Q.

Give an advantage and

Q. What are the 5 sampling Q. What is the difference
disadvantage of Stratified
methods? between an IV and DV?
sampling.

Q. What are the 6 ethical Q: Explain what is meant by Q. Explain what is meant by
issues? a Quasi Experiment. confounding variable

Q. Give an advantage and

Q. Explain what is meant by Q. Explain what the mean,
disadvantage of Volunteer
Validity. mode and median are.
sampling.

Q. Give one advantage and

Q. Explain what is meant by Q. What are the different
one disadvantage of using
Reliability. types of Observation?
the Mean.

Q. Give an advantage and Q. Give one advantage and

Q. Explain what is meant by
disadvantage of one disadvantage of using
a Laboratory Experiment.
opportunity sampling. the Mode.

Q. Give an advantage and Q. Give one advantage and

Q. Explain what is meant by
disadvantage of Random one disadvantage of using
a Field Experiment.
sampling. the Median.

Q. Give an advantage and

Q. Explain what is meant by Q. What is meant by the
disadvantage of Systematic
a Natural Experiment. term Operationalised?
sampling.
 IV (Independent Variable) is the
variable that is manipulated and is
the potential cause that is being
investigated whereas the DV
(Dependent Variable) is the
measured variable and is the
effect of changing the IV.
There are a variable other than the
IV that affects the DV or participants
behaviour. They systematically vary
with the IV so affect one condition
and not the other. Can be
situational or participant variables.
Mean – is the average calculated by
adding all data points up and dividing
by the number that there are.
Mode – most frequent score in a data
set.
Median – is the middle value in a ranked
(from lowest to highest) data set.
(+) It is representative of all data
scores as they are all included in the
calculation.
(-) it is possible that it can be
skewed by an anomaly (very
high/low score) and so may not be a
true reflection of the data.
(+) It isn’t affected by extreme
values.
(-) It is unrepresentative of all
data points as it focuses on only
the most frequent value and
ignores the others.
(+) It isn’t affected by extreme
values.
(-) It is unrepresentative of all
data points as it focuses on only
the middle value in the data set.
It is turning variables into
measurable Forms (e.g using an
IQ test to measure intelligence).
Being very specific about how to
manipulate and measure the
variables.
(+) It is usually representative of
the target population as p’s are in
proportion to their occurrence
and selected randomly.
(-) It is very time consuming
This is an experiment done in any
setting where the participants
are unable to be randomly
allocated because they are
automatically assigned to a
condition based on a
characteristic of them.
(+) Relatively easy as the only
preparation needed is to place
adverts and then participants
contact them to take part.
(-) likely to be biased and not apply
to target pop as only helpful people
will apply.
Naturalistic and Controlled,
Structured and Unstructured,
Covert and Overt,
Participant and Non-Participant
A research method conducted in
a controlled setting whereby the
research manipulates the IV and
measures the DV. EV’s are
controlled.
A research method conducted in
a natural setting whereby the
research manipulates the IV and
measures the DV. There is some
control of EV’s.
A research method whereby a
researcher makes use of a
naturally occurring IV (one that is
already happening and is not
manipulated by the researcher).
There is little control of EV’s.
Stratified
Systematic
Random
Opportunity
Volunteer (Self-Selected)
Lack of Privacy
Lack of Confidentiality
Deception
Lack of Right to Withdraw
Lack of Informed Consent
Failure to Protect From Harm
Validity is concerned with
accuracy. It includes whether
the study has measured what it
intended to measure (internal)
and whether results can be
generalised (external).
Reliability is concerned with
consistency. It includes whether
everything has been done
consistently in the study and
whether the study results are
consistent over time.
(+) It is quick and easy and requires
no prior preparation because it uses
those available at time of testing.
(-) It is likely to be biased as certain
types of people will be unavailable
and so may not apply to target
population.
(+) Usually representative and
unbiased as every member of the
target population has an equal
chance of being selected.
(-) can be difficult and time
consuming to collect the list of all
member of target pop first.
(+) Can be fairly unbiased as the
researcher decides on system before
seeing ps – so can’t select particular
people.
(-) if participants selected by system
don’t want to take part then the
system fails and it may make the
sample unrepresentative.

