Towns dominated over the rural population.
6. Towns and cities were often fortified by walls which

symbolised their separation from the countryside.
7. When towns were attacked, people often sought shelter in

the countryside.
8. Traders and peddlers took goods from the towns to sell in

the villages.
9. There was a revenue flow of humans and goods from towns

to villages.
10. The towns built by the Mughals were famous for their
concentration of populations, their monumental buildings
and their imperial grandeur and wealth.
11. Agra, Delhi, and Lahore were important centers
of imperial administration and control.
12. Artisans produced exclusive handicrafts for the households

of nobles.
13. Grains from the countryside was brought into the urban
markets for the town-dwellers and the army.
14. The treasury was also located in the imperial capital.
15. Within these towns were gardens, mosques, temples,

tombs, colleges, bazaars and caravanserais.
16. The focus of the town was oriented towards the palace
and the principal mosque.
2. Towns in south India

1. In the towns of south India such
as Madurai and Kanchipuram, the principal focus was the
temple.
2. These temples were the important commercial centers.
3. Religious festivals often coincided with fairs, linking

pilgrimage with the trade.
4. The ruler was the highest authority and the principal patron
of religious institutions.
5. The relationship that he had with other group and classes

determined their place in society and in the town.
3. Changes in the Eighteenth century
1. The old towns went to decline and new towns developed in
the eighteenth century.
2. The growth of new regional powers was reflected in the

increasing importance of regional capitals – Lucknow,
Hyderabad, Seringapatam, Poona, Nagpur, Baroda and
Tanjore.
3. Trade, administrators, artisans, and others migrated from the

old Mughal centers to these new capitals in search of work
and patronage.
4. In some places there was renewed economic activity, in other

places war, plunder and political uncertainty led to economic
decline.
5. The European commercial companies had set up base in

different places early during the Mughal era –
the Portuguese in Panaji in 1510, the Dutch in
Masulipatam in 1605, the British in Madras in 1639 and
the French in Pondicherry in 1873.
6. By the end of eighteenth century, the land-based empire in

Asia was replaced by the powerful sea-based European
empires.
7. Forces of international trade, mercantilism and capitalism

now came to decline the nature of society.
8. The commercial centers such as Surat, Masulipatam, and

Dhaka which had grown in the seventeenth century had
declined when trade shifted to other places.
9. Madras, Bombay and Calcutta rapidly emerged as new
economic capitals and centers of colonial administration
and political power.
10. New buildings, occupations, institutions developed.
4. FINDING OUT ABOUT COLONIAL CITIES

Colonial record and urban history
1. Colonial rule was based on the production of enormous

amount of data
2. The British kept a detailed record of their trading activities in

order to regulate their commercial affairs.
3. They carried out the regular survey, gathered statistical data,

and published various official report.
4. The town map gives information regarding the location of

hill, river and vegetation – all important for planning
structure for defence purpose.
5. These maps also show the location of ghats, density, and

quality of house and alignment of roads, abd are used to
gauge commercial possibilities and plan strategies of
taxation.
6. The municipal corporation with some popular representative

was meant to administer essential services such as water
supply, sewerage, road buildings and public health.
5. Problem faced while collecting the Census
1. The first all-India census was attempted in 1872. From 1881
decennial (conducted every ten years) censuses became a
regular feature.
2. The people often refused to cooperate or gave evasive

answers to the census officials.
3. The people were suspicious of census operation and

believed that inquiries were being conducted to impose new
taxes.
4. Upper caste people were also unwilling to give any

information regarding the women of their household.
5. Women were supposed to remain secluded within the

interior of the household and not subjected to public gaze or
public inquiry.
6. Census officials also found that the people were claiming

identities that they associated with higher status.
7. The figures of mortality and disease were difficult to collect

for all deaths were not registered and illness was not always
reported, nor treated by licensed doctors.
8. Historians have to use sources like census with great caution,

keeping in mind their possible biases, recalculating figures
and understanding what the figures do not tell.
6. Trends of change
1. The smaller towns had little opportunity to grow

economically.
2. Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, on the other hand, grew
rapidly and soon became sprawling cities.
3. The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in

the fortunes of towns.
4. Economic activities gradually shifted away from traditional

towns which were located along old routes and rivers.
5. Every railway station became a collection depot for raw

materials and distribution point for imported goods.
6. Railway towns like Jamalpur, Waltair, and Bareilly developed

as a trading centres.
7. What were the new towns like?
Ports, forts and centers for services
1. Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay had become important ports.
2. The English East India Company built its factories because
of competition among the Europeans companies, fortified
the settlement for protection.
3. In Madras, Fort St George, in Calcutta Fort William and in

