SL31403: Marine Biotechnology

Introduction to Marine Biotechnology

Definition
History
Ancient and Modern biotechnology
Biotechnological applications
Marine Biotechnology
Research priorities in marine biotechnology
Definition
Formal definition: “Biotechnology is the
application of biological organisms, systems,
or processes to manufacturing and service
industries”.
A similar but somewhat Broader definition:
“…the integrated use of biochemistry,
microbiology and engineering sciences in
order to achieve technological (industrial)
application of the capabilities of micro-
organisms, cultured tissue cells, and parts
thereof”.
 Definition:
Classical: “Biotechnology is the application of biological
systems and organisms to technical and industrial
processes.

Biotechnology is defined in the technology curriculum as

the “use of living systems, organisms, or parts of
organisms to manipulate natural processes in order to
develop products, systems, or environments to benefit
people”.
The technologies employed in this area include: classic
genetic selection and/or breeding for the direct in vitro
modification of genetic material, e.g. recombinant DNA, or
gene splicing, and other novel techniques for modifying
genetic material of living organisms, e.g. cell fusion.
Branches of Biotechnology

Medicine, Food GM-Plant, HYV, Vaccines, r-DNA Fermentation

& feed from micro-propagation, products (gene), based products,
aquatic biofertilizer, Monoclonal enzymes, biofuel,
resources biopesticides, Antibodies, Stem bioenergy
probiotics cells, tissue
delivery methods
 EVOLUTION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY TIMELINE
Plants domesticated, selectively bred for desired
Prior to characteristics
1750:
Microorganisms used to make cheese, beverages, and
bread by fermentation
Edward
1797: Used living microorganisms to protect people from disease
Jenner
1750- Increased cultivation of leguminous crops and crop rotations
1850: to increase yield and land use
1850's: Industrially processed animal feed and inorganic fertilizer
Charles Hypothesized that animal and plant populations adapt over
1859:
Darwin time to best fit the environment
Louis Proved existence of microorganisms Showed that all living
1864:
Pasteur things are produced by other living things
Johann
1869: Isolated DNA from the nuclei of white blood cells
Meischer
Koch,
1893: Fermentation process patented
Pasteur
 Coined the term "gene" Proposed that
chromosomes carry genes (factors which
1902: Walter Sutton
Mendel said that could be passed from
generation to generation)
1904: Artificial "silks" developed
Proved that genes are carried on chromosomes
1910: Thomas H. Morgan
"Biotechnology" term coined
Germans Use acetone produced by plants to make
bombs
Yeast grown in large quantities for animal and
1918:
glycerol
Made activated sludge for sewage treatment
process
Increased mutation rate in fruit flies by exposing
1927: Herman Mueller
them to x-rays
1928: Alexander Fleming Discovered antibiotic properties of certain molds
1920-1930: Plant hybridization
1938: Proteins and DNA studied by x-ray crystallography
Term 'molecular biology" coined
 George
1941: Beadle Proposed "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis
Edward Tatum
Described sickle cell anemia calling it a molecular
1943-1953: Linus Pauling
disease Cortisone made in large amounts
DNA is identified as the genetic material
Organized course to study a type of bacterial virus
1945: Max Delbruck
that consists of a protein coat containing DNA
Mid-1940's: Penicillin produced
Transition from animal power to mechanical power
on farms
Determined that there is always a ratio of 1:1
1950: Erwin Chargaff adenine to thymine in DNA of many different
organisms
Artificial insemination of livestock
1952: Alfred Hershey Used radioactive labeling to determine that it is the
Margaret DNA not protein which carries the instructions for
Chase assembling new phages
1956: Dangr Sequenced insulin (protein) from pork
1957: Francis Crick Explained how DNA functions to make protein

