Methodology:

The Basics:

Independent Variable (Iv) – Variable experimenter manipulates or changes to demonstrate differences between
experimental conditions.

Dependent Variable (Dv) – variable experimenter measures. Depends on the independent variable.

Extraneous Variable (EV) – Any other variable other than the IV that may affect the DV. All studies will have EV. Need
to control EV, this may not eliminate the effect but ensure does not affect one condition of IV & not the other.

Confounding Variable (CV) – EV important enough to provide alternative explanations for effect on DV.

Situational Variables – from the environment such as temperature & background noise.

Participant variables – differences within the sample such as age, gender & culture.

Demand Characteristics – things that encourage ppts to behave in particular way. Mostly cues in the environment
that lead ppts to think they should behave a certain way. Once ppts are aware of this their opinions about what
should happen will affect results. More dangerous on repeated measures as exposed to both conditions & know
studies aim.

Experimenter effects – aspects of the researchers appearance or behaviour that can lead to ppts to think they should
act a certain way.

Single Blind procedure – ppts do not know the true aim of the study where double blind procedure is where the
researcher does not know either.

Participant Design:

Repeated Measures: Every ppt will take part in both conditions of the IV. Each ppt acts as their own control
(controlling ppt variables)

Independent measures: Ppts take part in either the control of experimental conditions. Either randomly allocated to
either one of the two conditions.

Matched Pairs: Each ppt in one of experimental conditions is matched as closely as possible with ppt in controlled
condition. Often pre-test is done which matching is based off. When the matched pairs established they are
allocated at random to the conditions.

Order effects: effects from repeated measures from practice or fatigue.

Counter Balancing: equally separating ppts between 2 conditions then completing it either condition A than B or B
than A

Randomisation: Similar to counter balancing but this done entirely random.

Level of Significance: 0.05 Type 1 Error – Incorrectly rejecting of a true null hypothesis. Type 2 error: incorrectly
retaining a false null hypothesis.

Level of Measurement: Interval –distance between attributes does have meaning e.g distance from 0-10

Ordinal – order in a series e.g 1st, 2nd, 3rd.

Nominal – data which can be categorised. Basic level of data. E.g. how many people ran a race.
Stats:

Wilcoxon

Mann Witney U

Spearman’s Ro

Chi Square test

(Psychology wizard have good explanations how to do these stats tests – probably need someone better than I do
explain it)

Those bolded need a calculated value equal or less than critical value to be significant.

Those not bolded need a calculated value equal or more than the critical value to be significant

Working out critical Value:

ALWAYS 0.05 significance

Whether a 1 or 2 tailed hypothesis

Number of ppts in each condition

Type of data Independent measures Repeated Measures Test of Correlation

(difference) (difference) (Association)
Nominal Chi Square Sign test

Ordinal Mann Whitney U Wilcoxon Spearman’s Rho

Interval/ratio Independent T-test Related T-test Pearson’s R

Cognitive Methodology: Experimental design, Case studies, Participant design

Lab Studies:

 Takes place in controlled & artificial conditions where the IV is manipulated to see the effect on the DV which is
measured.
 Often there is an experimental group & control group who provide a baseline measure. (DV look like without
manipulation) Results of experimental group are compared against control to see if there is a difference.
 Strict level of control as experiment takes place in artificial environment where researcher has better control
over extraneous variables.
 Room may or may not have equipment specialised to experiment.
 Examples: Milgram, Badley, Raine, Burger, Watson & Rayner

R – standardized procedures used & all ptts receive the
exact same instructions – meaning the study can easily
be replicated to test for consistencies
R – Strict level of control over EV – means the
researcher can recreate the exact same conditions to
test for consistencies of results.
V – strict control over extraneous variables allows us to
establish a cause & effect relation – meaning we can be
confident a change in the Iv causes a change in the DV
Objective – Lab experiments tend to gather quantitative
data & variables carefully operationalised to fit criteria
of behaviour – results allow for little interpretation
meaning less subjectivity
Ecological V – as takes place in a controlled & artificial
environment to the ppt – meaning ppts behaviour may
be influenced by the experiment & behaviour may not
be natural or representative of real world.
Task V – ppts may guess the aim of the study due to
experimenter being present or nature of the task in
artificial setting – demand characteristics may alter
their behaviour effecting results. Lower mundane
realism.
V – ppts are not exposed to natural variables such as
background noise when studying memory – therefore
this means that results do not represent natural use of
memory in real world.

Field Experiment:

 There is an IV & DV but conducted in ppts natural setting.

 As an experimenter there is some manipulation of the situation & an attempt to control EV but it’s more difficult
due to natural setting.
 May use both experimental & control groups to measure difference of manipulation on IV = DV
 Ppts may be randomly allocated to conditions to remove bias.
 Often opportunity samples are selected as using people around at the time.
 Ppts may not always be aware they are taking part in a study.

R – Uses standardized procedures – all ppts receiving G – uses opportunity sample which is available at the
exact same instructions in same conditions – makes it time of the research, in the location. – Sample is biased
easier to recreate the test so we can check for as same geographical location & researcher can
consistencies. approach specific people & ignore others.

Ecological V – ppts will be in a natural experiment – R – Lack of control over EV such as background noise –
ppts will show more natural behaviour which means other variables can affect the DV meaning it is
represents everyday life. harder to replicate.

V – ppts would be less likely to guess the aim of the E – ppts may not be aware that they are taking part in
study due to less artificial environmental cues. – research as they may just be available at the time –
behaviour will be more natural & reduced demand ppts aren’t giving consent or having a right to withdraw.
characteristics.
 Natural Experiment:

 IV is not manipulated it is naturally occurring.

 Psychologists can sometimes take advantage of natural situations in order to carry out an investigation in
circumstances which they cannot manipulate.
 Psychologists are unable to manipulate or control variables. Sometimes referred to as a quasi-experiment.
 Compare two groups, equivalent of an experimental design & control group

V – takes place in a natural setting where the IV is
naturally occurring – natural setting leads to more
natural behaviour by ppts.
V – since it is natural experiments ppts are more likely
to act as normally as possible –ppts are more likely to
act naturally reflecting their behaviour in life
V – As the IV is naturally occurring it means that the
researcher is manipulating the situation as little as
possible & allowing natural behaviour to take its course
– this means that little research bias can affect the
results making results more valid.
G – Often use an opportunity sample of ppts available
at the time of the research – this results in a bias
sample as research may only approach ppl they find
attractive.
R – independent variable is naturally occurring &
unique – means it is hard to replicate the naturally
occurring variable to get the same result.
R – IV is not manipulated by the research & there is also
a lack of control over EV – this means that the EV can
affect the DV results making harder to replicate
E – ppts may not be aware that they are taking part in
research as they may just be available at the time –
ppts aren’t giving consent or having a right to withdraw.

Participant Design:
Repeated Measures: Every ppt will take part in both conditions of the IV. Each ppt acts as their own control
(controlling ppt variables)
Independent measures: Ppts take part in either the control of experimental conditions. Either randomly allocated to
either one of the two conditions.
Matched Pairs: Each ppt in one of experimental conditions is matched as closely as possible with ppt in controlled
condition. Often pre-test is done which matching is based off. When the matched pairs established they are
allocated at random to the conditions.
Order effects: effects from repeated measures from practice (improving performance) or fatigue (decrease
performance)
Counter Balancing: equally separating ppts between 2 conditions then making them experience them in different
order than the other group. (A than B, B than A)
Randomisation: Similar to counter balancing but this done entirely random.
Repeated Measures Repeated measures
V – results not affected by ppt variation as both groups do V – if ppts do both conditions they became practices or
both experiments – no chance of ppt excelling in just one fatigues meaning susceptible to order effects – ppts are
condition if they do both giving accurate results. more likely to show demand characteristics as they do both
Independent Measures conditions.
V – ppts only assigned to experimental or controlled group Independent measures
– order effects do not occur as they don’t get practice or V – ppts are all different & by the end of experiment ppt
attempt to guess aim. could have particular skill or characteristic the
experimentor does not know about & excel affecting
Matched Pairs results – ppts variables effect results (ppts variability) traits
V – Differences between the two groups are minimised & biasing a study.
are fewer ppt variables/ variability & order effects – Matched Pairs
reduced demand characteristics & makes it easier to Time consuming – need a lot of ppts & hard to match as
control ppt variables matching experimental & control some of them are wasted if don’t match with others – time
group for more meaningful comparisons. is wasted on ppts that cannot be matched.
Case Studies:

Mainly produce qualitative data, some methods such as observations, interviews & questionnaires. However still
gather quantitative such as brain scans, closed questions.
Reconstructing case history of a single ppt or small group of individuals.
A detailed & in-depth study, where a variety of methods are used to gather data (interviews, questionnaires &
observations)
Usually applied to unusual or rare examples of behaviour, may provide new insights into psychological functions and
help question/supports psychological theory leading to new research.
Purpose of using different methods to gather data is to triangulate & compare findings and common themes. This
can reinforce sources.
Often longitudinal allowing change to be measured over time, following individual life span & used to understand
behaviours to change or understand.
Cog Psychologists interest in Brain damage, brain mapping and looking at parts controlling memory, area of damage
& extent of damage. Ability & loss of functions differ, intervention, strategies& rehabilitation can be learnt. Brain
scans.
Much of Qual data on brain damage comes from ppt disclosure about themselves. Important life events, feelings,
personality.
Strengths Weaknesses
V -Allows psychologists to study rare and unusual V - Extremely hard to control all variables in a person’s
behaviour where other research methods unsuitable – life meaning extraneous variables are likely which
allow psychologists to analyse behaviour which may would affect the results – cannot establish a cause and
change over life span in a more ethical way. effect relationship.