Bombay the Fort marked out the areas of British settlement.
4. There were separate quarters for Europeans and Indians,

which came to be labelled in contemporary writings as the
“White Town” and “Black Town “.
5. Two Industrial cities also developed – Kanpur specializing

in leather, woolen and cotton textiles and Jamshedpur,
specialize in steel.
6. India never became a modern industrialised country as

discriminatory colonial policies limited the levels of Industrial
development.
7. Madras, Calcutta Bombay grew into a large city but did not
signify any dramatic economic growth.
8. A new urban milieu
1. Colonial cities reflected the mercantile culture of the new

rule.
2. Political power and patronage shifted from Indian rulers to

the merchants of the East India Company.
3. Indians who worked as interpreters, middlemen, traders, and

suppliers of goods also had an important place in these new
cities.
4. Economic activities near the river or the sea led to the
development of docks and ghats.
5. Around the periphery of the fort, Europeans merchants and

agents built garden houses, racially exclusive clubs,
racecourse and theatres for the ruling elites.
9. The first hill stations
1. The hill stations were a distinctive feature of colonial urban

development.
2. The hill stations were initially connected with the needs of

the British army.
3. Hill station became strategic places for billeting troops,

guarding frontiers and launching campaigns against enemy
rulers.
4. The temperate and cool climate of the Indian hills was seen
as an advantage.
5. British associated hot weather with epidemics, Cholera and

malaria and attempts were made to protect the army from
these diseases.
6. Hill stations were also developed as sanitariums i.e. places

where soldiers could be sent for rest and recover from
illness.
10. Settlement and segregation in Madras

1. In 1639, the British constructed a trading post
in Madraspatam and the settlement known
as Chenapattanam.
2. The company had purchased the right of settlement from the
local Telugu lords, the Nayaks of Kalahasti.
3. Rivalry with French East India Company led the British to

fortify Madras.
4. Chintadripet area meant for weavers, the Washermanpet

colony of dyers, Royapuram was a settlement for Christian
boatmen.
5. The dubashes were Indians who could speak two languages

the local language and English.
6. Paraiyars and Vanniyars formed the labouring poor.
7. The Nawab of Arcot settled in nearby Triplicane which

became the nucleus of a substantial Muslim settlement.
8. Mylapore and Triplicane were earlier Hindu religious

centres that supported a large group of Brahmins.
9. San Thome with its cathedral was the centre Roman
Catholics.
11. White Town Fort St. George
1. Fort St. George became the nucleus of the White Town

where most of the Europeans lived.
2. Colour and religion determined who was allowed to live

within the fort.
3. The Company did not permit any marriages with Indians.
4. Other than the English, the Dutch and the Portuguese were
allowed to stay because they were European and Christian.
12. Black Town
1. The Black Town developed outside the Fort.
2. It was laid out in straight lines, and housed weavers, artisans,

etc.
3. Middlemen and interpreters were the person who played a

vital role in the company trade.
13. City Architecture in Calcutta
1. The vast open space around the Fort (which still exists)
became a landmark (the building of Fort William and the
Maidan), Calcutta’s first significant town planning measure.
2. In 1798, Lord Wellesley became the Governor General. He

built a massive palace – Government House.
3. The existing racial divide of the “White Town” and “Black

Town” was reinforced by the new divide of “healthy” and
“unhealthy”.
4. It was as if the grandeur of the cities had to reflect the
authority of imperial power
14. City Architecture in Bombay
1. Towards the beginning of the twentieth century a new hybrid

architectural style developed which combined the Indian
with the European.
2. This was called Indo-Saracenic. “Indo” was shorthand for

Hindu and “Saracen” was a term Europeans used to
designate Muslim.
3. Jamsetji Tata built the Taj Mahal Hotelof Bombay in a Indo-

Saracenic style.
4. Another style that was extensively used was the neo-Gothic,

characterised by high-pitched roofs, pointed arches and
detailed decoration.
5.
15. What Buildings and Architectural Styles Tell Us
1. Architecture reflects the aesthetic ideals prevalent at a time,

and variations within those ideals.
2. These buildings also express the vision of those who build

them. Rulers everywhere seek to express their power through
buildings.
3. Architectural style not only represents and reflects the

prevalent taste, they mould tastes, popularise styles and
shape the contours of culture.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 13 Mahatma Gandhi and the
Nationalist Movement
• Moderate: A person who is against taking extreme action.

