Thesis 9: The Principal Historico-Theological milestones in the Development of the Trinitarian Dogma.

Up
to the proclamation of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. Elements of the Augustinian Trinitarian Theology:
The Notion of Relation, the Psychological Doctrine. Central Tasks of the Systematic Elaboration of the Doctrine
of the Trinity of St. Thomas Aquinas. The Question of Filioque in the Past and at Present.
I. Principal Historico-Theological milestones in the Development of the Trinitarian Dogma up to the
proclamation of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed

a. Early Testimonies
a.1 Baptismal and Eucharistic Liturgy
A good number of the Church Fathers has recorded the fact that the Trinitarian formula has always been used
in the celebration of the ancient Baptismal Liturgy. Tertullian in his work De Spectaculis, and St. Justin in his
First Apology both understood baptism as a solemn celebration wherein a man formally rejects evil of paganism
and consecrates himself totally to the one true God. In that solemn act of consecration, the Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit was invoked over the person/s to be baptized. Eucharistic liturgy is also connected to the Trinitarian
mystery as also testified in the works of Justin and Hippolytus of Rome (Apostolic Tradition)

a.2 Christian doxologies

The works of the Fathers of the Church equally provide us also with a credible testimony that the Christian
community ever since have always considered the Trinitarian Formula as an integral and indispensable aspect of
their liturgy and common prayers. St. Basil informs us that it was an immemorial custom among Christians when
they lit the evening lamp to give thanks to God with this simple yet profound prayer: Ainoumen Patera kai Gion
kai Hagion Pneuma Theou (We give praise and glory to the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit of God).

b. Post-Apostolic Fathers (A.D. 90-140)

Existing writings from this particular epoch are not abundant. These documents are of great significance
in the development of the Trinitarian Dogma due to the proximity of their composition to the Apostolic Age.
Actually, some of the religious men behind these ancient manuscripts were contemporary of the apostles
themselves. Hence, it is can be concluded, that their teachings reflect, in one way or another, the shared first-
century understanding of the Godhead.
Clement- In this letter, Clement clearly teaches the Corinthians about the divinity of Jesus Christ saying,
“Brethren, we ought so to think of Christ as of God, as of the Judge of the living and the dead.” Moreover, he
equally admonish them to adhere to the veracity of Christ’s humanity.
Ignatius of Antioch- Similar to Clement of Rome, he expressed in clear terms the truth of Christ’s Divinity and
Humanity in his epistle to the Christian community of Smyrna:
“There is only one physician both carnal and spiritual, God become man, true life in death, sprung both
from Mary and from God, first subject to suffering, and then incapable of it-Jesus Christ our Lord. He
is really of the Line of David according to the flesh, and the son of God by the will and power of God.”

In brief, the Post-Apostolic Fathers held strongly the doctrine of the one God (monotheism). Likewise,
they also affirmed the divinity of Jesus Christ and by using the language of the New Testament was able to
distinguish between the Father and the Son. The Holy Spirit, on the other hand, was not given much attention,
save for the fact that he was mentioned as God’s spirit who was revealed to men through the person of Christ. So
strictly speaking, there was yet no specifically Trinitarian language and notions in the writings of this age. (cf.The
Development of the Trinitarian Dogma, Jason Dulle)

c. Greek Apologists (AD 130-180)

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 The Greek Apologists were creative teachers/philosophers who penned literary pieces in order to
demonstrate goodness and to defend the truthfulness of the Christian faith to the pagans. It is good to note that it
was specifically during this time that the doctrine of the Logos started to develop and be transmitted. But, it is
equally necessary to understand that the idea of the Logos was originally a popular Hellenistic concept. For the
Greeks the Logos is the force which controls and puts order in the universe.

Justin Martyr, is considered to be the first writer to teach a plurality within the Godhead. In his First
Apology he wrote, “We reasonably worship [Jesus Christ], having learned that he is the Son of the True God
Himself, and holding Him in the second place, and the prophetic Spirit in the third.” Justin’s prime concern was to
establish the relationship of the Father and the Logos. However, Justin turned to subordinate the Son to the Father
as he explained that the Logos is only second to the Father in time and sequence, and in authority but not in will.
(cf. The Development of the Trinitarian Dogma, Jason Dulle) Like the Post-Apostolic Fathers, he did not have an
elaborate doctrine on the Holy Spirit, save for the fact that He [Holy Spirit] seems to be equated with the Logos.