V - Allows in detailed, in depth data to be collected as it
permits study over a long period of time (longitudinal) –
can find out affects or changes in behaviour of humans
after brain overtime with valid patterns of
development.
V - Data gathered mostly in qual form, based on
experimenters own views and opinions. Some
researchers may become emotionally involved with
their ppts – leads to subjectivity meaning harder to
replicate findings as based off a researcher’s opinion.

V -Constructs detailed ‘case history’ of the client and G -Case studies normally occur on an individual or a
can often involve number of different research small group of ppts with rare or unusual behaviour – we
methods – one set of data can validate findings/themes cannot say it might happen to every person with brain
of another (triangulation) damage as this behaviour is unique. Cannot generalise
to whole population.
V -Uses mostly qualitative data which produces rich and
indepth data of behaviour & traits through open
questions. Also quant data via close questions – data
combines objective but also rich in depth data giving
better insights.
Social: Questionnaires, Interviews, Thematic Analysis, Sampling

Sampling:

Population is group of ppl from where the sample is drawn. E.g if your sample is sixform students from hull findings
can only be generalised to that group.

Most important issue is how representative of the population the results are.

Clearly it’s not possible to test everyone in the target population so psychologists use sampling techniques to choose
who are typical representatives of population as a whole.

Random sampling:

 Truly random sampling only occurs when every member of target population has equal chance of being
represented.
 Individuals are chosen entirely down to chance & each member of the population has a known but possible
unequal chance of being part of the sample.
 e.g names in a hat & pulling the sample out.

V – eliminates experimenter bias by giving everyone a
fair chance of being part of the sample – should
represent whole target population.
G – Everyone has a fair chance of being part of sample
by it being entirely down to chance – should eliminate
sample biasing.
G- sample bias by some people deciding to participate
& certain people over/under represented. – means
lower generalisability due to bias sample & not
representative.
G– impossible to carry out with large target population
– not getting accurate results representing target
population.

Opportunity Sampling:

 Selecting those subjects that are around and available at the time.
 An effort could be made not to be biased in selecting particular types of subject.
 This may simply consist of choosing the first 20 subjects in your college canteen to fill in your questionnaire.
 Issue of social factors; research may only approach people they find approachable or attractive while staying
away from people who scare them or find unattractive.

Quick - easy way of picking people for a natural G – easy for experimenter to pick ppts off
experiment or gather quick data from – meaning less social/cultural factors. Groups or ppl more
time consuming gathering sample. approachable or attractive – making sample biased.

G – people who decide to take part in the sample &

those who do may have certain characteristics or
interests – hard to generalise to target population.
Volunteer sample:

 Made up of people who have self-selected to take part in the research.

 e.g Milgram ppts of 40 recruited through newspaper advertisement.
 May have particular interest in the research in order to want to take part.
 These ppts may have particular skills or traits making them affect the results of the study.

Quick – ppts come to researcher through
advertisement – making it a quick and easy way to
gain willing ppts who want to take part.
E – as ppts are hired usually through their choice of
wanting to take part in the study they are aware of
the nature – more ethical as consent is usually given.
V – may have conflicting interests on why they
specifically approached the research – meaning not a
true representative of target population but may
affect the results.
Could be time consuming – researcher might have to
wait for ppts to apply & may not gain sufficient
numbers – harder to make generalisability possible.

Stratified Sampling:

 Involves dividing the target population into important subgroups & selecting a member of each subgroup in
proportion of occurrence in target population.
 E.g if target pop consisted of 75% women, 25% men sample of 20 should include 15 female & 5 male.
 Would be truly representative of target population.

G – Representative of pop by dividing into categories Time consuming – as categories have to be identified
than picking from each category depending on their & calculated into a % of how much they represent the
representation – results can be applied to that target target population – if done wrong process has to be
pop & more representative. re-done & sampling could get invalid results.

G – hard to choose which sub-groups of the target

population to include – if some groups are not
included than makes results less representative.
Open & Closed Questions:

Closed Question: Require one clear cut answer such as yes/no as ppts prompted a fix set of responses. Answers are
easily to interpret & produce quantitative data.

Open Questions: Give ppts freedom in their response & they answer in their own words. Difficult to compare &
categorise but give more depth & detail which is useful when exploring people feelings. Produce Qualitative data.

Closed Questions

R – Such questions gather quantitative data & tend to V – Questioning limits ppts responses & reduces
be standardized – likely to be analysed in an objective thoughts & feelings to quantities – this is restricting
way and is easy to analyse complexity & answers are of low depth.

V – data can be analysed in an objective way – meaning V – Answers given may be subject to social desirability
researcher bias is unlikely to affect the conclusions meaning ppts may answer with lies to hide anything
made. deemed unacceptable by society – thus affecting the
validity of the results.
G – such questioning is quick & easy to conduct –
meaning that a large sample can be questioned quickly
gaining a large portion of results.

Open Questions

V – such questioning allows for follow up & for ppts to
elaborate on their answers gathering detailed answers
– this therefore means that the research likely to gain
relevant answers.
V – data is usually qualitative meaning that it can be
analysed by thematic analysis – this means that data
can be very insightful, leading to possibilities of new
research.
R – such data gathered including thoughts and feelings
which is highly detailed & descriptive – likely to be
analysed subjectively.
V – mainly gather data that can be analysed through
creating categories & coding – doesn’t really show the
results just subjective opinions of categories.
V – some ppts may not be able to express their feelings
as coherently as someone else – this may limit the
validity of the findings as may be expressed wrong.
Qualitative & Quantitative Data:

Qualitative Data:

 Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject
matter.
 This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or
interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
 Qualitative researchers use a variety of methods to develop deep understandings of how people perceive their
social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.
 For example, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, documents, participant observation.
 Concerned with understanding human behaviour from informants perspective.
 Data is analysed by themes from descriptions by informants
 Data is reported in the langue of the informant.
V – qualitative data is highly detailed & descriptive as it R – data includes thoughts, feelings and is highly
includes words & opinions from the informants detailed & descriptive – likely to be analysed
perspective – more rich, insightful & in-depth so rich in subjectively & researcher bias may affect findings
validity making harder to replicate.

V - uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research
might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as they
could turn to qualitative reports in order to examine
forms of knowledge that might otherwise be
unavailable - gaining new insight into psychological
issues.
V – highly detailed such data is open to interpretation
of the researcher – suggesting subjective analysis may
affect the findings & effect findings due to no objective
interpretation.
V – answers given may be subject to social desirability
as people will not want to give out shaming information
– effecting validity due to respondents not being
honest.

Quantitative Data:

 Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behaviour and phenomenon across different
settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.
 a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either
numerical data or data that can be put into categories.
 Experimental methods limit the ways of researching participant can react to and express appropriate social
behaviour. Findings likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions which the researcher
brings to the investigation.
 Concerned with discovering facts about social phenomena
 Assumes a fixed & measurable reality
 Data collected through measuring concepts
 Data are analysed through numerical comparisons & statistical inferences
 Data reported through statistical analyses & measurements of central tendency.
R – the data includes numbers & statistics – more likely V – Quantitative data is numbers, stats & data which
to be analysed in an objective way in graphs & charts can only be seen objectively – this means data is less in
which can be replicated. depth & doesn’t see the depth of human complexity.

V – Although it lacks in detail the results also lack in V – answers given may be subject to social desirability
ambiguity which are interpreted subjectivity – findings as people will not want to give out shaming information
the data more accurate & realistic to context found. – effecting validity due to respondents not being
honest.

Questionnaires:
They do not involve social interaction between researcher & participant.

Straight forward questions come first than in depth ones requiring more depth analysis of behaviour. Personal
questions come right at the end.

Space can be left for participants to write comments but otherwise set questions are answered.

Closed questions usually use Likert scale where you give someone a statement from strongly agree to strongly
disagree.

Effectively they use a standardized procedure.

Made up mostly of closed questions to get quantitative data but may contain some open questions.

They gather self-report data which is directly from the person being studied

Have a written format with no flexibility about the questions.

Questionnaires shouldn’t be too long & negative questions should be avoided.