• Repeal: To undo law.
• Radical: A person who welcomes new ideas or opinions.
• Revolutionary Violence: The use of violence to make a radical
change within society.
• Council: An appointed or elected body of people with an
administrative advisory or representative function.
• Knighthood: An honour granted by British crown for
exceptional personal achievement or religious public service.
• Picket: A person or a group of people protesting outside a
building or shop to prevent others from entering.
• Mahanta: Religious functionaries of Sikh gurudwaras.
• Illegal eviction: Forcible and unlawful throwing out of tenants
from the land they rent.
• RSS: It stands for Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.
• Puma Swaraj: Complete independence.
• Provincial Autonomy: Capacity of the provinces to make
relatively independent decisions while remaining within a
federation.
• General Constituencies: Election districts with no reservations
for any religious or other community.
• Refugee: One who has been forced to leave his country or
home due to some political, or social reasons.
Key points in nutshell:-
• Mahatma Gandhi is the most influential and revered of all the

leaders who participated in the freedom struggle of India.
• In January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to

India after spending two decades in South Africa.
• It was in South Africa he first focused the distinctive techniques

of nonviolent protest known as Satyagraha and promoted
harmony between religions.
• On Gokhale’s advice, he spent one year traveling around British

India to know the land and its peoples.
• His first major public appearance was at the opening of the

Banaras Hindu University in February 1916.
• Here in his speech, Gandhiji charged the Indian elite with a lack
of concern for the laboring poor.
• GandhijI’s speech was at the opening of BHU was a statement

of intent to make Indian nationalism more properly
representative of the Indian people as a whole.
• Many of them venerated Gandhiji, referring to him as their

“Mahatma”.
• He successfully organized Satyagraha at Champaran (Bihar in
1917) to ameliorated the condition of the peasants who
cultivated indigo.
• In 1918, he started a satyagraha to increase the wages
of Ahmedabad mill workers by 35 per cent
• In 1918, he also organised a peasant movementto remit the
revenue in Kheda.
• In 1919, Gandhiji called for a countrywide campaign against the
“Rowlatt Act”. It was the Rowlatt Satyagraha that made
Gandhiji a truly national leader.
• In 1920, after Jalianwala Bagh Massacre he called for a
campaign of non-cooperation with British Rule and joined
hands with the Khilafat movement.
• He was of the opinion that by coupling the non-cooperation

with the Khilafat would result in Hindu-Muslim unity to end the
colonial rule.
• The British Raj was shaken to its foundations for the first time
since the Revolt of 1857.
• Non-cooperation movement was suspended in 1922

after Chauri-Chaura incident where 22 policemen were killed
by a violent crowd.
• By 1922 Gandhiji had transformed Indian nationalism. It was no

longer a movement of professionals and intellectuals, now
hundreds of thousands of peasants, workers, and artisans also
participated in it.
• Causes of Gandhiji’s popularity among Indians – he dressed

like them, lived like them and spoke their language.
• Rumours about the miraculous power of Mahatma Gandhi
resulted in widespread followers.
• Mahatma Gandhi was released from prison in February 1924

devoted himself in constructive work like – the promotion of
home-spun cloth khadi, the abolition of untouchability, Hindu-
Muslim unity etc.
• In 1928, Gandhiji began to think of re-entering politics. After

the failure of Simon Commission, in its annual session
at Lahore Congress demanded Purna Swaraj and decided to
observe 26th January 1930 as Independence Day.
• In Lahore Session of Congress held in December 1929, it was

decided that now the struggle will be for complete
independence and 26 Jan 1930 will be observed as
independence day nationwide.
• Soon after this Gandhi decided to launch a Salt Satyagraha.
• On 12 March 1930 – Gandhiji begun his famous ‘Salt March’

and launched Dandi Satyagraha officially.
• He chose the issue of salt as this was indispensable for every

household.
• On 6 April 1930 broke the salt law by making a fistful of salt.
• Taking a cue from Gandhiji’s Salt Satyagraha, all across large

parts of India, peasants breached forest laws, factory workers
went on strike, lawyers boycotted courts and students refused
to attend government-run educational institutions.
• In November 1930 – First Round Table Conference was held –
Gandhiji did not attend.
• In 1931, the ‘Gandhi-Irwin Pact’ was signed by the terms of
which civil disobedience was called off and all prisoners were
released. This pact drew many criticisms because Gandhiji was
unable to obtain a commitment to political independence for
Indians from the Viceroy, he could obtain merely an assurance
of talks.
• The Second Round Table Conference was held in 1931 in
London. Gandhiji represented the Congress in the meeting but
it was inconclusive.
• GandhijI returned to India and relaunched Civil
Disobedience but it could not get its momentum.
• In 1935 – a new Government of India Act was formed which