Generally speaking, the other apologists believed and expounded that Jesus (Son) is the Divine Reason,
which existed in God’s intellect, but possessing no personal existence, till He emanated from the God [Father] as
his principal creation. Only then, that the Son receive a personal divine existence. This mode of existence of the
Logos, although different from the Father, is still dependent upon Him [Father]. Simply put, they did not adhere
to the doctrine that the Father and the Logos are coeternal, consubstantial, and coequal.

d. Old Catholic Age (170-325)

Christian Theology is considered to have flourished during this period. A good number of theological terms and
notions of this age were used in the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople to formulate the Church’s official
doctrine on the Trinity

St. Irenaeus (182-188) - Two matters distinctively differentiate him from the apologists. First, was his assertion that
the Logos ‘coexisted’ with the Father, and therefore, is eternal. Second, is his teaching in which the Spirit is equated
with the Father, or more particularly to God’s Wisdom.

Tertullian- He is most notable for being the first father (Latin) to refer to God as Trinity and as Three Persons in one
substance. In his work entitled Against Praxeas, he stated,
“God is "the ‘Trinity,’ which consists of ‘three persons…. God is ‘one only substance in three coherent
and inseparable (Persons)… The Father and the Son are ‘two separate Persons, two different Beings, and
‘distinct but not separate’. The Son is ‘another’ from the Father ‘on the ground of Personality, not of
Substance-in the way of distinction, not of division."

Although his doctrine on the Trinity is advanced, many of his teachings on the Godhead were erroneous, such as,
when he said that the Three Persons were simply parts of the Godhead:
“The Father is the entire substance, but the Son is a derivation and portion of the whole…The Father is…
greater than the Son. The Son of God is a portion of the whole Godhead.”

His writings also reveal that many of his terminologies referring to the Godhead is “subordinationistic.

Origen- Among the Oriental Fathers, he has made the biggest contribution in the development of the Trinitarian
doctrine. He was the first to demonstrate an eternal unity of persons. For him, the Son is not only eternal, but is also
eternally begotten. However, his teaching on the equality of the equality is really inconsistent. In his commentary in
John, he explained, “The Father is the one true God, but…other beings besides the true God…have become gods by
having a share of God…. The Father is the fountain of divinity.”

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 In brief, the major contributions of this age are the concepts of the three persons in the Godhead, the use of the term
Trinity, the personalities, and the eternal begetting (Generation) of the Son. Generally speaking, the Fathers of this
epoch agreed on the truth of the consubstantiality of the Persons, but their coequality was still not accepted.

Heresies Concerning the Trinity

a. “Monarchianism- This heresy hold rigidly to the doctrine of one Person in God and therefore denied the
divinity of Christ. According to its attitude towards the Person of Christ, Monarchianism falls into two main
divisions:
1. Dynamic or adoptionist Monarchianism- teaches that Christ is a mere man, although born in a
supernatural manner from the Holy Ghost and of the B.V.M. At his baptism, He was equipped by God with
Divine Power in extraordinary measure, and was adopted by Him in place of a Son.
2. Patripassianic or Modalist Monarchianism accepts the True Divinity of Christ, but admits only one
Person in God, by teaching that the Father had become man in Jesus Christ, and had suffered.
3. Sabellian Modalism- this heresy taught that in God there was one Hypostasis and Three Prosopa
(actors, masks, roles) corresponding to His three different modes of Revelation. The Uni-Personal God revealed
Himself as Father in Creation, as a Son in the Redemption, and as the Holy Ghost in the works of sanctification.
b. Subordinationism-admits three different Persons in God, but denies consubstantiality of the Second and Third
Persons with the Father, and therefore their True Divinity.
1. Arianism- taught that the Logos does not exist from all eternity. He is not generated from the Father,
but is a creature of the Father, produced by Him from nothing before all other creatures. He is unlike the Father
and is mutable and capable of development.
2. Macedonianism- extended the notion of subordinationism to the doctrine of the Holy Ghost by declaring
the Holy Ghost to be a mere creature, a mere ministering Spirit like the angels.
e. The Council of Nicaea
This ecumenical council was convened by Emperor Constantine in the year 325 AD. Approximately, 1500-2000
bishops participated in that very important gathering to settle the crisis caused by the Arianism and so restore the unity of
the Church. In that council, the bishops condemned Arius’ doctrines as heretical and formulated a creed to elucidate the
Church’s belief. (cf. Compact History of the Church, Alan Schreck)