Q. Explain what is meant by
inter-rater reliability.
Q. Give any advantages and
any disadvantages of
independent
measures/groups design.
Q. Give any advantages and
any disadvantages of
matched pairs design.
Q. What is mundane
realism?
Q. What measures of
central tendency and
dispersion are used with
each level of measurement?
Q. What is social desirability
bias?
Q. Explain how order
effects can be minimised in
a repeated measures
design?
Structured – The questions are pre-set
and all p’s asked the same.
Q. Explain what each of the
3 experimental designs are.
Q. Give any advantages and
any disadvantages of
repeated measures design.
Q. Give 3 examples of
situational variables.
Q. What are the two
different types of order
effects?
Q. What is the range?
Q. What are demand
characteristics?
Q. How could you minimise
both investigator
effects/bias and demand
characteristics at the same
time?
Repeated Measures - same p’s do all
conditions of IV.
Q. Explain what the
different types of interview
there are.
Q. Explain what the
difference is between open
and closed questions?
Q. How could you
minimise/deal with
participant variables?
Q. In an observation you
can do two different types
of sampling to decide what
behaviour to observe. What
are they?
Q. What is a confederate?
Q. What is meant by an
observation?
Q. Explain what
standardised
procedures/standardisation
means.
This is a check for internal reliability
of researchers. It gets two or more

Unstructured – Questions not pre-set,
they are developed from p’s previous
answers.
Semi-Structured – Some pre-set
questions & can develop some as well.
Open – participants are free to variables because participants sit
answer anything.
Closed – Participants are to
select from limited answers.
 Repeated Measures
(completely gets rid of them)
 Matched Pairs (Minimises
some)
 Random allocation
Time Sampling – recording the
behaviour of participants at time
intervals (e.g every 20 secs)
Event Sampling – counting the
number of instances a behaviour
is shown.
An actor employed by the
experimenter to act a
participant during the
experiment.
It is where a researcher simply
watches without interfering and
there is no manipulation of an IV.
All participants receive the
same instructions, researcher,
methods etc. Used to avoid
issues with internal reliability
or extraneous variables.
Independent Measures/groups –
Different groups of p’s do each
condition of IV.
Matched Pairs – P’s are paired on
certain variables and then one from
each pair does one condition.
(+) There are no participant
all conditions of IV.
(-) There can be order effects
(-) it can increase demand
characteristics as more likely to
guess what the aim is.
Time of Day
Weather
Temperature
Noise
Distractions
Practise – whereby people get
better in the second condition as
they have done it once already.
Fatigue - whereby people get
bored doing 2 conditions so
don’t try as hard the second
time.
It is a measure of dispersion
and looks at the difference
between the highest data
point and the lowest data
point. It is mainly used with
ordinal data.
Demand characteristics are
whereby a participant
changes their behaviour in
order to help a researcher or
deliberately spoil a study.
Double Blind
Keeps aims hidden from
researcher collecting data and
participants.
researchers (e.g observers) to score
participants using the same coding
sheets and then their answers are
correlated to ensure they have the
same data – i.e correlation of 0.8 is
needed.
(+) less demand characteristics
as they only see one condition.
(+) No Order effects
(-) There could be individual
differences (participant
variables) that account for
the difference in scores.
(+) There are less participant variables
because participants are paired.
(+) less demand characteristics as they
only see one condition.
(-) there could be other individual
differences not accounted for in the
paring.
(-) Time consuming to match up.
How true to life the study is,
particularly how reflective
of real life the task given to
participants.
Nominal – Mode & Range
Ordinal – Median & Range
Interval – Mean and Standard
Deviation
Social desirability bias is where
participants give a “desirable”
answer to make themselves
appear good.
Counterbalancing
Some sit condition A first and
some sit condition B first.
It balances order effects out,
so effect both conditions
equally.
Q. Give one advantage and
one disadvantage of using a
correlation.
Q. Explain what a
correlation is.
Q. Explain the difference in
the graphs of positive and
negative skew.
Q. What is a correlation
coefficient?
Q. What are the 3 levels of
measurement/data?
Q. What is the difference
between a covert and overt
observation?
Q. What is the difference
between quantitative and
qualitative data?
Q. Give one advantage and
one disadvantage of
quantitative data.
Q. Give one advantage and
one disadvantage of
qualitative data.
Q. Explain what is meant by
nominal level data?
Q. Explain what is meant by
Ordinal level data?
Q. Explain what is meant by
Interval level data?
Q. What is the difference
between a structured and
unstructured observation?
Q. What is meant by
“results were significant to
p<0.01”
Q. What is the null
hypothesis?
Q. What is a significance
level?
Q. What are the two
different ways a hypothesis
can be written and what is
the difference?
Q. What is an OV and CV?
Q. What is the significance
level accepted in
Psychology?
Q. What are the different
measures of central
tendency?
Q. What are the 3 D’s that
are used to determine what
stats test to use?