promised a representative form of government.
• In 1937 – in Provincial Election, Congress formed ministries in 8

out of 11 provinces.
• In September 1939 – World War II broke out. Nehru and

Gandhi promised Congress support to the war effort if the
British, in return, promised to grant India independence. But
the British rejected this offer.
• Through 1940 and 1941, the Congress organised a series
of individual satyagrahas to pressure the rulers to promise
freedom once the war had ended..
• In 1940 – Two Nation Theory put forward by Jinnah.
• 1942 – Failure of Cripps Mission.
• On 9 August 1942 – Quit India Movement was launched by
Gandhiji. He along with all prominent leaders was sent to jail.
• 1946- Cabinet Mission- Failed to get the Congress and the
League to agree on the federal system.
• On 16th August 1946 – Direct Action Day was called by Jinnah

to press the League’s demand for Pakistan and Communal riots
in Bengal, Bihar, U.P, and Punjab.
• In 1947 Lord Mountbatten was appointed as viceroy.
• 15th August 1947- Formal transfer of power, the

announcement of partition and India got her independence.
The last heroic days of Gandhiji:-
• On 15th August 1947, Gandhiji was not at Delhi to witness the

festivities. He was at Calcutta and undertook 24 hours fast.
• Due to the initiative of Gandhiji and Nehru, the Congress

passed a resolution on the rights of the minorities.
• After working to bring peace to Bengal, Gandhiji shifted to
Delhi from where he hoped to move on to the riot-torn
districts of Punjab. On 30th January 1948, Gandhiji was shot
dead by Nathuram Godse.
Sources to know more about Gandhiji:-
1. Public voice and private scripts.
2. Series of Personal letters published by Gandhiji in his journal

Harijan.
3. A bunch of old letters edited by Nehru.
4. Fortnightly Reports of the Home Department.
5. From newspapers.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 14 Understanding Partition
Politics
• Unionist Party: This party stood for the interests of all

landlords in Punjab. It was founded in the year 1923.
• Confederation: It refers to a union of fairly autonomous and
sovereign states with a central government.
• Arya Samaj: Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in the
year 1875.
• Muslim League: Founded in the year 1906.
• Hindu Mahasabha: Founded in the year 1915.
• Federal Union: Autonomous federation given autonomous
status. Its Central Government has some limited powers.
• Lucknow Pact: A pact between Congress and Muslim League
signed in the year 1916.
• Pakistan: Came into existence after partition of India.
Choudhary Rehmat Ali, a Punjabi- Muslim student at
Cambridge, coined the name ‘Pakistan’ for the first time in
the year 1933.
• Muslim League’s Resolution at Lahore: In 1940, the Muslim
League moved a resolution at Lahore demanding a measure
of autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas.
• General Elections of 1946: In the year 1946, last general
elections were held of pre-independence. Major political
parties of India contested the election. The Indian Congress
won massively in the general elections of constituencies. The
Muslim also won in Muslim constituencies.
• Cabinet Mission: A three-member Cabinet Mission arrived in
India in March 1946.

Sources: Oral testimonies – narrations, memories, diaries, family
history and handwritten accounts.
Partition or Holocaust
1. Almost 15 million people had to cross borders
2. They were rendered homeless, having suddenly lost all their

immovable property and most of their movable assets,
separated from many of their relatives and friends as well.
3. Thus stripped of their local or regional cultures, they were

forced to begin picking up their life from scratch.
4. The Holocaust in Germany is remembered and referred to in

our contemporary concerns so much. Yet, differences between
the two events should not be overlooked.
5. In 1947-48, the subcontinent did not witness any state-driven

extermination as was the case with Nazi Germany
6. The “ethnic cleansing” that characterized the partition of India
was carried out by self-styled representatives of religious
communities rather than by state agencies
The power of stereotypes –
• The stereotypes of the extraterritorial and Pan Islamic loyalty

comes fused with other objectionable ideas about both the
communities, the Hindus as well as the Muslims.
• Some of these stereotypes pre-date Partition, but they were

immensely strengthened because of 1947.
• The relationship between Pakistan and India has been

profoundly shaped by this legacy of Partition.
Why partition took place –
1. Mr. Jinnah’s two nation Theory ( the Hindus and Muslims in
colonial India constituted two separate nations can be
projected back into medieval history).
2. The British policy of divide and rule.
3. Separate electorates for Muslims, created by the colonial

government in 1909 and expanded in 1919, crucially shaped
the nature of communal politics.
4. Hindu Muslim conflict and communal riots in different parts of

the country.
5. The secular and radical rhetoric of the Congress merely

alarmed conservative Muslims and the Muslim landed elite,
without winning over the Muslim masses.
6. The Pakistan Resolution of 23rd March 1940 demanding a

measure of autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas of the
subcontinent.
Post-war development –
• Muslim league emerged as the sole representative of Indian
Muslims in the provincial elections of 1946.
• Cabinet mission proposal of a loose three-tier confederation in