The council’s contribution to the development of the Trinitarian doctrine is very essential. It definitely rejected the
idea that the Logos was created and non-eternal with the Father, and established that the Logos was of the same
substance/consubstantial (homoousius) with the Father (cf. Compact History of the Church, Alan Schreck. A portion of
the creed clearly states, “…in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten generated from the Father, that its, from the being
of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, True God from True God.”

f. Post-Nicene Period
Although Arianism was condemned by the Council of Nicaea, it was able to survive and even flourish through the
emperors who supported and tolerated it. Thus, these years are seen as a period in which the church struggled to preserve
its doctrine which has just been formally defined. Among the prominent persons who tirelessly worked to defend the
Nicene Creed were Athanasius and the Great Cappadocian Fathers. A summary of their teachings is presented below:
“The one God-head subsists in three coequal, coeternal, coessential persons, and this truth is an
incomprehensible mystery. There is communion of substance but distinction of personhood. This trinity
is a perfect, inseparable, indivisible union, and the persons work together in all things. The unique
distinguishing characteristics of the persons are as follows: the Father is unbegotten, the Son is begotten

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 (generated), and the Holy Spirit is proceeding (spirated). The generation of the Son and the procession of
the Holy Spirit are mysteries, however.”1

g. First Council of Constantinople

It was convoked by Emperor Theodosius in the East and Gratian in the West. The bishops in this council
reaffirmed the faith of Nicaea, chiefly the divinity of Jesus Christ. Moreover, Constantinople supplemented to the Nicene
Symbol the full, coequal, coeternal, and consubstantial deity of the Holy Spirit. The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed
professes that the Holy Spirit is: a. Holy- since He is a Divine Person; b. The Lord-this is most often refers to Christ but
also applied to the Holy Spirit to designate a divine title; c.) Giver of Life (vivifier)- affirms the mission ad extra of the
Holy Spirit to sanctify, to give new life, and to recreate; d.) who proceeds from the Father and the Son- demonstrate the
divine origin of the Holy Spirit; d.) adored and glorified- affirms the adorability of the Holy Spirit together with the
Father and the Son; f.) who spoke through the prophets-intended still to affirm the divinity of the Holy Spirit.

II. Elements of the Augustinian Trinitarian Theology: The Notion of Relation, the Psychological Doctrine

a. The Notion of Relations

St. Augustine explicated in De Trinitate that the Three divine Persons are Being itself, eternal, immutable and
consubstantial. Therefore, the distinction among them is found not in their essence but in their relationships ( relations),
which is clearly expressed in their divine names: Father (beginning and unbegotten.)’ Son (Logos and image of the
Father); Holy Spirit (Gift and Love)2.
The relations are founded on the “processions” or origin of the Divine Persons. Hence, through the generation of
the the Son by the Father, and the spiration of the Holy Spirit by the Father and the Son the divine relations arose.
Furthermore, Augustine clarified that the relations in the Trinity indicate no inferiority and that it distinguishes the three
divine persons. Simply saying, the trinity of persons in the one God is not rooted in the threeness of substance or the
threeness of accidents but in the threeness of relations: of begetting, of being begotten, and of proceeding.

b. The Psychological Doctrine

De Trinitate is well-known for what is popularly called the “psychological analogies” of the Trinity. St.
Augustine explains that although human beings cannot have intellectual vision of the Trinity, they can still recognize
various reflections and images of the Trinity in the created world, but most specially in the uppermost part of the
human person(the mind), who are made “in the image and likeness of God”. Hence, in the mind of man, one may
encounter several “trinities”. These are listed below in the order that they somehow correspond to the Father, Son, and
Holy Spirit:
lover, loved object, the lover's love for that object
the mind, its knowledge, its love
the mind's remembering itself, understanding itself, and willing itself
memory, understanding, and will
the mind's remembering God, understanding God, and willing God
existing, knowing that one exists, loving the fact that one exists

Although, St. Augustine consider the contemplation of these realities as helpful in the pursuit of God, he honestly
admitted that these are infinitely inadequate to serve as God’s representations.