Pilot study may be carried out this is a small first survey, where we test a few people before launching the original
study.

R – as they use a standardized procedure – this makes it
very easy to analyse as it is simple to redistribute to
another sample to test for consistency of results.
R – as the data gathered is mostly quantitative data –
this data can be analysed in an objective way.
G – It is possible & easy to distribute questionnaires to
a wide sample of people in a short amount of time –
therefore easier to generalise results to wide target
population.
Ethical - confidentiality
V – uses largely closed questions that gather
quantitative data – data may lack detail & the nature of
turning thoughts & feelings into numbers can be
superficial.
V – Such methods do not give the researcher
opportunity to follow up on certain responses as
required – cannot gain full insight on thoughts &
feelings.
V – may be a lesser extent than in interviews but ppt
may still show response bias or social desirability for
personal question – lacking validity as may not be
getting honest results.

Interviews:
 Interviews involves social interaction & the researcher requires training in how to interview (costing money)
interviews involve a trained researcher asking questions to a ppt and responses being recorded or transcript.

Gathering self-report data which is data directly from the person being studied.

Made up of Open & closed questions.

Structured: Fixed determined closed questions. Usually used in large-scale interview based surveys such as market
research. Quantitative data
Semi-structured: Guidelines for questions to be asked, but the phrasing and timing are left up to the interviewer &
questions may be open-ended.
Unstructured: May contain a topic area but not fixed questions. Researcher asks questions but then asks further
questions depending on the answer give. Interviewer helps ppts & clarifies questions. Qualitative data
Interviewers often record the interviewer and the data writer up as a transcript which can be analysed at a later
date.
Sometimes use interview schedule, a set of prepared questions designed to be asked exactly as worded. Have
standardized format. Most common in structured interviews.

Must take special care interviewing vulnerable groups, such as children, disabled & elderly. Children have limited
attention so long interviews should be avoided. Language used should be appropriate to vocabulary of the ppt. Must
consider age, education, social class & ethnicity.

Need to decide on interviewer; depend on what type of person being interviewed. Variables to consider are age &
gender which may affect respondents answer. Personal characteristics as some people are easier to get on with than
others. Ethnic groups as some have difficulty interviewing people from different ethnic group on particular topics.

Unstructured interviews

V – open questions are used which gather R – tend to not to follow standardized procedure as researcher
qualitative data which is rich in detail – such data is can change questions depending on responses – cannot
rich & insightful & gives us insight into the produce the same answers as aren’t fixed, cannot test for
thoughts & feelings in depth. consistancies.

V – such methods give the researcher opportunity
to follow up on certain responses as required –thus
allowing more insight to be gained as ppts are not
restricted in their responses.
Structured Interviews:
R – data gathered is qualitative, rich and indepth – such data is
likely to be analysed in a subjective way meaning researcher
bias may arise.
G – less ppts can be interviews due to the time and money
taken to conduct & analyse – may not gather large or wide
enough sample as questionnaires.

R – use a standardized procedure of fixed questions – this
makes it very easy to analyse to test for consistency of
results.
R – as the data gathered is mostly quantitative data – this
data can be analysed in an objective way.
G – more ppts can be interviewed due to closed questions–
larger sample gain & can be generalised to target
population.
V – uses largely closed questions that gather
quantitative data – data may lack detail & the nature
of turning thoughts & feelings into numbers can be
superficial.
V – Such methods do not give the researcher
opportunity to ask follow up questions– cannot gain
full insight on thoughts & feelings.
V – may be a lesser extent than in interviews but ppt
may still show response bias or social desirability for
personal question – lacking validity as may not be
getting honest results.

Thematic Analysis:
A method for identifying, analysing & reporting patterns within data. Used in qualitative data focusing on themes in
data to emphasis the rich description of the data.

Goes beyond just counting phrases or words in text but identifies implicit & explicit ideas within the data.

Coding is the primary process for developing themes within the raw data by recognising important moments in the
data & encoding prior to interpretation. Interpretation of the codes include comparing theme frequencies,
identifying theme occurrence & graphically displayed relationships between themes.

Allows for flexibility in researchers choice of theoretical framework. Closely tied to specific theories, but any theory.

Used on secondary sources such as media sources or transcripts or used on primary sources when transcribed.

6 steps:

1) Familiar yourself with the data: Must read & re-read through your entire data corpus. Take notes on initial
ideas but don’t code yet.
2) Generating Initial codes: Involves production of codes (shorthand labels) usually from ppts accounts with
some common meaning or relation. Can be done manually or with software. Must systematically code all
data.
3) Searching for themes: Focus on themes which you can fit broad range of codes into. Themes are made up of
subset of codes; main themes of subthemes.
4) Reviewing Themes: Refinement of themes. Some themes will merge into others & some need to be broken
down into smaller components. Should reflect on if themes tell convincing & compelling story of data/
5) Defining & naming themes: research must conduct & write detailed analysis of each theme (what story does
this theme tell) Telling story with each theme. Must give names which are punchy & informative.
6) Producing the report: involves final analysis & write up. Consider audience. Provide sufficient evidence for
each theme.

V – is flexible to set theories, meaning codes & themes R – it has a lack of clear & concise guideline on how
can be flexible to the data where some merge into codes & themes are created meaning based on
others telling a detailed narrative of the data – subjective views – has anything goes critique &
producing rich, detailed & complex account of data. therefore hard to replicate the data.

V – allows for subjective analysing – taking into V – Codes & themes are based on the researcher’s
consideration ppts subjective conditions, points of experiences, views & culture – this means that the data
views & culture which may create valid points of is subjective and may have researcher bias making
themes. invalid.

V – the method doesn’t reply on theories of social
pschyology meaning independent to prevailing theories
– meaning it has an original approach to analysis the
data & can help be the foundation of new theories.
V – Codes & themes of the data may be effected by
heavy researcher effect meaning the researcher could
guide the ppt to produce data for his purpose –
meaning the codes & themes are used to fortify
evidence for new theories when may not be true.

Bio: Correlations, Twin & Adoption studies, Brain scans

 Methodology – Correlations

 A correlation is the measurement of extent in which pairs of values on two variables change together.
 They describe the relationship between 2 variables in statistical terms. Not a research method.
 No IV or DV but described in co-variables because they both vary & measured. Neither is set or
controlled.
 Strength of a correlation described in co-efficiency ranging from +1 to -1 (perfect + perfect -)
 With a co-efficiency less than 0 describing a – correlation and above 0 + (0.3 as weak, 0.3-0.7 moderate
and above 0.7 strong)
 Data is collected from various research methods and experiments. Can be analysed to see if
relationship between 2 Co-variables.
 Both measures usually come from the same researcher and tend to use Interval or Ordinal data
 Investigate a relationship plot variable A on one axis & variable B on the other (scatter graph) & a
straight line for line of bestfit. The gradient is the same as co-efficient.

Strengths
Ethical – unethical to study number of cigarettes
smoked & lung capacity – allow researcher to
investigate things without setting up a study to
encourage & control ppt smoking
Validity – both sets of data are provided by the
same person; each ppt acts as their own control
–individual differences will not affect results
Practical –easy to carry out with input from a
researcher (e.g nothing needs to be set up
artificial as uses pre-existing data) – correlations
can decide if new research should be generated
Reliable – involve an easily replicated method
(self-report questionnaires) proved as
standardized procedure – can repeat to test for
consistencies
Weaknesses
Internal validity – impossible to claim one co-
variable causes the other as there could be a
third, unknown variable – misunderstanding &
erreous conclusions. Unable to determine cause
& effect
Validity – methods used to gather data usually
self-report such as questionnaires – demand
characteristics or socially desirable answers may
be given lacking validity
Validity –correlations may use secondary data e.g
hospital records which may be out-dated or have
been subject to bias interpretation – invalid &
data flawed.
Methodology: Twin & Adoption studies:
Twin Studies:

 One way to investigate genes & if cause behaviour is to study twins.

 Monozygotic (MZ) [Identical] who share 100% of their genes as they cam from the same fertilized egg
 Dizygotic (DZ) [Non-identical] who share only 50% of their genes as they came from separate eggs.
 Measure concordance rates that tell us % of cases where behaviour occurs in both twins.
 If the behaviour is genetic there would be a higher concordance rate, usually amongst MZ as most
genetically alike.
 It is not expected a characteristic is totally shared between MZ twins (100% concordance not likely to
be found) so higher concordance rate in MZ suggests genetic basis for a behaviour.

Strengths
High Validity – amount they share their DNA differs
both MZ & DZ twins share their environment so there
is natural control over their environmental factors –
can be sure any difference in concordance not due to
enviro factors
Useful – No other humans share 100% of their DNA –
no other way to study genetic influences so clearly.
Weaknesses
Low validity – MZ twins are treated more alike
than DZ twins because they are identical & share
their gender too – assume genetic similarity for
higher concordance rates in MZ over DZ however
MZ seem to have greater enviro similarity over
DZ.
Low generalisability – twin studies tend to use
volunteer sampling – this is a biased sample as
volunteers may all share similar characteristics.