It predicts that the study will
not find any
difference/relationship or that
any found was found due to
chance.
It is the level or point at which it
is accepted that results are
significant as there is a low
enough probability the results
were obtained by chance. In
Psychology this is usually lower
than 5%.
Directional – you state which
group/condition will score
higher/lower.
Non-directional – you state that
a difference/relationship will be
found but not exactly what way
it will do.
Observed Value – the
calculated value in a statistical
test.
Critical Value – The value that
is obtained from the stats
table.
P<0.05
Mean
Mode
Median
Data – what level of data is the
DV?
Design – What experimental
design is the study?
Difference – is the study looking
for a difference or relationship?
(+) numerical so it can be analysed
with statistics and easily compared
with other quantitative data to
detect patterns.
(-) it isn’t detailed and cannot
explain why the data collected is
the way it is.
(+) it is detailed and
descriptive so gives an in-
depth picture of behaviour.
(-) it is difficult to analyse,
compare, test for significance
or detect patterns and trends.
This is data collected that is
put in categories or groups. It
is counting the frequency of a
set of scores (e.g how many
participants are tall medium
and short).
This is data that is rank
ordered or
non-scientific/subjective in
nature.
E.g participant 1 was 5th
Or
Rating or ranking scales
This is precise scientific data
where there are equal distances
between data points on a scale.
E.g distance (cms), time
(seconds) etc
A structured observation is where
there is a coding sheet and a
system to record observations.
Unstructured means all behaviour
is recorded without a system.
It means that the results
probability of being due to
chance is less than 1% which is
lower than the standard
accepted 5% significance level.
Chance of a type 1 error is
reduced.
(+) shows the strength and
direction of relationship between
variables.
(-) it cannot show a cause and effect
relationship between the variables
as they could be linked by a
separate intervening variable.
A correlation is a research
method used to investigate if
there is a relationship
between 2 variables. It can
show positive, negative or no
correlation between them.
A statistical measure of the
strength and direction of
relationship between 2 variables.
It goes from -1 (perfect negative
correlation) to +1 (perfect
positive correlation).
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Covert – means participants
don’t know they are being
studied as the researcher is
hidden.
Overt - means they can see they
are being researched.
Quantitative – numerical data
that expressed the quantity of
a measure.
Qualitative – detailed and
descriptive data.
Q. Explain what ecological Q. Describe ways of dealing
Q: What is a pilot study?
validity is. with informed consent.

Q. Explain how protection

Q. Explain what population Q. Name ways of dealing
from harm can be dealt
validity is. with confidentiality?
with.

Q. Explain 2 advantages and

Q. Explain what is mean by Q. Describe ways of dealing
2 disadvantages of a
“privacy”. with deception.
laboratory experiment.

Q. Explain 2 advantages and Q. Explain what is meant by Q: What is an advantage

2 disadvantages of a field a “lack of informed and a disadvantage of a
experiment. consent”? Quasi Experiment?

Q. Explain 2 advantages and

Q. What is needed if you are Q. What could be done to
2 disadvantages of a natural
drawing a conclusion? minimise EV’s?
experiment.

Q. What is the difference

Q. Explain 2 advantages and
between a participant and Q. When might a pilot study
2 disadvantages of using a
non-participant be used?
questionnaire.
observation?

Q. What is the name of the

Q. What are the different
group of people that the Q: When would a sign test
types of extraneous and
study is trying to generalise be carried out?
confounding variables?
to?