III. Central Tasks of the Systematic Elaboration of the Doctrine of the Trinity of St. Thomas
Aquinas
1
The Development of the Doctrine of the Trinity, Jason Dulle.
2
The Fathers of the Church, Hubertus Drobner, 419.

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 a. Immanent-Divine Processions: Origins of the Divine Person
The doctrine of our faith states thus, a.) God the Father is unbegotten, that is, he does not proceed from any
Person; b.) God the Son- who as the incarnate Logos is Jesus Christ-proceeds from the Father by way of
generation; c.) God the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.

a.1 The Notion and Definition of Procession

In plain terms, procession is the origination of one thing from another. St. Thomas explained that the
procession of the divine Persons are actions that transpire within God and whose end (terminus) is God himself.3
Hence, they are immanent (ad intra) processions. As such, these processions of persons correspond to the two
immanent operations of the Divine Nature, i.e. a. knowing himself infinitely; b. loving himself infinitely. Properly
speaking, the processions are actions of the Divine Persons. It means, therefore, that the Internal-divine Processions
do not originate from the Divine Essence.

a.2 Generation (Procession of the Word)

Generation entails not only a being’s proceeding from another being with identity of substance or nature,
but similarly proceeding by creating likeness. 4 In the concept of generation the element of likeness is very
essential. Therefore, generation, properly speaking, pertains to the act of the knowledge only. The reason is that
by knowledge there is produced an image (similitude) of the object known…God the Father in knowing himself,
produces the Perfect Image of Himself, i.e. the Son who is identical in nature with him.
i. “The first procession takes place through the intellect: God the Father knows himself in an infinite
manner.
ii. The action of the intellect, in general, produces a concept-the verbum, which is a likeness of the known
thing and the terminus of the act of knowing.
iii. God the Father, in knowing himself, produces a Verbum, a Word which will be:
a. God, like the Father…
b. Eternal, because God knows himself eternally
c. Numerically and specifically c-substantial with the Father. God’s intellect is infinite; the divine
Word (concept) is perfectly one with the source without any kind of diversity.
d. Differing from the Father only because he proceeds from him
e. One and unique
f. The Word, aside from being God, is the Son of God. Generation means the production of a living
being from another, receiving from the latter its same specific nature. In God, we can speak of the
true generation of the Son by the Father because the Son effectively proceeds from the Father and
is of the very same substance. The likeness is due to the manner of the procession: The concept is
a likeness of the known things.
g. Since the divine Word is unique, we can say that it is the only begotten Son of God.” (Belmonte,
180)

a.2 Spiration (Procession of Love)

It is the second immanent-divine procession, whose fruit is the Holy Spirit, and which takes place through
the act of the Divine Will. It is a central tenet of the Catholic faith that the “Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father
and the Son.” Charles Belmonte explained that in the operation of Divine Will or Love (per modum amoris), the
Father loves the Son infinitely, and the Son likewise loves the Father in an infinite way. This infinite bond of love
receives the divine name, the Holy Spirit. Therefore, the Holy Spirit is rightly called the subsistent love, infinitely
perfect, equal in nature to the Father and the Son, but a distinct Person with respect to either of them. 5
3
cf. Faith Seeking Understanding, Charles Belmonte, 178
4
cf. Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, Ludwig Ott, 66.
5
cf. Faith Seeking Understanding, Charles Belmonte, 181.

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 The basic difference between generation and spiration lies basically in the fact that the intellect, from
which the Son proceeds, and the will, from which the Holy Spirit proceeds, are virtually different in God. 6
Secondly, it is because the act of the intellect and not the will which produces the likeness that is fundamental to
the very concept of generation. Simply saying, in the act of the intellect the aim is similarity, but in the act of love
likeness is already assumed and presupposed. Therefore, as Ludwig Ott explained, “The Holy Ghost is indeed,
just as the Son, of like substance with the Father, but He does not possess the identity of substance by reason of
His proceeding.”
b. The Relations between the Divine Persons
The faith teaches that: 1.) the names of the divine persons manifests their reciprocal (mutual) relations, 2.) In
God, a number of distinct relations are present, 3.) The divine Persons are distinguished only thru the opposed
relations.