Adoption Studies:
 Carried out because the environment of adopted children is not the same as that of their bio families
yet they have genes in common.
 e.g effect of genes on SZ is being carried out a researcher might want to find out whether children of a
parent with SZ more likely to develop SZ than children without a family history.
 Problem is children usually have both genes & environment in common with bio parents.
 Can use adoption studies to eliminate this problem allowing them to look for a genetic link by removing
the environmental influences.

Strengths
Useful – they are useful ways of separating genes
from the environment – this means we can assume
that similarities between bio parents & children
are due to genetic similarities
Allow for trends of behaviour to be studied –
adoption studies tend to use longitudinal method
meaning they follow the same group of children
over a long period of time – allow trends of
behaviour to be studies that can link to genetic
influences.
Weaknesses
Low validity – children tend to be placed in families
similar to their own, so their birth family &
adopted family are very closely matched – means
adopting environment may be similar to
environment of birth parents.
Low generalisability – only certain types of families
are accepted as adopters of children – adopting
families likely to be similar to one another making
research less representative.
 Cat Scans

 They Can show us tumours or brain damage and used following head trauma’s to show damage
done. Unable to show us how brain functions.
 Multiple beams will pass around the head gathering large amounts of data and it is processed
through a computer for a detailed picture.
 We can see damage, growth, brain activity and where there is no activity. We can understand parts
of the brain working when doing different tasks e.g reading, remembering. As well we can learn
links between brain activity and mental illness, such as depression or Schizophrenia.

Advantages
Accurate detail of brain structure
Very quick and easy to carry out
Help doctors make diagnosis
Help plot surgery easier as it’s detailed image and
know where to operate
Safer as patients spend less time under
anaethetics
Disadvantages
They pose risk as patients are exposed to radiation
beams.
Pregnant women advised not to use them as radiation
harms babies
Aren’t as effective anymore due to better & more
detailed scans such as MRI, FMRI and PET

PET Scans

 They can show different levels of metabolism in the brain. Investigate cases of cancer determining how
far it’s spread and how well treatments working. Help plan surgeries and diagnose conditions affecting
normal working brain.
 Patients are injected with Flurodeoxyglucose (FDG) which is similar to natural glucose. Brain neurons
use glucose for energy and the radiation is used to trace how much glucose each brain area is using and
how well they are working.
 Help diagnose Alzheimers as patients with disease use less glucose in cerebral cortex (thin outerlayer
responsible for complex functions

Advantages Disadvantages
Show how well certain body parts work, rather than Risks caused by radiation used by procedure. It is
showing what it looks like. short but equivalent to 2 X-rays. No suitable for
pregnant women.

Study Biochemical functions and able to detect
disease before changes in autonomy
Study metabolic functions and alternative biopsy
and exploratory surgeries seeing how far disease
spread.
Can distinguish between cancer and non-cancer cells
stopping unnecessary surgeries.
Effective in diagnosing neurological illnesses such as
epilepsy, Alzheimer’s and dementia.
Radiation means exposure can be endured only a few
times and limited amount of scans
Requires cyclotrons, an expensive machine creating
radioscopes which makes the image. Not offered in
every medical centre.
Expensive £700-£1200
 FMRI scan

 Shows brains general autonomy, indicates which parts of the brain handle critical functions. Assesses
effects of brain injuries such as strokes on brain functioning. Monitors growth of tumours & shows
injured brain tissue. Analyses human emotions.
 The brain is placed within a strong magnetic field where nuclei of hydrogen molecules align with
direction of the magnetic field increasing brain activity. This increases blood supply meaning sufficient
oxygen, oxygen repels magnetic field and deoxygenated blood follows the magnetic field. FMRI detects
changes and creates an image.
 Meta-analysis is uses to increase reliability of findings when they support another’s showing brain scan
improved. Brain scanning is objective.

Advantages Disadvantages
Doesn’t use radiation like X-rays, CT & Pet Some people are unable to have FMRI scan such as those
Scans with cardiac peacemaker
Almost no risk when done correctly Distressing for those with Claustrophobia
Non-invasive and does not involve injecting Expensive to carry out
radioactive substances
Objective Person has to stay completely still to get a clear image.
Learning: Animal studies, Observations, content analysis

Observations:

Observations use both Quantitative & Qualitative data. Tally charts to record every behaviour performed.
Observation narratives take notes during session & go back later to discern behaviour pattern. Can record behaviour
of observation session.

Observation fundamental to finding out about the world around us or collecting data. Observations have to be
selective & systematic. They harness selective observation entitles careful planning of what to observe.

Time Sampling: When researcher decided on time interval then records what happens at that time interval.
Efficient & inexpensive.
Good for frequently occurring behaviour.
Some behaviour may be missed & observation not representative.
Not appropriate for situation with a lot of people.

Event sampling: Procedure where observer records each event that meets a predetermined definition. (tick box
every time someone coughs.
Less chance of behaviour of interest being missed.
Too many observations at once may be difficult to record everything.
Hard to delineate independence of event. (Must say when one event ends)
Does not go well to coding of dynamic interactions (parent & child)

Structured Observation:
Can occur in natural/ lab setting.
‘set up situation’ Observer intervenes to cause an event to occur. Easier to record.
Allows observer to record behaviours difficult to observe in naturalistic, but more natural than lab.
Focus of observation determined before. Follows principles of quantitative research.
Observation fragmented into predetermined pieces of info becoming variables (e.g behaviour)
Different levels of structure; high is when chosen observation categories before.
Semi structured is when researcher starts with agenda, data gathered less systematic.

R – observation generally collects quantitative data in
form of facts, analysed in an objective way – easier to
replicate same conclusions.
R – researcher has high control over EV as compared to
naturalistic they used predetermined variables –
someone can replicate & test for consistencies.
V – with high control over extraneous variables &
standardized procedure of setting up the situation,
setting predetermined variables – can determined
cause & effect relation.
Ecological V – because it isn’t done in a naturalistic way
& the interviewer intervenes to cause an event –
therefore behaviour may not be natural & just
reflection of the unusual situation.
V – setting up event to create behaviour & choosing
predetermined variables before on what to observe –
this is subjective & could lead to researcher bias.
V – uses quantitative data which is analysed in an
narrow objective way – this does not show depth of
behaviour and may not even relate behaviour to
context it happened. Lacking validity.
Naturalistic:
Involves observing subjects in their natural environment.
Normally occurs when conducting lab research in unrealistic, cost prohibitive or affect subjects.
Looks at behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting with no attempt to intervene.

V – generates detailed data in the form of notes & R – more extraneous variables in natural setting as
opinions on behaviour – data holds higher validity as researcher doesn’t intervene – harder to replicate
it’s rich & in-depth. observation to test consistencies.

V – Allows researchers to study behaviour which cannot
be studied in another way such as football hooliganism
which needs a natural environment – cannot be done in
structured as impractical to recreate.
Ecological V – it is done in a ppts natural setting where
researcher doesn’t intervene – this means that
produces more natural behaviour.
Expensive & time consuming – might take long time for
desired behaviour to occur – consumes more time &
cannot control situation.
V – we only observe desired behaviour as we can’t
watch entire crowds meaning we may miss important
behaviours – this could lead to researcher bias.

Covert:
Is when the identity of the researcher, nature of the experiment & that of the ppt being studied kept secret.
Done in 3 different context:
Public & open settings where everyone has a right to be e.g store
Closed setting where researcher is already a member e.g nurse in hospital.
Closed setting where the researcher gains access by acting as a member e.g patient of psychiatric hospital.

V – More natural behaviour as ppts aren’t aware that E – ethical issues like ppts consent isn’t given & a level
they are being observed – reduces chance of demand of deception where there is a breach to ethical issues
characteristics biasing the results. could cause distress – putting ppts at risk.

V – allows the researcher to study things that cannot be Practical issues – hard to record data while staying
studied in other ways such as aggressive talking to hidden to the ppts, could be the case the ppts notice
other – couldn’t be done in overt as would display the researcher or find out nature of the experiment –
demand characteristics. demand characteristics.

Overt:

Refers to researcher being open about their intentions in the field & ensuring all members of the social group are
aware of what’s happening.

Those being observed are aware of the presence of the observer (e.g observer coming into a classroom)

E – avoids ethical issues which are present in Covert as V – ppts are aware that they are being studied meaning
ppts are aware of the observation & have a right to less natural behaviour – demand characteristics may
withdraw – addressing issue of consent & deception. arise making results less creditable.

Practical – easier to record data as they don’t have to R – More extraneous variables in natural setting as
do it in secrecy meaning researchers can get better researcher doesn’t intervene, people are aware so
representation of behaviour. could cause ppt variables. – Harder to replicate
 observation to test consistencies.