It is a small scale trial study to
test the procedures etc of a
study with the view to make
improvements before the real
study.
Don’t record identifiable
data (e.g names).
Create a participant coding
system.
Don’t deceive unless
necessary.
Do a debrief after the study.
(+) Less experimenter bias in
allocation of p’s because they
are automatically assigned.
(-) might be participant variable
EV’s as participants cannot be
randomly assigned.
Pilot study – to identify them prior
to the main study
Standardise Procedures – so no
situational variables
Matched pairs/repeated measures –
to avoid participant variables.
1. To identify EV’s
2. To see what ethical issues might
arise e.g what risks might need
minimising
3. To check the procedures work
 In experiment/difference Participant Variables (differences
studies in people – only in independent
 With Repeated Measures
Design (related data) Situational Variables – anything
 With Nominal Data in testing environment.
1. Get p’s to sign consent
form before study.
2. Get retrospective consent
3. Get presumptive consent
Do a pilot study to identify
risks
Do a debrief after the study if
any harm was caused during
the study.
Privacy is about making sure not
to observe people, unless in
public places or with their
consent, and to respect the fact
they may want to keep some
information about themselves
private.
This means that the
researcher didn’t obtain
appropriate consent from
participants or their parents (if
under 16) to take part.
Conclusion: i.e what do findings
suggest
Justification: This is because the
mean was higher in condition 1 than
2 (state how much higher in
numbers)
A participant observation is one
where the researcher is acting like a
participant and observes secretly.
A non-participant observation is
where the researcher is observing
and not taking part.
measures)
Ecological Validity – whether
the study setting reflects
normal real life and so
whether results can be
generalised to a real life
setting.
Population Validity – Whether
the sample used is
representative of the target
population and so whether
results can be generalised to
that target population.
(+) High control of EVs = means a
cause an effect relationship can be
established
(+) Easy to replicate to ensure
reliability.
(-) Low ecological validity
(-) Demand characteristics likely
(+) High ecological validity
(+) Demand characteristics less
likely
(-) Low control of EV’s – difficult
to get a cause and effect
relationship.
(-) More difficult to replicate
(+) High ecological validity
(+) Demand characteristics less
likely
(-) No real control of EV’s –
difficult to get a cause and effect
relationship.
(-) More difficult to replicate
(+) More likely to get honest answers
than an interview
(+) Quick and easy to replicate for
large samples.
(-) Could have social desirability bias.
(-) questions could be misinterpreted
by p’s.
Target Population
 Q: What is the difference Q: Explain two differences
between primary and Q: What is a Meta-Analysis? between correlations and
secondary data? experiments?

Q: What do the following Q: Explain what the

symbols mean? following signs mean: Q: What is meant by
∝ ≥ > >> standard deviation?
~ << < ≤

Q: What type of graph

Q: What is an advantage Q: What is meant by
would be usually used with
and a disadvantage of using random allocation and
an experiment and for a
the standard deviation? what is its purpose?
correlation?

Q: How is a sign test Q: How to calculate a Q: What is meant by Peer

conducted? percentage? Review?

Q: What are behavioural

Q: What is meant by normal
Q: What is a case study? categories (or coding
distribution?
systems) in observations?

Q: In ethical issues, what is Q: What techniques can be

Q: What is a double blind
meant by a cost-benefit done to create a random
method?
analysis? sample?