By relation is understood the ordination of one thing to another. Or as Chrales Belmonte puts it, “the real
accident whose being (esse) consists in referring one thing to another (esse ad), that is, an accident that stands in
relations to a subject when something real inheres in a subject without changing it but simply referring it to
another.”
The two immanent-divine processions, i.e. generation and spiration, form two pairs of real and mutual
relationships. Consequently, there exist in God four real relations: a.) the relationship of the Father to the Son
(paternity); b.) The relationship of the Son to the Father (filiation); c.) the relation of the Father and of the
Son (as one sole principle) to the Holy Ghost (active spiration, spirare); d.) the relation of the Holy Spirit to
the Father and to the Son (passive spiration, spirari) .7

Opposed relations are essentially distinct from one another. Relations that are opposed to one another
reciprocally eliminate each other. Therefore, the three Persons are equal because they are one and the same God,
however, they are also different inasmuch as they are unique subjects of a real relation, which is opposite to and
distinct from the relations of the other two Persons. 8 Among the four real relations, only three are considered as
opposite to each other, which means that they necessarily exclude each other. Active spiration, though opposed to
the passive, is not opposed to paternity and filiation.
c. The Divine Persons
St. Thomas took as basis for the doctrine of the Divine Persons, the Boecian definition of person as “subsistent
individual of a rational nature”. He affirms that the concept of person is perfectly realized in God, given that
person signifies the most perfect mode of being of a substance. He explained further that the name “person” is
designated to God with reference to the relation of origin, but considered as subsistent. Applied to God, the divine
person is defined as a subsistent individual in the Divine Essence. This means to say that, each divine person is the
single divine nature affected by a personal property that makes s him distinct from the other two Persons. 9

St. Thomas explained further that the divine Persons are the subsistent relations of paternity, filiation and
passive spiration (procession). Simply saying, the relation in God constitutes the Person and is the Person himself.
Everything hinges on the divine relations being both distinct and distinguishing.
d. The Divine Personal Properties (Proprietas) and Notions
By proprietas is defined as a distinguishing property, which belongs to One Divine Person only, and
distinguishes it from the Other Two. There are two Divisions: 1.) Personal or Person-forming (i.e. the three
opposed or person-forming relations of Paternity, Filiation, passive spiration) and 2.) Properties of the Person or

6
cf Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, Ludwig Ott, 67.
7
cf. Ibid, 68.
8
cf. Faith Seeking Understanding, Charles Belmonte, 185.
9
cf. Faith Seeking Understanding, Charles Belmonte, 186.

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distinguishing properties (originlessness as a property of the Father. This personal property of the Father signifies
not only the truth of “not being generated, but also possessing no origin and being the origin of the two other
Persons.
When we speak of the Notions we refer to the distinctive characteristics of the Divine Persons by which they
are recognized. The notions of the individual Persons are: a.) Innascibility (unbegotten/generator) and Paternity as
a cognitive mark of the Father, b.) Filiation (passive Generation) as a cognitive mark of the Son; c.) Passive
spiration or procession as cognitive-mark of the Holy Ghost; d.) active spiration which refer to the Father and the
Son.
e. The Trinitarian Perichoresis (Circumincession)
Ludwig Ott explains that, “by the Trinitarian Perichoresis is understood the penetration indwelling of the
Three Divine Persons reciprocally in one another.10 Circumincessio later became cimcuminsessio. The former
term circumincessio manifests more the idea of the active penetration, the latter circuminssesio more the idea of
the passive co-inherence. (This is to safeguard the unity of God.)

f. The Appropriations
Appropriation is understood as a manner of predication in which the properties and operations of God which
are common to the Three Persons, are attributed to an individual Person.11 The Appropriation serves to make
manifest the differences in the Divine persons.