Participant:

Observer ppts in ongoing activities & records observations.

Extends beyond naturalistic observation because the observer is a player in the action.
Researcher takes on role being studied e.g joining a cult, mafia, fight fighters.
Not as a bystander
V – the researcher joins the groups & remains secret as V- Observations may be be biased because the player may
part of the action – increases chances of natural develop their own subjective ideas – the study encounters
behaviour /mundane realism & decreases chances of researcher bias & may lead to invalid subjective analysis.
demand characteristics.
E – Researcher becomes a participant in the action of
V – allows researcher to study things that cannot be observing where the ppts do not know they are being
studied in other ways such as being part of a cult & seeing observed or could be in dangerous situation – issue of
how group behaviour works. – this wouldn’t be the case in consent & right to withdraw. Harm could come to
overt as everyone knows ur observing. researcher if their compromised.

Animal evaluation (Other points you can used) Negative

Utilitarian argument and speciesism –any research on animals that could not also be conducted on humans.
equality of all species and so is against the view that animals should be used because they are more expendable.

Antiextrapolation - This is the belief that each species is unique, it is invalid to use the data gathered for one species
and infer it is relevant for all species. This is a rejection of the evolutionary continuity argument. Evidence for this
comes from areas such as study of language/potential for learning/ complexity of behaviour.
Scientific arguments – Research on animals is often repetitive and transparent i.e. self-evident. The value of such
research is scientific weaknesses of the research – research conducted in the laboratory is artificial and lacks
mundane realism, and may have limited generalisability to other situations.

Lack ecological validity. The experimental situation is highly artificial, and not representative of the animal’s natural
habitat. The behaviour that a rat demonstrates in a Skinner box may be completely different from that which it
shows in the wild.

Positive:

Ethically and practically, experiments can be carried out on animals that cannot be carried out on humans. Imagine
doing Pavlov or Skinner’s experiments on humans. Also, animals are cheaper and easier to control.

Utilitarian argument - Singer (1975) states that research should only be carried out if it is for the “greater good” and
if “happiness for the greatest number” will be the result.

Scientific and practical arguments – Animals can be used when human ppts would not be legally permitted, e.g
anxiety involving lesions. Animals have shorter breeding cycles, which enable genetic inheritance to be studied, such
as the reactivity of rats to stimuli. Laboratory experiments have a high level of control and so cause and effect can be
inferred and the findings are less likely to be biased by participant reactivity.
Animal studies:

Scientific procedures act covers all animal research. It relates to any scientific procedure that may cause pain,
suffering, distress or lasting harm to protect animals.

Housing & Care: Between tests animals should be based with enough space to move freely with sufficient food &
water for health & wellbeing. Human contact needed for social animals.

Wild Animals: Disturbance to free-living animals should be minimised. Should use lab bred animals over wild or
animals must come from designated breeders & suppliers.

Anaesthesia & Euthanasia: Animals should be killed as painlessly as possible if suffering or in pain/distressed. That it
exceeds designated levels of health & welfare of animals become a concern.

Disposal: When research is over animals should be disposed of humanely; ideally kept alive for breeding.

Ethics & Legislation: Animals have minimal suffering & distress. Researcher should ensure means justified by the end
& alternative should be considered. (Animals pain must be justified by scientific benefits)

Home Office Regulation: Anyone carrying out regulated procedure must hold a project licence to work on animals.
Home office enforces the laws including regulations of housing, environment, welfare, care & health.

Has inspection system to ensure rules aren’t violated. Must demonstrate the 3 R’s.

Replacing animals with alternatives when possible e.g using animals with no sign of self-awareness or intelligence.
Reducing number of animals used
Refine procedure to minimise suffering.

Assessing Benefits of Research:

British psychology society not grant permission unless research can justify the cost to the animals related to the
benefits. Use of Bateson decision cube to help decide if non-human animal research could go ahead including 3
criteria.
Quality of research: Whether research transparent & self-evident. Needs to benefit society.
Degree of animal suffering: Cannot always recognise or know if animal is stressed or suffering.
Certainty of Benefit: Difficult to tell benefits to humans & animals but will determine justifiable.
V - not subject to demand characteristics, fewer if any Animal rights argument – all animals have rights to be
experimenter effects and it can be easier for an treated with respect and not be harmed. not justifiable
experimenter to remain unbiased - results which are under any conditions. – need to make research more
less open to interpretation & valid. humane, more naturalistic methods, decreasing their
number, and using safeguards such as the cost-benefit
Moral obligation – we have a moral obligation to analysis.
advance human understanding for human good. We
owe a special duty to members of our own species. Moral obligation –moral obligation is that this is
Believes that animal suffering is justifiable if it is for speciesism; human interests should not be elevated
scientific and medical purposes - enables us to avoid above those of other species - We have a moral
human suffering obligation to protect other species & other vulnerable
species should not be abused.
Continuity argument –theory of evolution we have
evolved from animals, similarity in basic physiology and Continuity/discontinuity argument – Opposing this is the
the nervous system of nearly all mammals -evolutionary discontinuity argument of humanistic psychologists.
continuum meaning differences between humans and According to this, humans are qualitatively different to
animals are quantitative. Comparisons are valid and so other species - extrapolation from animals to humans is
research on animals yields genuine human insights. an issue, provides limited insights into human behaviour
 not generalizable.

Content Analysis:

Indirect observation which is analysing communication between people. E.g Advertisement, TV, News, Diaries

Analyses written words (quantitative method) producing numbers & percentages. Use these % to mention how
many times something was mentioned.

Seems simplistic but has some positives as it makes analysis more objective & simplify detection of trends.

All content is what people have created (Called Artefacts). Don’t do content analysis of the weather but it someone
writes reports of the weather you can analyse that.

Categories & Themes: Need to categorise each data, may be decided in advance (top down method) or more likely
categories will emerge from the material (Bottom up method)

Process: The sample will be the artefacts analysed. Needs to be representative. (e.g wide range of magazines, not
just men’s magazines as would be biased.

Coding System: The researcher creates a coding system breaking down information into categories. E.g identifying
gender of the person, how they are behaving, what they are wearing.

The researcher would tally each time a man or women did these behavioural actions. (quantitative analysis)

How it’s done:

Ask a specific research question e.g gender stereotyping in films to assess the portrayal of men and women.

Choose sampling strategy: e.g Random selection of films (of all genres) made 2000-2005

Define the recording unit: Commonly would be written word. For films it would be behaviours recorded

Construct categories for analysis: More specific the categories easier content analysis is. E.g define what is
traditional sex role behaviour, what is non-traditional. Categorise can be ordered into higher order themes, so many
categories can come under one theme.

R – Coding system & training different researchers
allow them to compare their data to check if they are
the same – if findings are consistent indicates coding
system is reliably designed.
Ecological V – Based on observations of what people
do; real communications that are current & relevant
such as recent newspapers or books – high mundane
realism.
V – The person creating the artefact did not know what
they created would be analysed & existed before being
analysed – no chance of demand characteristics as
created before analysis & not for the purpose of forging
results.
V – Use of a coding schedule & coding manual makes
the process transparent so another researcher could
conduct it findings similar results – higher validity as
easy to see the process.
V – can be useful examining relationships and trends in
Reductionism: Converting qualitative data to numbers
reduced the richness & complexity of qualitative data is
lost – meaning that the data lacks creditability & depth.
Illusion of Objectivity – transforming qualitative data
into numbers appears to be scientifically rigorous – this
is not the case and system may be biased by the
researcher producing low validity.
V – It may be difficult to decide on categories & apply
them to the data consistently – this could lead to
subjectivity of results meaning they lack validity.
V – Interpretation of verbal or written content will be
affected by language & culture of the observer & coding
system used – this results in cultural bias as different
cultures may have different ideas on codes &
behaviour.
V – Different observers might interpret the meaning of
categories in the coding system differently based on
their experiences & subjectivity – this produces
 data over time – showing how these relationships of observer bias lowering validity.
behaviour have evolved over time making more valid.

Clinical: Case studies, Cross section, Cross cultural, longitudinal, Summative content analysis, primary & secondary
data, interviews

Cross Cultural methods:

 Involves taking samples from different cultural groups & comparing the results to find similarities & differences.
Allows consideration of how culture may impact upon the behaviour in question.

 Investigate the nature-nurture debate, if procedure used in different cultures & find same results this is due to
nature & biological demonstration of universal law. If different behaviours found than it is likely due to varying
cultural practices, therefore nurture.

 Improves clinicians understanding of cultural factors needing to be considered when diagnosing & treating
patients from other cultures. Need to consider research available & subjective experiences of patient.

 Also risk of being ethnocentric – judging one culture against your own & drawing negative conclusions – this
occurs when we don’t know enough about a culture.

 If done correctly, biased views are removed as researcher has fully learnt about the culture & can be
ethnographic improving generalisability of research.