Q: When would a non-

Q: What two hypotheses
directional hypothesis be Q: What is meant by
are needed for every
preferred to a directional temporal validity?
investigation?
hypothesis?
 1. Experiments examine differences
between conditions of an IV
whereas Correlations examine
relationships between covariables.
2. Experiments aim to get a cause and
effect relationship whereas
correlations cannot establish cause
and effect.
This is a measure of
dispersion. It assesses
the average distance
each data point is from
the mean.
It is assigning participants at
random to each condition of an
IV.
It is done to reduce participant
variables (EV’s).
It is the assessment of a
researchers work by other
experts in the same field of study
(i.e their peers!). Their task is to
report on the quality of the
research before publication in a
journal.
Behavioural Categories are using
coding systems to break
behaviours up I.e
operationalisating it. E.g
aggression can be categorised
into verbal, kick, hit etc
It is where the participants and
experimenter collecting data are
unaware of the aims of the
investigation.
This is whereby results of a study
done a long time ago can be
generalised to modern day
behaviour. It is a form of
external validity.
It is a large scale review study collected for the purpose of the
whereby a researcher analyses
lots of studies data on a topic
to find an overall conclusion. purpose/different study and then
≥ - more than or equal to
> - more than
>> - a lot more than
<< - a lot less than
< - less than
≤ - less than or equal to
Experiment: Bar Chart
Correlation: Scattergraph
Part of a whole (small
number) divided by the
whole (big number) and
then times by 100.
It is a longitudinal, in depth
investigation of a person or
small group involving
interviewing, observing and
testing them.
The lottery method – draw
names out a hat
Random Number Generators –
using a computer to randomly
generate numbers assigned to
each participant.
When the study is examining
something that there is little
previous research on, as the
researcher is unsure which way
the results will go.
Primary data – Data which is
current study.
Secondary Data – Data which
was collected for another
used in the study.
∝ - In proportion to
~ - Approximately equal to
(+) Takes into consideration
every score in the data set
(-) Could be affected by
outliers reducing its use
1. State the signs – if p’s scored the
same, more or less in second
condition
2. Take lowest number of signs
3. Compare to critical value table
(reduce n if p’s scored same.
4. State significance of result
It is where
the data
forms a
“bell
curve”.
It is whereby an ethics board will
weigh up what the scientific
benefits/gains of a piece of
research will be versus what
ethical costs there will be to
participants.
1. Alternative Hypothesis
(experimental or
correlational)
2. Null Hypothesis
 Q: What is a content Q: What is a thematic
Q: What is a case study?
analysis? analysis?

Q: What are the strengths Q: What are the strengths

Q: What things lower
and limitations of a case and limitations of a content
internal validity?
study? analysis?

Q: How could you improve Q: How could you improve

Q: How could you improve
the validity of a the validity of
the validity in experiments?
questionnaire? observations?

Q: What ways can you Q: What is meant by Q: What is meant by

assess/check the validity? concurrent validity? Face Validity?

Q: What aspects of a study

Q: How is a test-retest Q: What is a test-retest used
could have an issue of
carried out? for?
reliability?

Q: How could you improve Q: How could you improve Q: How could you improve
reliability of a the reliability of an the reliability of an
questionnaire? interview? observations?

Q: How could you improve

Q: What stats tests do you Q: What is the difference in
the reliability of an
need to know? a type 1 and type 2 error?
experiment?

This is analysing data to identify
themes (patterns) in the data.
It is examining the data to see if
something keeps cropping up.
It is more descriptive than coding in
quantitative content analysis.
 EV’s and CV’s
 Investigator Bias
 Demand Characteristics
 Social Desirability Bias
A form of observation but instead
of people, their communications
(newspapers, tv ads, magazines)
are studied instead.
The things are studied for patterns
and trends within them.
+ no social desirability or demand
characteristics
+ high ecological validity
- time consuming to carry out
-potential issues with observer
bias
An in-depth (usually longitudinal)
study that gathers a lot of detail
about one person or a small group.
It involves a variety of techniques
(e.g observaitons/interviews) and a
info comes from a range of sources
(the individual & family, friends).
- difficulty in generalising
- subjective & may have bias
- difficulty in replicating
+in depth data gathered
+ Complex interaction of factors can be
studied at once
+ good for rare cases

 Use a covert design o p’s less  Including a lie scale

 Use a control group to
aware of the study
ensure results are due to  Making them anonymous
 Use behavioural categories
manipulation
to reduce opportunities for
observer bias
 Use double blind to reduce Both increase the accuracy
experimenter bias of answers
 Double blind design

This is whether a test, scale or
measure appears “on the face of it”
to measure the thing it is supposed to
measure.
Done by examining the measuring
tool closely to having the tool
examined by an expert.
A check that the measuring tool you
are using is equal to an existing
validated measuring tool. Concurrent Validity
Checked by comparing with a
correlation a participant’s scores on Face Validity
your measure with their scores on
an existing measure.

A test-retest assesses whether a It is done by administering the same

measuring tool is reliably
measuring the same thing each
time it is completed by a
participant. Usually used with
questionnaires.
test to the same/similar people on The Procedure
different occasions. The scores on
the two tests are correlated to
The Researcher
ensure a positive 0.8 correlation or The Measuring Tool
higher.