1946 which failed.
• Direct action day by Muslim league on 16th August 1946. On

this day, violence spread to many parts of the country.
• In March 1947 the Congress high command voted for dividing

the Punjab and Bengal.
Post Partition Developments
• The collapse of the institutions of governance.
• Gandhiji’s valiant effort to restore communal harmony and

principle of Non-violence
· Gendering partition ——
• Women were raped, abducted and sold. Families were

uprooted.
• Some began to develop new family bonds in their changed

circumstances.
• But the Indian and Pakistani governments were insensitive to

the complexities of human relationships and sent them back to
their earlier families or locations.
• Preserving honor –
• Ideas of preserving community honor came into play in this

period of extreme physical and psychological danger.
• The men feared that their females would be molested by the

enemies, they killed their own women.
• For the community of survivors, the remembrance ritual helps

keep the memory alive.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 15 Framing the Constitution
The Beginning of a New Era
• Constitution: Set of rules and regulations according to which a

country is governed.
• Draft: A premier version of legal document.
• Clause: A distinct section of a document.
• Constituent Assembly: An assembly of people’s representative
that writes a constitution for a country.
• Constituent Amendment: A change in the constitution made by
the supreme legislative body in the country.
The Making of the Constituent Assembly:
• Members of the constituent assembly were indirectly elected.
Members were elected by provincial legislature. Constituent
assembly was dominated by the Congress.
• The Muslim League boycotted the assembly as it wanted
separate constitution and separate state.
• Though members were mostly from the Congress but views
and opinion of its members were diverse. In constituent
assembly, there was intense debate between the members
regarding different ideas and proposals.
• Intense discussion within the constituent assembly was also
influenced by opinion of the public. Public was also asked to
send in their views and ideas.
• Linguistic minorities asked for protection of their mother
tongue, religious minorities demanded for special safeguards.
While dalits asked for abolition of caste suppression and
reservation in education and government jobs.
The Dominant Voices in the Constituent Assembly:
• Out of all 300 members of the constituent assembly, few

members like Pt Nehru,Vallabh Bhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad,
BR Ambedkar, ICM Munshi and Alladi Krishna Swamy Aiyar
had a remarkable contribution. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabh
Bhai Patel and Rajendra Prasad were representatives of the
National Congress.
• Pt Jawaharlal Nehru moved crucial “objectives resolution” as
well as proposal of National Flag. While Vallabh Bhai Patel
played an important role in negotiating with princely states,
merging these princely states with India. He drafted several
reports and worked for reconciling the opposing point of view.
• Rajendra Prasad as a President of assembly steered the
discussion along the constructive lines and made sure that all
members had a chance to speak.
• Dr BR Ambedkar joined the cabinet on advice of Gandhiji and
worked as law minister. He was the chairman of drafting
committee of the constitution. KM Munshi and Alladi
Krishnaswamy Aiyar were another two lawyers who played
important role in drafting of the Constitution.
• There were two civil servants who gave vital assistance to
these leaders, one among them was B.N. Rao, who worked
as constitutional advisor to government of India and another
was S.N. Mukherjee who put up complex proposal in clear
legal language.
The Objective of Indian Constitution:
• On 13th December, 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru introduced

“Objective Resolution”. It proclaimed India to be an
“Independent Sovereign Republic” guaranteed its citizen,
justice, equality, freedom and assured “adequate safeguards
for minorities, backward and tribal areas, depressed, and
backward classes”.
• Objective resolution outlined the ideals of constitution and
provided frame-work for constitution making.
• Nehru referred to American and French constitution and
event associated with its making. He said that we are not just
going to copy them, instead he said it is important to learn
from these, so mistakes can be avoided.
• Nehru said the system of government to be established in
India had to fit in with the temper of our people and should be
acceptable to them.
• The objective of the Indian constitution would be to fuse the
liberal ideas of democracy with socialist idea of economic
justice, and re-adapt and rework on all these ideas within the
Indian context.
The Aspiration of the People:
• Somnath Lahiri, a communist member said ‘we Indians need
to be free from British influences’. He further said Constituent
Assembly was British-made and was working with British
plan.
• Nehru said, in his response that it is true, British government
played role in Assembly’s birth and attached conditions to the
function of assembly. But, he also said, we have met
because of strength of the people behind us and we shall go
as far as people wish to go alongwith us.
• He believed that members of assembly were elected by
provincial legislature and provincial legislature is elected by
Indian people. So here, we represent our country men.
• The constituent assembly was expected to express the
aspirations of people. Democracy, equality and justice were
ideals that people of India aspires for.
Rights of People:
• The way of defining the rights of people was quiet different.