Strengths
High generalisability – can reduce ethnocentrisms in
study as research not confided to one culture, clinicians
using ptts from other countries to validate conclusions
–makes it easier to generalise worldwide & accurate.
Weaknesses
Weakness – if same procedure is repeated in diff
cultures may not be suitable. Likely to be different
understanding of procedure & how to react – low
validity in transferring procedures to cultures.

High reliability – if same procedure repeated in diff Weakness -Varying procedures for cultures may making
countries, they are likely to be standardized – control of findings valid but cause problems when comparing
EV, easier to replicate for constancies of results different cultures or make generalisation – need to be
cautious when using procedures across cultures.
Strength – research can aid diagnosis & prognosis if
clinicians can gain full understanding if patients culture Weakness – researcher may interpret findings in their
when working with ppts of other cultures – improves own beliefs and favour their own culture – instead of
creditability of diagnosis removing culture blindness, could create ethnocentric
views
Strength –tell us if behaviour caused by bio or
socialisation. Cultures differ in ways children brought
up, if behaviour of children do change can conclude
product of nurture – increased understanding of
behaviour

Strength – research is truly ethnocentric &

demonstrates a deep understanding of relevant culture
(Qualitative) – rich & in-depth data increase validity
Summative Content Analysis:

Technique to analyse Qualitative data that might be derived from open ended questions, interviews, observations.
May be written, verbal or electrical form.

Involves 7 steps:

1. Identify research question

2. Select a sample- needs to relate & be appropriate to the question.
3. Define categories/codes – identifies certain key words or content in source, can descide codes prior or during. If
before deprived by researcher in terms of their interests.
4. Identify the procedure for coding -
5. Coding of data
6. Evaluate trustworthiness of the analysis
7. Analyse the results of the coding

Summative doesn’t analyse data as a whole, text is often approached in single words or relation to particular items
of content. Begins with searchers/occurrences of the identified words. Word frequencies are count, each identified
term is calculated. Source of speaker identified, allowing interpretation of contextual meaning of specific term or
content (words have different meaning in certain context)

How to perform Summative:

 Identify research question

 Select a sample- needs to relate & be appropriate to the question.
 Define categories/codes – identifies certain key words or content in source, can descide codes prior or during. If
before deprived by researcher in terms of their interests.
 Frequency of keywords/content is quantified, at this point analysis is quantitative (manifest content)
 Need to assess frequency of key words in context of the 2 sources, performs latent content involves
interpretation of words which leads to meaningful content & interpretation. This goes back to qual form.

Strengths Weaknesses
High validity – can be used to analyse large amounts of Reductionist – as the analysis reduces complex
qualitative data & reduce it into more manageable qualitative data into categories/codes – this reduces
sections – easier to gain full meaning in more depth the richness of the data & the validity

High ethics – some forms of content analysis come from
observations/interviews with ptts, dana can be
gathered without interacting with ptts – guaranteed
confidentiality & not worry of ethics issues.
High Validity – can combine with other data collection
methods allowing for triangulation – this improves
reliability as other sources can back up results.
Low validity – deciding on relevant keywords may be
biased by the researcher – this increases subjectivity
and may not truly represent the data.
Low generalisability - choice of initial sources may not
be appropriate, meaning data not representative of the
question or specifically picked or biased – difficult to
apply the question research to the population

High reliability – due to nature of the data it can be Low validity – possible the researcher may be
analysed by more than one coder – have inter-rater subjective in their interpretation of the data – as the
reliability by reducing researcher bias/subjectivity. data relies on interpretation may be biased or invalid.
Primary & secondary data:

A way to uncover causes of mental health issues is to investigate impact of different treatment methods & find how
disorders progress in patients.

Range of research methods depending on primary or secondary data.

Researchers may use both types of data within a study to give different perspectives & understandings. This adding
to validity as rich & indepth detail gained.

Using both types of data allow researchers to cross check & triangulate information making findings more reliable.

Primary Data:

Primary data is gathered by the researcher, directly from a group of ppts.

Production of info is unique to the aim of the research

Might be gathered from clinical interviews with mentally ill patients. (Questionnaires, interviews, observations &
experiments.)

V – Researcher decides the question & plans to
operationalise measures before the experiment takes
place – accurately controlled & measured. Easier to
establish cause & effect.
R – Researcher conducted info/experiment & got
necessary results. Standardized procedure could be
used – easier to replicate study to test for
consistencies.
Time consuming –as researcher has to start at the
beginning, gaining ppts then having to gain the results -
can be time consuming & expensive
E – Have to consider ethical rights & breach others for
the nature of the experiment. Such as right to
withdraw, no deception. – this could mean that results
would be compromised to act ethically.

Secondary Data:

Relies on evidence gathered by other researchers.

Such as assessing peer-reviewed articles or public access statistics from hospital records & doctor notes

e.g Gov stats, other psychologists experiments, meta-analysis, case studies.

Quick – should be quick to obtain & relatively V- Secondary data may have disclosed information or
inexpensive as it uses data which is already available in EV’s that may not have been controlled – therefore
a book or on a computer – meaning easier to gather information may have results with errors & harder to
data without setting up a situation. sustain cause & effect relation.

E – as researchers don’t have to worry about the V – Data may not be fully looking at the what the
guidelines used in the experiment as they are not researcher needs, may be suited for a different aim or
conducting it – the researcher is not liable for ethical may have subjective results – meaning the data is
guidelines being broken. limited & may have researcher bias.

R – Researcher may not disclose if using a standardized

procedure or how well some EVs were controlled –
more difficult to replicate study to test for
consistancies.
Interviews:

A clinical interview is a type of psychological assessment where mental health professionals ask clients questions,
engage in dialogue to form initial opinions about client’s mental state.
Client interviews last from 1-2 hours gathering info on the patient.
Administered by variety of mental health professionals (psychologist, psychiatrists, clinical social worker, psychiatric
nurses)
The trained professional’s asses the information the client is willing to share, clients ability to converse &
organisation of thoughts.
Personality assessment to find out complexities of patients personality. Behaviour assessment to conduct why a
patient behaves like this & motivational factors.
Involves patients talking about their childhood & other stages of life. IQ test for scope of intelligence if necessary.
Interviews can be structured (asking specific questions to get or rule out diagnosis)
Unstructured (more open questions where client has more leeway to bring up specific subjects or guide interview)
Also known as mental status exam, diagnostic interview or intake interview.
Structured:

Less time consuming: as data is gathered in quantitative
form - can be easier to analyse is a statistical &
graphical way than through qualitative analysis
R – Uses standardized questions which are fixed to
every interview to confirm or rule out a diagnosis –
making it easier to reproduce interview style & get
similar findings.
R – uses more closed questions to gather information
on diagnosis which is based on the DSM & ICD – making
it more objective to analyse & isn’t affected by
researcher interpretation.
E – as should follow the HCPC guidelines when dealing
with vulnerable patients – consent should be given &
patients should be aware of their rights.
Unstructured:
V – closed questions used to gathered quantitative data
on possible diagnosis & prognosis for patients – this
does not allow the patients to lead the interview or talk
about thinks that may cause their symptoms leading to
less insight.
V – They do not allow the researcher to ask follow up
questions e.g on symptoms, on possible causes –
meaning that the data has insight into possible causes
of mental illness.
V – Interviews are a social situation, meaning that a
patient may feel uncomfortable in the situation and not
want to disclose personal information on mental
disorder – social desirability or unhonest answers may
be given leading to invalid diagnosis.

V – open questions are used which gather rich &
detailed qualitative data on possible mental illnesses –
this data shows thoughts, feelings providing more
insight.
V – Such methods give researcher opportunity to follow
up on certain responses which are given by clients –
this allows for more insight to be gathered on mental
illness of the client.
E – as should follow the HCPC guidelines when dealing
with vulnerable patients – consent should be given &
patients should be aware of their rights.
V – Interviews are a social situation, meaning that a
patient may feel uncomfortable in the situation and not
want to disclose personal information on mental
disorder – social desirability or unhonest answers may
be given leading to invalid diagnosis.
R – tends not to use standardized procedure as
researchers can change questioning depending upon
response of the ppt & mental illness symptoms fitting
criteria – more difficult to replicate exact conditions
R – data usually gathered by open questions into
mental diagnosis which develop qualitative data - this
could lead to subjective answers affected by cultural
affects
Time consuming – gathers qualitative data – meaning
thematic or summative analysis must be carried out.
Case studies:

Nomothetic – tendency generalise general claims (as done in science), empirical data collected & from that general
laws are derived.

Idiographic – Looking at specific, subjective & personal features of people. Focus is on the individual. Links to
individual differences where laws not the focus but individuals are.

Case Studies are indepth studies of unique individuals or small groups. In clinical may be people with rare symptoms
or individuals taking part in specific therapy.

Use a range of methods such as observations & interviews. Triangulation used to pool data together from different
methods creating indepth picture so conclusions can be drawn.