“In the Scriptures and in the writing of the Fathers, we can classify four divisions of appropriations
namely,
a.) The appropriation of the substantive names of God (Theos=God the Father, Kyrios=God the Son)
b.) The appropriation of the absolute attributes of God (Power, Wisdom, Goodness) St. Hilary (De
Trinitate) Eternity is in the Father, beauty is in the Image (Word); and use (happiness is in the Gift
(Paraclete)
c.) The appropriation of the works of God (causa efficiens, causa exemplaris, causa finalis (Rom
11:36: resolution, execution, completion)
d.) The appropriation of the cult of adoration and sacrifice (the father as recipient, the Son and the
Holy Ghost as mediators)” 12

g. The Divine Missions

Theologically speaking, a mission can be defined as the sending of a divine Person to the realm of created
being by the other Person (or Persons) from which the one sent eternally proceeds. The concept of “missions”
according to St. Thomas comprised two elements: a.) the relation between the one sent and the sender as terminus
quo (The one sent stands in a relation of dependence to the sender, dependence according to origin only); b.) a
relation between the one sent to the object of the mission (terminus ad quem).13 The aim of the mission is the
presence of the One sent at a definite place. As revelation tells us, it is only the Father who sends, but is not sent;
the Son is sent and also sends. The Holy Ghost is sent only, but does not send.

IV. The Question of Filioque in the Past and at Present

a. The Issue in the Past
The Roman Catholic Church has always professed the truth that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father
and the Son. Despite the fact that the formulas used in the East (a patre per Filium) and the West (ex Patre
Filioque) differ, they, nevertheless, express the same truth and doctrinal content. At the beginning, the Eastern
Tradition expresses the Father’s unique character as the first origin of the Spirit.14 On the other hand, Western
10
cf Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, Ludwig Ott, 71.
11
cf. Ibid. 72.
12
cf. Ibid. 73.
13
cf Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, Ludwig Ott, 73.
14
cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, #248, 71.

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Tradition, expresses first the consubstantial communion between the Father and Son, by saying that the Spirit
proceeds from the Father and the Son. (To address the issue of anonymity.)

The misinterpretation of this one fundamental tenet of the faith have caused the separation of some
eastern churches from the Roman See. A prominent figure in this sad event in the history of the Church is Photius
who was then Patriarch of Constantinople. He and his followers accused the Roman Church of teaching that the
Holy Ghost proceeds from two separate principles. What they failed to understand is that the expression ex Patre
Filioque means that the Two Persons as considered as sole principle of the Third Person. The Western church has
used the formula (ex patre filioque) in order to express the distinction between the Son and the Holy Spirit.
Indeed, Revelation shows us that the Son and the Holy Ghost are different Persons. This distinction between them
is manifested in their different origins. We know that the Son proceeds from the Father only, whereas, the Holy
Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son.15

b. The Present-day Magisterium Statements on the Holy Spirit

Pope Paul VI in his Apostolic Letter Solemni Hac Liturgia (Credo of the People of God) professed the
Church’s living faith in the Holy Spirit in the following words: “We believe in the Holy Spirit, the uncreated
Person who proceeds from the Father and the Son as their eternal love. A notable inclusion to the Filioque clause
is the expression “as their eternal love.” The reason perhaps is to highlight the procession of the Holy Spirit thru
the operation of love (will).

The Catechism of the Catholic Church also provides an illuminating account on the Holy Spirit found in
#245-248. Briefly speaking, these accounts explains 1.) that the Church recognizes the truth that the Father is the
fount and origin of divinity as articulated by the Council of Constantinople, 2.) about the history and significance
of the Western (Latin) Tradition of Filioque, 3.) that the Eastern formula is in agreement to the faith of the Church
and that it agrees to the Western formula.

Sources:
Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, Ludwig Ott
Faith Seeking Understanding, Charles Belmonte
Catechism of the Catholic Church
The Fathers of the Church, Hubertus Drobner
Patrology vol. I, Johannes Quasten
The Development of the Doctrine of the Trinity, Jason Dulle
New Catholic Encyclopedia
Theses for De Universa Theologia, Fr. Angelo Antonio Brucal
Theses Compilation from the Previous Years.

“To fall in love with God is the greatest romance; to seek Him, the greatest adventure;
and to find Him, the greatest human achievement.”
Augustine of Hippo

15
cf. Faith Seeking Understanding, Charles Belmonte, 182.

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