Different demands were made by different groups of people.
These demands, ideas, opinions were debated, discussed
and conflicting idea were reconcilled and then consensus
was made to take collective decision.
The Problem with Separate Electorates:
• Intense debate took place in assembly on the issue of

separate electorate. B. Pocker Bahadur gave powerful
presentation for continuation for separate electorate. He said
electorate will help in giving minorities representation in the
political system and in governance of the country. The need
of Muslim could not be understood by non-Muslims-he further
said.
• Many nationalist leaders saw separate electorates system as
a tool to divide people on the basis of religion and they also
believed that this idea was finally culminated in partition of
the country. Therefore many leaders were against of it.
• Sardar Patel strongly declared that separate electorate was a
poison that has entered the body of politics of our country
and turned one community against other, caused blood
sheds, riots and partition. So for a peace we need to remove
separate electorate.
• GB Pant in a debate said, separate electorate is not only
harmful for nation but also for minorities. He said that majority
community had an obligation to try and understand the
problem of minorities and empathise with their aspirations.
Demand of separate electorate would permanently isolate the
minorities and will make them vulnerable and in addition it will
deprive them of any effective say within government.
• All these arguments against separate electorate was based
on the unity of nation, where every individual is a citizen of a
state, and each group had to be assimilated within the nation.
• The Constitution will grant citizenship and rights, and in
return citizens had to offer their loyalty to the state.
Communities could be recognized as cultural entities and.
politically members of all communities are equal to the
member of the state.
• By 1949, most of the Muslim members of constituent
assembly were agreed against separate electorates and
removed it.
• Muslims needed to take an active part in the democratic
process to ensure that they had a decisive voice in the
political system.
Objective Resolution of the Constitution:
• NG Ranga, a socialist and a leader of peasant movement

welcomed the Objective Resolution and urged that the term
minority be interpreted in economic terms. The real minorities
are poor and downtrodden.
• NG Ranga welcomed all legal and civil rights granted by the
constitution to its citizen but said these rights can only be
enjoyed when suitable conditions or opportunities are
provided. Therefore to make the condition of poor and
downtrodden better and protect them, there is need of much
more than this resolution.
• Ranga also talked about huge gap between the masses of
India and their representatives in the assembly. Most of
members of constituent assembly does not belongs to
masses. But, they are representing them as their trustees,
their companions and trying best to work for them.
• Jaipal Singh a representative, a tribal, spoke in detail about
the exploitation, oppression and discrimination faced by tribal
all through the history. He further said about the need to
protect the tribes and to make provisions that would help
them come to the level of the general population.
• Jaipal Singh said, there is a need to break physical and
emotional distance to integrate them into mainstream. He
stressed on reservation of seat in legislature, as it helps them
to give their demands voice and people would be compelled
to hear it.
Provision in the Constitution for Depressed Classes of our
Country:
• Depressed classes form 20-25% population of our country,

so they are not minority but they have faced marginalization
continuously.
• Members of Depressed classes suffered systematic
marginalization. They had no access to public places, they
were suppressed through distorted social and moral orders.
Depressed classes had no access to education and had no
share in the administration.
• Members of Depressed classes emphasized the problem of
untouchability that could not be resolved through safeguard
and protection. To completely remove this, there is a need to
integrate these people into mainstream and bring attitudinal
change in the society.
• The constituent assembly made a provision that abolished
untouchability, Hindu temples be-thrown open to all castes
and seats in legislature, jobs in government offices be
reserved for lowest castes. Many recognized that social
discrimination could only be solved through a change in the
attitudes within society.
The Powers of the State:
• Issue of division of power of the government at the centre

and at state level was intensely debated.
• Draft constitution provided three lists of subject i.e. Union
List-union government can make laws on it. State List, State
government can make laws on it and Concurrent List-Both
Union and State government can make laws on listed items.
• More items are listed in Union list. In India-Union government
is made more powerful so that it can ensure peace, security,
and can coordinate on the matter of vital interest and to
speak for whole country in the international sphere.
• However some taxes such as land and property taxes, sales
tax and tax on bottled liquor could be levied and collected by
the state on their own.
View of Santhanam on Powers of Centre and State:
• K Santhanam said reallocation of power was necessary, not