Usually qualitative allowing in-depth analysis. In clinical means a full understanding of patients mental health
problems can be assessed & all factors are considered that could have an effect on them.

Finding details about something rather than building cause & effect understanding.

Case studies can include subjectivity as researchers are likely to build a relationship with the individual. However if
triangulation shows matching data from different sources likely to be objective.

Triangulation:

Case studies with usually use more than one way of collecting data (e.g questionnaires, observations, interviews)
Most are qualitative but some can be quantitative.

Triangulation is taking data from different sources & checking if the data agrees. If so using different research
methods will be reliable & valid because if the data is likely to be measuring what they claim to measure, matches
another.

R -Triangulation is used which combines several G – look at rare brain damage issues or use individuals/
methods such as observations, interviews & small groups of people with unique symptoms or
questionnaires – when these findings methods produce mental illness – harder to generalise as cannot apply to
consistent findings making objective. whole population.

A –case studies look at rare situations & individuals
where samples of such ppts are going to be hard to find
– the information can be very beneficial & gave
psychologists an insight into mental illness, reacting to
certain treatments & how beneficial they are
V – qualitative data is gathered which is in-depth &
detailed showing an insight into how useful new
treatments are of mental illness – rich & complex
conclusions can be drawn which is often not the case
with other research methods.
V – ppt’s mental condition is naturally occurring
meaning that the researcher intervenes little in the case
study – meaning behaviour is more likely to be natural
& reduces researcher bias as little intervention
R – Qualitative data is often gathered on a unique
individual with a history of mental illness or trying out a
new treatment – meaning data is subjective as
researcher could be too involved in the study.
V – Case studies often carried out by one researcher or
a small team of researchers meaning that they could be
subjective as they develop a relationship with the ppt –
researcher bias may affect conclusions drawn
V – Researcher has little control over the situation as
the the IV (mental deterioration is naturally occurring),
little control over EV & what happens prior in ppts life –
meaning that cannot infer cause & effect.
Longitudinal:

Studying the same patient over a long period of time documenting any change that may occur.

The development or time based changes can be seen through a pattern of measurements.

Measurements may be of symptoms expression & severity at certain intervals over specific time period indicating
reduction in symptoms showing treatment is effective.

Vary in length, include documents of long term effectiveness of treatment programme. (e.g CBT to drug therapy)

Tackle progress of mental illness patient over a life span to document change in symptoms, disorders, relapses &
hospitalisations that occur.

In mental health research, clinicians may monitor change in symptoms in a patient group undergoing a treatment.

Goldstein: Studied hypothesis SZ in women less sever course of illness than men. 90 patients diagnosed with SZ from
DSM 3, followed for 10 years with respect to hospitalisation & length of stay in hospitals. Found women had less
hospitalisation to men & shorter stays in hospital. Not an artefact of diagnosis. Suggests determinants of gender
differences occur during premorbid period & manifest early in development of disorder.

V – not affected by cohort affects as same ppts are used
& studied over a long period of time – any relevant
social influences are controlled.
V – ppts often have different symptoms & experiences
with same illness. Difficult to draw comparisons with
different groups – as it uses same ppts over time mean
comparisons not affected by individual differences.
Alternative: Cross section used for comparing different
groups of ppts e.g 1 group before treatment, 1 group
month into treatment & 1 group after – easier to draw
strong cause & effect from longitudinal as controls ppt
variables.
V – longitudinal research takes place over a period of
time, regular checks on development over extended
period – gathering indepth about each individual
increasing validity.
Not effective – as it takes place over a long period of
time studying changes in treatments of mental illness
or documenting patients – difficult to replicate with
time restraint & generational differences (expensive,
time consuming)
V – many factors change for individuals over long
periods of time – meaning it is not easy to determine
cause & effect as the cause may have faded or changed
over a period of time.
V – High dropout rates, those who don’t may have
something in common e.g same sort of family,
confidence, similar backgrounds, culture - leaving a
biased sample.
V – clinical psychology is fast paced with new ideas &
treatments developed at all times especially in Bio
factors with drug treatments – research publishing
results years later could already be outdated.
Cross section:

Used to take a quick ‘snap shot’ of behaviour in a population rather than waiting for longitudinal data to be
gathered.

Researchers usually use a large group of people in the sample, to get a good enough cross section of the whole
target population.

Assessing progression of treatments to specific mental illnesses

Looking at symptoms & research to validate clinical cause theory of the mental disorder.

An example is an investigation whether peer victimization is positively related to psychosocial maladjustment.

Harker & Boulton presented meta-analysis review of cross-sectional studies between 1978-1997 of association of
peer victimization with psychosocial maladjustment. Results suggested victimization is mostly strongly related to
depression & less to anxiety.

V – data gathered quickly, allowing conclusions to be
drawn & acted upon more rapidly – more likely to be
valid as reported at the time with most having useful
applications
E – ppts are studied at one time – research is less of an
intrusion on their lives compared to Longitudinal.
G – It’s less intrusive in ppts time because they only
studied ppts at one time meaning it’s easier to find ppts
– larger sample easier to acquire making
generalisability to target population easier.
V – Comparisons being made involve different people
many ppts variables not being controlled such as
friendship groups & experiences within family- meaning
individuals have a significant effect on the conclusions
making less valid.
V – Cohort effects as result of research have effect of
being raised in particular place or time e.g different age
groups suffering AN, not all exposed to culture ideas &
images making each group unique & affect the disorder
– meaning impact research bringing abnormal findings
V – as might have experiences different social & cultural
ideas of their time. – may not be comparable to other
members of the experiment or population as a whole
so lacks validity.
Criminal: Case studies, Meta-analysis,

Meta-Analysis:

Involves pooling together secondary data from multiple studies conducted by other researchers & creating an overall
conclusion.

This method is commonly used when there is a large amount of psychological research but firm conclusions cannot
be made without comparison of the research or if research findings have been inconsistent.

Researchers use studies from a variety of places, cultures & times which have all tested the same area. This allows a
large amount of information to be gathered from an extensive sample size without having to conduct any primary
research.

In Clinical examples include the effectiveness of treatments across different patient groups. Generally focuses on
effect sizes. E.g met-analysis on the effectiveness of CBT will focus on the size of the effect of CBT found by all of the
research gathered.

Strengths
Holistic – a way of finding out trends about an issue and
any relationships. Involves statistical analysis,
combining the results of the studies. – gave more
indepth analysis which increases validity making it
robust.
Weaknesses
Validity – the researchers are not involved with
gathering the data directly, there may be undisclosed
issues with reliability and/or validity in original methods
– meaning researcher may get biased or errors info
making it less creditable.

Ethical – Meta-analysis do not involve any ppts Validity - Research producing a null result (no S.D) may
therefore ethics doesn’t need to be considered any sort not be published – would be ignored in the meta-
of guidelines as no one will suffer – ppts will not be analysis which focus on peer-reviewed publications.
harmed. Evidence produced by the same meta-analysis could be
biased against research with no effect found.
Met-analysis combines studies to produce large sample
size, and studies may be in different cultures. Allows for
greater generalisability meaning results & findings of
criminality would have been wider represented.

Practical – conclusions can be drawn from a variety of

different area with a vast overall sample – making it
cost effective & quick & easy to use to generate data.

Methodology; Case Studies (Criminal):

Features:

 Mainly provide qual data as looks at indepth behavior.

 Reconstructs case history of individual or small group.
 Usually applied to unusual or rare behavior – provide new insights.
 Use quant data too (brain scans) allowing triangulation for triangulation for reoccurring themes
 Often longitudinal – measured over long period of time/following life span of individual.
 Self-report data – ppts recalling events, feelings, personality.
Sample Size: case studies have smaller sample size – usually small groups or individuals. (limited gen)
Analysis of Data: Triangulation: using both qual & Quant data to compare findings & themes so reinforces results.
Longitudinal: Study life span
Qualitative – thematic or summative analysis
Data Gathered: mainly produces qualitative data – as detailed, in depth study using interviews, questionnaires &
observations to analyze behavior.
Quantitative data can be used in methods such as tests scored on questionnaires producing stats which can be
tested using statistical analysis techniques.
Explorative, descriptive or explanatory: Looks at brain scans, interviews, observations to explore new behaviors to
gain insight into psychological functions & provide evidence for psychological theories.
In criminal case studies used when in-depth, detail is required & often for issues surrounding treatments taking
idiographic approach (‘private’/ own study interested in aspects to discover what makes each of us unique; social
science) rather than nomothetic approach (studying what we share with others, establishing ‘law’ or generalization;
natural science)
Used in evaluating ethical interviews where suspects reported on how interview went. On how effective CBT are
working & bio treatments. Looking at side effects or how benefitting offender for recidivism.
Strengths Weaknesses
Reliability – use range of methods & pool data, R can Generalizability – looking at individuals or small group
be checked internally. May use observations, of people with unique or rare behavior – we cannot say
interviews, questionnaires & triangulation for if one treatment works for an offender it will work for
consistencies all.