1958: Coenberg Discovered DNA polymerase

1960: Isolation of m-RNA
1965: Classification of the plasmids
Marshall
1966: Determined that a sequence of three nucleotide
Nirenberg
Severo Ochoa bases determine each of 20 amino acids
1970: Isolation of reverse transcriptase
1971: Discovery of restriction enzymes
Cut sections of viral DNA and bacterial DNA with
1972: Paul Berg
same restriction enzyme
Spliced viral DNA to the bacterial DNA
1973: Stanley Cohen Produced first recombinant DNA organism
Herbert Boyer Beginning of genetic engineering
1975: Moratorium on recombinant DNA techniques
National Institute of Health guidelines developed for study of
1976:
recombinant DNA
1977: First practical application of genetic engineering
human growth hormone produced by bacterial cells
Genetic engineering techniques used to produce human insulin in
1978: Genentech, Inc.
E. coli
First biotech company on NY stock exchange
Stanford University First successful transplantation of mammalian gene
Discoverers of restriction enzymes receive Nobel Prize in
medicine
Produce human growth hormone and two kinds of interferon DNA
1979: Genentech, Inc. from malignant cells transformed a strain of cultured mouse cells
- new tool for analyzing cancer genes
US. Supreme Court decided that manmade microbes could be
1980:
patented
1983: Genetech, Inc. Licensed Eli Lily to make insulin
First transfer of foreign gene in plants
1985: Plants can be patented
First field trials of DNA recombinant plants resistant to
1986:
insects, viruses, bacteria
 Traditional Biotechnology
Include the domestication of animals, planting of
crops and the use of microorganisms to make
cheese, yoghurt, bread, beer and wine.

Domestication began over 10,000 years ago when our

ancestors started keeping plants as a reliable source
of food. Rice, barley and wheat were among the first
domesticated plants.

Wild animals were tamed to provide milk or meat or

help with ploughing or guarding the farm. The dog,
sheep and goat are thought to be among the first
animals that were domesticated
 Making new foods using traditional biotechnology
Our early ancestors used microorganisms to make cheese,
yoghurt and bread. They also made alcoholic drinks like
beer and wine. All of these foods and drinks are made by
fermentation.

During fermentation, microorganisms such as yeast, molds

or bacteria break down sugars in the absence of oxygen.

Louis Pasteur first described the scientific basis for

fermentation in the late 1800s.

Pasteur’s hypothesis, called the germ theory, the existence

of microorganisms and their effect on fermentation.
 Traditional medicines
Some traditional medicines also used organisms or
products of organisms. For example, the ancient
Egyptians used honey for respiratory infections and as an
ointment for wounds.

Honey is a natural antibiotic, so it would have prevented

wounds from becoming infected.

By about 600BC, the Chinese were using mouldy soybean

curds to treat boils. Mouldy cheese to treat infected
wounds. The moulds released natural antibiotics that
killed bacteria and prevented the spread of infection.

Despite these natural treatments, it wasn’t until 1928 that

Alexander Fleming first extracted penicillin – the first
antibiotic – from mould.
The discovery of genes
A monk named Gregor Mendel identified genes as the
unit of inheritance in 1865. It took another 90 years of
research before scientists discovered that genes
were made of DNA. This discovery was the
beginning of modern biotechnology.
Modern Biotechnology?
Modern biotechnology refer to biotechnological
techniques for the manipulation of genetic material and the
fusion of cells beyond normal breeding barriers.

The most obvious example is genetic engineering to create

genetically modified/engineered organisms (GMOs/GEOs)
through “transgenic technology” involving the insertion or
deletion of genes

The discovery that genes are made up of DNA and can be

isolated, copied and manipulated has led to a new era of
modern biotechnology

Recent developments in biotechnology include genetically

modified plants and animals, cell therapies and
nanotechnology
Applications in biotechnology
Key applications of biotechnology include:
DNA profiling
DNA cloning
Transgenesis
Genome analysis
Stem cells and tissue engineering
Xenotransplantation
DNA Profiling
DNA profiling is the process where a specific
DNA pattern, called a profile, is obtained
from a person or sample of bodily tissue

Human DNA profiles can be used to identify

the origin of a DNA sample at a crime scene,
or test for parentage
 How do you create a DNA profile?
1. Get a sample of DNA
DNA is found in most cells of the body, including white
blood cells, semen, hair roots, and body tissue. Traces
of DNA can also be detected in body fluids, such as
saliva and perspiration contain epithelial cells.

2. Extract the DNA

DNA is contained within the nucleus of cell. Chemicals
are added to break open the cells, extract the DNA, and
isolate it from other cell components.
3. Copy the DNA

Often only small amounts of DNA are available for

analysis, so the STRs at each genetic locus are
copied many times using the polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) to get enough DNA to make a profile.

Specific primers are used during PCR, which attach

a fluorescent tag to the copied STRs.
4. Determine the size of the Simple Sequence
Repeats (SSRs) or short tandem repeats STRs
The size of the STRs at each genetic locus is determined
using a genetic analyser. The genetic analyser separates
the copied DNA by gel electrophoresis and can detect
the fluorescent dye on each STR. This is the same piece
of equipment used in the lab for DNA sequencing.