 Reliability of these can be
ensured by making appropriate
behavioural categories
 Have more than one observer
and do an inter-observer
reliability check.
 Reliability can be improved
through having the same
interviewer for each
participant.
 Using a structured interview
can also improve reliability.
 These can be assessed with test
– retest.
 Anything that is unreliable will
need adapting (remove
questions, make them clearer).

Type 1 – false positive – when the • Sign Test

experimental hypothesis may have
been wrongfully accepted when null
should have been.
Type 2 – false negative – when the null
hypothesis was potentially wrongfully
accepted when the experimental may
have been true.
 Lab based ones have good
• Chi Squared
control over the procedures to
• T-Test (unrelated and related)
ensure reliability (e.g same
• Mann Whitney
testing room/researcher etc).
• Spearman’s Rho
• Pearson’s R  This is more difficult in real life
studies.
• Wilcoxon
 Q: Explain step by step
Q: Explain when a Chi what you do to find out if
Q: Explain when the two t-
Squared test would be your results are significant
tests would be used.
used. after you have collected the
data.

Q: Explain when a
Q: Explain what is meant by Q: Explain when a Mann
Spearman’s Rho &
a significant and non- Whitney test would be
Pearson’s R test would be
significant result. used.
used.

Q: How do you write a Q: Explain when a Wilcoxon Q: Explain when a Sign

reference? test would be used. Test would be used.

Q: What features are

Q: What is an abstract in a Q: What things would
included in a scientific write
psychological write up? constitute a science?
up of a piece of research?

Q: What is an inductive way Q: What is a deductive way Q: What is meant by

of researching? of researching? falsifiability?

Q: What is meant by a
Q: What is the difference
Q: What is meant by paradigm & does
between objectivity and
replicability in Psychology? Psychology have a
subjectivity?
paradigm?

Q: What is a discussion
Q: How is objectivity Q: What is meant by the for in the write up of a
increased in Psychology? Empirical Method? psychological
investigation?
 1. Decide which statistics test is
appropriate
2. Calculate your observed/calculated
value using the statistics test on your data
3. Compare the calculated value to a table
of critical values.
4. Accept or reject the null &
experimental hypothesis
Independent Measures
Experiment with Ordinal
Data
Repeated Measures or
Matched Pairs experiment
examining a difference with
nominal data
• Constructing Theories &
Testing Hypotheses
• Falsifiability
• Replicability
• Objectivity
• Having a Paradigm
It is about whether a theory can
be tested and disproven if the
theory turns out to be correct.
No amount of evidence ever
proves a theory so science works
on disproving the incorrect ones.
Objectivity is about ensuring no
bias in measurements.
Subjectivity is where there is bias
or where something is
influenced by opinion.
Results reported verbally and
discussed in relation to
introduction research presented.
Strengths and weaknesses and
changes for next time are
suggested. Implications for
findings also discussed.
Unrelated T Test – independent
measures experiment with
interval/ratio data
Related T Test – repeated
measures
Significant means there was less
than a 5% chance results occurred
due to chance so experimental
hypothesis accepted.
Non-significant means a greater
than 5% chance so null hypothesis is
accepted.
Repeated Measures
Experiment (difference
study)
Ordinal level data
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Propose a Theory
Generate Hypotheses
Test Hypotheses
Draw Conclusions
It’s one of the criteria of a science:
where a subject’s workers subscribe
to a common global theory or
perspective, and subject matter.
Possibly, no single paradigm in
Psychology because of the differing
approaches.
This means “experience” and so
people must have direct empirical
evidence to support something.
Examples of empirical methods
include: Experimentation and
Observation
Relationship with nominal
data
OR
Difference, independent
measures & Nominal Data
Spearman’s - Relationship
with ordinal data
Pearson’s R – Relationship
with interval data
Book:
Author (date). Title. Location:
Publisher
Journal:
Author (date). Title of article.
Journal name, Vol, Page
Short summary of the study
(150-200 words). It includes
aims, hypotheses, findings
and results.
Generate Hypotheses
Test Hypotheses
Draw Conclusions
Propose A Theory
Replication is about repeating a
study but changing small
circumstances to ensure
generalisability of findings. It
ensures reliability and validity of
a study.
 Controlled methods used
 Double blind collection of data
 Operationalised variables
 Standardised procedures and
instructions.
 Peer review