Application – often used to find out how effective
treatments are at reducing crime & recidivism in
criminals – means research can be used to say if a
treatment needs improving or research of another
treatment must begin.
Validity – gathered in-depth qual data from individuals
or groups over a long period of time from a range of
different methods: observations, interviews,
questionnaires & triangulation – rich & insightful by
gathering detailed & personal info can aid case
formulation & explain why criminals committed
offence.
Reliability – studying someone using qual data based on
researchers own views & some may become
emotionally involved – leads to subjectivity of
results/conclusion & researcher bias.
Validity – subjective as involve researchers
views/opinions or research may be emotionally involved
– unscientific & may be influenced by researcher bias.
Time consuming – involves gathering qual data over a
long period of time/ life span – meaning same research
may be spending long time to come to conclusions of
behaviour.

Ethics –case studies take place over long period of time

or life span of offender. Longer for bio causes of crime.
Criminal may have little choice but work with them –
informed consent may be given but may not be right to
withdraw.
Research Methods & EWT:
Lab experiments:
Features:
 Takes place in artificial conditions
 Controlled – IV is controlled/manipulated to see effects on DV
 Often experiment & control group (provides baseline)
 Room may have specialised equipment
 Control over EV/stopping confounding variables (CV)
 More scientific & objective measures take place in Lab

Lab experiments to examine EW effectiveness looking for cause & effect Relation by controlling as much as
possible of the situation, setting & ppt while changing the IV to see the effect on DV. Test a hypothesis that is
generated from a theory & theory is amended or confirmed by results.

Loftus:
IV was the very of the question ‘hit, smashed, collided’.
DV was the estimate speed & smashing of glass.
PPts viewed video clips of a car accident, 5-30 second long for experiment one. Given a questionnaire asking to
describe the events then asked for the speed of the car when manipulating the IV.
Setting was artificial.

Since 1970’s labs been main way to study EWT effectiveness because everything is controlled, allowing
researcher to claim manipulating the IV is responsible for change of DV. Lab experimentation easily replicable &
scientific but low in ecological validity as it doesn’t represent natural memory.

Strengths
Reliability – use a standardized procedure & all ppts
usually receive exact same instructions for each
condition – easier to test for consistencies of results.
Reliability – strict lvl of control over IV which effects
DV. Meaning EV are usually controlled so they don’t
become CV- easier to test for consistencies as we
study variables in isolation.
Validity – strict control over EV allowing experimenter
to manipulate IV to effect the DV – we can establish a
cause & effect relationship knowing the results are
valid.
Weaknesses
Ecological Validity – takes part in a controlled &
artificial environment to the ppts. Meaning the
natural variables which effect memory are not
present – behaviour / memory may not be natural of
the real world.
Task validity – tasks may not be natural or
representing natural EWT & ppts may be able to
guess the aim of the study – demand characterises
may alter their behaviour giving invalid results.

Validity – usually lab studies compare a experimental

group with a control group as a baseline without
manipulation of the IV – more meaningful
comparisons can be shown of EWT showing DV
without IV manipulation

Ethics – artificial enviro so less likely to deceive & ppts

would be aware they are taking part in a study – ppts
would of given consent & have a right to withdraw
Field Experiment:
Features:
 Conducted in ppts natural setting
 Some manipulation of the setting & attempt to control EV but very difficult.
 There is an IV & a DV. IV still manipulated but usually less controlled.
 May use both experimental & control group
 Ppts usually from opportunity sample & randomly allocated to remove bias.
 Ppts may not always be aware they are taking part in an experiment.

Field experiments based in ppts natural surroundings & have ecological validity (unlike Lab) They are similar to
Lab in that they aim to find cause & effect conclusions by varying an IV to measure the impact on the DV. It is not
possible to establish high lvl of control as Lab.

Valentine & Mesout: Did field experiment in London Dungeons with 56 ppts asked to wear heart monitors &
complete questionnaires after for a reduced price. An actor was dressed in a scary costume & jumped out at
ppts blocking their path. All ppts went through the dungeon the same way.
Given questionnaire to test state of anxiety of dungeon & general experience. Another questionnaire of free
recall of scary person (advised not to guess if recall failed) Next line up of 9 photos & rate confidence of their
decision out of 100.

Field experimentation produces higher ecological valid results & use double blind techniques, random
assignment to groups in order to rule out CV. Controls & procedures of field experiments must be thorough to
help improve their reliability & scientific status.

Strengths
Reliability – can use standardized procedures &
receive same experience / questionnaires – replicate
similar procedure to test for consistencies of results.
Ecological Validity – ppts will be in natural
environment & will be exposed to natural variables –
meaning ppts accounts of EWT will have higher
mundane realism.
Validity – experiment can use both experimental &
control groups to produce a baseline without
manipulation of the IV – more meaningful
comparisons can be made about EWT
Validity – ppts less likely to guess the aim as part of a
field experiment – less likely to demonstrate demand
characteristics or in any way influence the outcome.
Weaknesses
Reliability – lack of control over EV such as
background noise or distractions can effect EWT –
Cannot be certain of the IV or Dv as there could be a
CV so harder to test-retest
Validity – less control over EV meaning that some of
the variables in EWT can become confounding, so
these variables are what causing the change in the Dv
rather than IV – cannot establish a cause & effect
relation.
Ethics – ppts may not be aware that they are taking
part in research/ experiment – ppts may not have
given consent to the experimenter to use results &
may be deceived.
 Ethical Issues in Lab & field experiments of EWT:
How should it be followed
Informed consent & Ppts should give consent to knowing the full aim
deceit prior.
If consent will damage outcome researcher must
be as honest as possible.
Deceit is when ppts not give informed consent to
take part, ppts should know nature of experiment
Distress Researcher should minimise distress to minimal
lvls or have none present at all.
Tasks which could cause distress should be
removed to protect from psychological harm.
Debriefing Ppts should be briefed at the start of a study as
far as possible but holding back some info not to
influence results.
Debrief at the end based on aim, results,
explanation & right to withdraw given.
Right to withdraw, PPTS must be told that they can withdraw from
privacy & the research at any given time & must be
confidentiality reminded of this throughout. PPts identity must
also be kept confidential.
Competence The researcher must be competent to carry out
the study and, if any doubt, must consult with a
college or another competent individual.
Problems with following
Being completely honest about aim could
damage outcomes of results & conclusions
as ppts may not be behaving naturally
(demand characteristics)
EWT can be distressing; watching robberies
or murder or car accidents could
psychologically harm someone depending
on the individual. However if not realistic
behaviour too may lack mundane realism.
EWT may mean briefing not possible or
limited as it may influence recall of events
if stating evidence police already found.
Debriefing difficult – right to withdraw may
be compromised & not able to discuss
results (as this would be procedure of
natural police case)
If giving at EWT, a right to withdraw might
be compromised as it is giving evidence of
a crime & liked to identity so if doing
experiment (wanting to seem natural to a
police case) these may be compromised
Sample selection techniques:

Opportunity: Selecting subjects around at the time & available. An effort could be made not to be bias in types.

Strength: Quick to collect large amounts of data as you use the people around & available at the time of the
study when conduting the experiment & could get a large sample from the group. Therefore would be less time
consuming as you don’t have to go through complex sample process & get large sections of data.

Weaknesses: Low generalisability because if you only go to one area e.g Stourbridge town and using the ppts
available there at the time it can be a form of geographical bias therefore leads to research bias as the research
could only approach people they find attractive and miss the ones making them uncomfortable so not general
representation of population.

Random: Only occurs when every member of target pop has equal chance of being represented. Chosen entirely
by chance, individuals have unequal chance of being selected. Done by randomizer or numbers in a hat.

Strength: High validity – every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the study
meaning that results are less likely going to be contaminated with researcher bias increasing creditability.

Weakness: Expensive & Time Consuming: Difficult to do because you have to name/number every member of
the target population than use a randomizer technique therefore more time consuming & costs more money to
conduct what might be simple research which gives insignificant results.

Stratisfied: Dividing the target population into sub categories based on the proportion of their occurrence in the
target population. So members are picked on the sub-groups in the population.

Strength: High generalisability because researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the
target population & works out their proportions needed for sample to be representative therefore we can apply
results & conclusions more easily to target population.

Weakness: Low validity because difficult to choose which sub-groups to include in the research therefore is some
groups are not included than research can be bias, be invalid & lack representation.

Volunteer: People who have self-selected to take part in the research. Usually through advertisement. May have
particular interest in research in order to take part.

Strength: High validity as ppts are there out of choice so are likely to be compliant & feel less intimidated to act
less natural therefore research is ethical & gathered with validity

Weakness: Low validity as ppts may volunteer because they have a secret interest in the research meaning ppts
may act in a specific way than their natural behaviour to influence results.