What is SRT?
Variations in DNA sequence between individuals are termed
"polymorphisms. Sequences with the highest degree of
polymorphism are very useful for DNA analysis in forensics
cases and paternity testing. This activity is based on analyzing
the inheritance of a class of DNA polymorphisms known as
"Short Tandem Repeats", or simply STRs
5. Is there a match
 DNA cloning
DNA cloning is the starting point for many genetic
engineering approaches to biotechnology research.

Large amounts of DNA are needed for Genetic

Engineering.

Multiple copies of a piece of DNA can be made either

by using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or by
cloning DNA in cells.

DNA cloning is also called recombinant DNA

technology. Because DNA that has been ‘cut’ and
‘pasted’ from an organism into a vector.
 What is cloned DNA used for?
DNA cloning is used to create a large number of
copies of a gene or other piece of DNA.

The cloned DNA can be used to:

Work out the function of the gene
Investigate a gene’s characteristics (size,
expression, tissue distribution)
Look at how mutations may affect a gene’s
function
Make large concentrations of the protein coded for
by the gene
The four main steps in DNA cloning are:
Step 1. The chosen piece of DNA is ‘cut’ from the source
organism using restriction enzymes.

Step 2. The piece of DNA is ‘pasted’ into a vector and the

ends of the DNA are joined with the vector DNA by ligation..

Step 3. The vector is introduced into a host cell (bacterium

or yeast), by a process called transformation. The host cells
copy the vector DNA along with their own DNA, creating
multiple copies of the inserted DNA.

Step 4. The vector DNA is isolated (or separated) from the

host cells’ DNA and purified.
 Transgenesis
Transgenic organism or food is genetically modified
plants, animals or microorganisms with genetic material
introduced to the host from other species.

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are any

organisms containing genetic material modified by the
use of gene technology

Example: Dolly, the sheep, is not transgenic as there is no

foreign gene, but egg is removed and technique used is
nuclear transfer.
Polly was given human gene that encoded as blood
clotting factor 1X. Transgenic is produced from human
protein (antithrombin-III)
 Genome
The term genome can be applied specifically
to mean that stored on a complete set of
nuclear DNA but can also be applied to that
stored within organelles that contain their
own DNA,

the genome is the entirety of an organism's

hereditary information.
genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in
a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A
genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence
and aids in navigating around the genome. The Human
Genomic Project was organized to map and to
sequence the human genome.

Genome composition is used to describe the make up of

contents of a haploid genome, which should include
genome size, proportions of non-repetitive DNA and
repetitive DNA in details.

By comparing the genome compositions between

genomes, scientists can better understand the
evolutionary history of a given genome
What is marine Biotechnology?
Marine biotechnology define as “the
application of scientific and engineering
principles to the processing of materials
by marine biological agents to provide
goods and services”

Marine biotechnology encompasses

pharmaceuticals, agriculture, industrial
applications and bioremediation
Sources of Marine-Derived Product
Macro- and Microalgae
Extremophiles
Marine Sponges
Fish and Seafood By-Products
 Photosynthetic Pigments

Carotenoids
β-Carotene
Astaxanthin
Other carotenoids
Phycobiliproteins
Chlorophylls
Lipids: Marine-based long-chain PUFAs
(LC-PUFAs)
Microalgae as a source of n-3 LC-PUFAs
Fish as a source of n-3 LC-PUFAs
Fungi as a source of n-3 LC-PUFAs
Transgenic organisms as a source of n-3 LC-
PUFAs
Extremophiles as a source of n-3 LC-PUFAs
Macroalgae and mosses as a source of n-3 LC-
PUFAs
Krill as a source of n-3 LC-PUFAs
 Polysaccharides from algae

Hydrocolloids
Fucans/fucanoids and other
polysaccharides
Exopolysaccharides from cyanobacteria
Exopolysaccharides from extremophiles
Chitin and chitosan
Marine enzymes: for use in the food industry

Digestive proteases
Lipases
Polyphenol oxidases
Chitinolytic enzymes
Transglutaminase
Extremophilic enzymes
Enzymes from red algae
Several research priorities have been identified in
aquatic/marine biotechnology:

Increasing the world ‘s food supply

Restoring and protection of marine ecosystems
Identifying novel compounds for the benefit of
human health and medical treatment
Improving seafood safety and quality
Discovering and developing new products with the
application in the chemical industry.
Seeking new approaches to monitor and treatment
diseases
Increasing knowledge of biological and geochemical
process in the world ocean
QUESTIONS?