only to strengthen the state but also the centre. He said if
centre is overburdened with responsibility it could not function
properly. So it is important that some powers to the state
should be transferred.
• Again, Santhanam said states should be given appropriate
fiscal provision so that they can work independently and they
do not need to depend on centre for even nominal
expenditure,
• Santhanam and many others predicted dark future if
allocation is not done properly. He further said that province
might revolt against centre and centre will break, as
excessive power is centralised in the constitution.
Need for Strong Government:
• The need for strong government had been further reinforced

by the events of partition. Many leaders like Jawaharlal
Nehru, BR Ambedkar, Gopalaswami Ayyangar etc advocated
for strong centre.
• Before Partition the Congress had agreed to grant
considerable autonomy to the provinces. This was agreed to
satisfy the Muslim League. But after partition, there was no
political pressure and voilence aftermath of partition gave
further fillip to centralised power.
The Language of the Nation:
• In the Constituent Assembly issues over national language

was intensely debated over months. Language was an
emotional issue and it was related to culture and heritage of
the particular region.
• By 1930s, Congress and Mahatma Gandhi accepted
Hindustani as National language. Hindustani language was
easy to understand and was a popular language among large
section of India. Hindustani developed with the interaction of
diverse culture and language.
• Hindustani language was chiefly made up of Hindi and Urdu
but it also contained words of another language. But
unfortunately, the language also suffered from communal
politics. Gradually, Hindi and Urdu started moving apart.
Hindi started using more Sanskritise words similarly Urdu
became more persianised. Even then, Mahatma Gandhi
retained his faith in Hindustani. He felt that Hindustani was a
composite language for all Indians.
A Plea for Making Hindi as National Language:
• RV Dhulekar, a member of constituent assembly made a

strong plea to make Hindi as national language and language
in which constitution should be made. The plea evoked
strong opposition.
• Language committee of assembly produced a report in which
it tried to resolve the issue by deciding that Hindi in devanagri
script would be an official language but transition to Hindi
world be a gradual process and for initial 15 years after
Independence, English to be used as official language.
• Provinces were allowed to choose one language for official
work within the province.
The Fear of Domination of Hindi:
• SG Durgabai, a member of constituent assembly said that

there is intense opposition against Hindi in South India.
• After the eruption of controversy regarding the language,
there is a fear in the opponent that Hindi is antagonistic to
provincial language and it cuts the root of provincial language
and cultural heritage associated with it.
• She had accepted Hindustani as language of people but the
language is being changed. Words from Urdu and regional
languages were removed. This move erodes the inclusive
and composite character of Hindustani, and due to this,
anxieties and fear developed in the mind of people of
different language groups.
• Many members felt that issue of Hindi as a national language
must be treated cautiously and the aggressive tenor and
speech will only create fear in non-Hindi speaking people and
will further complicate the issue. There should be mutual
understanding between different stake holders.
• The Indian Constitution, which came into effect on 26 January

1950, has the distinction of being the longest in the world.
• But its length and complexity are perhaps understandable

when one considers the country’s size and diversity
• The Indian constitution was framed between Dec.1946 &
Dec.1949.
• The Indian Constitution came into effect on 26th Jan.1950.
• The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected on the

basis of the provincial elections of 1946.
• The Assembly also had representatives of the princely states.
• Since the Congress was itself a broad front these members

held a wide range of views
• The discussions within the Constituent Assembly were also

influenced by the opinions expressed by the public.
• As the deliberations continued, the arguments were reported in

newspapers, and the proposals were publicly debated
• The total membership of the Constituent Assembly was 300.
• 82 percent members were from congress as Muslim league

bycotted the constituent assembly
• Dr.B.R.Ambedkar was the chairman of the Drafting Committee

and played an important role in the Constituent Assembly.
• He was assisted by K M Munsi and Alladi Krishnaswami Aiyar
• On 13 Dec.1946 Nehru moved the “Objective Resolution” in the

Constituent Assembly.
• It was a momentous resolution that outlined the defining ideals

of the Constitution of Independent India and provided the
framework within which the work of constitution-making was
to proceed
• An interim Government was made under the leadership of

Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Leaders like Somnath Lahiri thought that constituent assembly

was the creation of the British and urged to be free from
imperial influence
• Jawahar Lal Nehru also felt the same and urged the members
to work for the will of the people.
• Heated arguments took place on issues of minority rights and

separate electorates.
• Mr Jaipal singh demanded seats reserved for the tribal people

and special rights for the protection
• J nagappa demanded seats reservation in the legislature and

reservation for the depressed class people of India
• After a lot of deliberations, the Constituent Assembly finally

recommended that untouchability be abolished, Hindu temples
be thrown open to all castes, and seats in legislatures and jobs
in government offices be reserved for the lowest castes.
• There was a vigorous debate in the Constituent Assembly on

the matter of the rights of the central Government and the
state.
• Leaders like B R Ambedkar and Nehru were advocating for a

strong centre and k Santhanam defended the rights of the
state
• Centralization now was seen as necessary both to forestall
chaos and to plan for the country’s economic development.
• The Constitution thus showed a distinct bias towards the right

of the Union of India over those of its constituent states.
• The language issue was also debated for many months within
the Constituent Assembly.
• Mahatma Gandhi believed that everyone should talk a

language which even common man could be able to
understand and he advocated Hindustani a mixture of many
languages and dialects.
• R V Dhulekar made a strong plea for hindi but the leaders from
the south feared the dominance of hindi
• As the discussion became acrimonious, many members

appealed for a spirit of accommodation.
• The Constitution of India thus emerged through a process of

intense debate and discussion.
• Many of its provisions were arrived at through a process of

give-and-take, by forging a middle ground between two
opposed positions.

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• Men and women moved in search of livelihood, as well as to escape

• People have shared new ways of carving stones, composing music,

• Manuscripts were usually written on palm leaves or on the specially

• Inscriptions are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or

• Near Sulaiman and Kirthar hills in present-day Pakistan, crops like

• Archaeologists have also found inscriptions, which are an engraved

Historians: Scholars who study the past are called historians.

8000 years ago – beginning of agriculture

4700 years ago – the first cities

2500 years ago – the Magadha Kingdom

Archaeological Evidence of Early Man: How do we know about the early

Painting-Rock paintings: Paintings on a rock shelter.

Finding out about Fire: At Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh, evidence

A Changing Environment: About 12,000 years ago, there was a major

Habitation-cum-Factory Sites: Places where stones were found and early

Bhimbetka: This is a place in Madhya Pradesh where we find examples of

Habitation refers to the place where people lived.

• Grasslands developed in many areas due to change in climate around

• Several grain-bearing panes of grass, like wheat, barley, rice grew

• In Hunsgi, a number of early Palaeolithic sites have been found. A

Habitation-Cum-Factory Sites: Factory-sites, where people lived for some

Hunter-Gatherers: People who lived in the subcontinent about two million

Microliths: Stone tools of the Mesolithic period are called Microliths.

Farming developed as a consequence of the climate change of the world.

• Different plants grow in different conditions. Different animals also

• Farming developed as a result of the climate change of the world.

• Archaeologists have found traces of huts or houses at some sites. Pit-

• On excavation, levels are found which indicate chronology (order of

• In Mehrgarh, remains of houses have been found. They had four or

• Several burial sites have been found in Mehrgarh.

Domestication: The taming of animals for various purposes is referred to

Levels: Layers of a mound formed by various waste material over hundreds

About 12,000 years ago: the beginning of Domestication.

About 10,000 years ago: the beginning of Neolithic Age.

About 8,000 years ago: the beginning of settlement at Mehrgarh.

The Harappan seal

Crafts-persons made all kinds of Things

In Dholavira in present-day Gujarat, a large open area for ceremonies, and

A storehouse has been found in the city of Lothal.

Bronze: The alloy of tin and copper is called bronze.

Crafts-Persons: Men and women who made all kinds of things-either in

Raw materials: Substances that are either found naturally or produced by

Scribes: People who knew how to write were the scribes.

Around 2700 BC, i.e. 4700 years ago: Beginning of cities.

Sanskrit and Other Languages: Scholars have discovered many

Other languages: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the

There are four Vedas:

Families were usually buried together.

Brahmins: The priests were referred to as the ‘Brahmins’. They performed

Dasyus/Dasas: The opponents of the ‘Aryas’ were referred to as

Megalith: A stone boulder, used to mark burial site, is referred to as a

About 3600 years ago – beginning of the settlement of Inamgaon.

Around 2000 years ago – Charaka wrote ‘Charaka Samhita’.

Vamas: Later, Vedic texts like Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda

Changes in Agriculture: Agriculture prospered in most of the

• The ‘rajas’ needed resources to build forts and to maintain armies.

• There were changes in agriculture too. The use of Iron Ploughshares

• Magadha became the most important ‘mahajanapada’ in about 200

‘Bhaga’: Taxes on crops (1/6 of the produce) was called ‘bhaga’.

‘Gana’/‘Sangha’: A form of government followed in the kingdom of Vajji.

‘Janapadas’: Kingdoms were referred to as ‘janapadas’. (‘jana’ – land,

‘Mahajanapada’: The most important of the ‘janapadas’.