WELCOME TO AS

PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology 9990
Departmental Expectations
◦ Active Participation
◦ Functioning microphone every class
◦ Cameras on every class
◦ Make use of resources
◦ Mature communication
Your teacher… Ms. Jackie
Let’s get this out of the way…
◦ Syllabus code: 9990
◦ Exam Information 
In the course you will sit two papers at AS Level and two papers at A Level:
AS Psychology
Paper 1 Approaches, issues and debates:
1 hour 30 minutes (50% of AS Level)
Paper 2 Research Methods:
1 hour 30 minutes (50% of AS Level)
A Level Psychology
Paper 3 Specialist options: theory
1 hour 30 minutes (25% of A Level)
Paper 4 Specialist options: application
1 hour 30 minutes (25% of A Level)
Before we go any further…
◦ Breakout rooms
◦ Get to know someone in the class
◦ Find out
◦ What they ate for breakfast
◦ Why they chose psychology as a subject
◦ One interesting fact about them

Collectively discuss: what is psychology? Any questions you might still have?
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
◦ And why is it important to study?
What will we study?
◦ In AS...
◦ Research methods: how psychologists conduct research and the research process
◦ Four approaches: biological, cognitive, learning & social
◦ Within those four approaches there are three research studies making 12 research
articles total
Biological approach…
Cognitive approach…
Learning approach…
Social approach…
Skills & objectives…
 Research methods
◦ Why do psychologists conduct research?
Research methods…
◦ Psychology is a science, so the way psychological phenomena are explored is a
research process.
◦ The methods used to investigate questions in psychology are called ‘research
methods.’ These methods help us understand how psychologists investigate human
(and animal) cognition, emotions and behavior.
Experiment
s
◦ Method of conducting research that looks for a cause and effect relationship
◦ Main research method for science
◦ Three types of experiments: laboratory, field and natural

Harlow Monkey Experiment

Experiments cont…
◦ An experiment can be defined as where the independent variable (IV) is the factor that results in
a change in the dependent variable (DV). In other words, the IV is what you MANIPULATE, and
the DV is what you MEASURE (if anything) as a result.
◦ Operationalisation is the term used to describe how a variable is clearly defined by the researcher.
The term operationalisation can be applied to independent variables (IV), dependent variables
(DV) or co-variables (in a correlational design).
◦ Independent variable is manipulated and at least two experimental conditions are created.
◦ For example… a researcher wants to see the impact different types of exercise have on weight loss.
◦ What am I measuring?
◦ Weight loss
◦ What am I manipulating?
◦ Type of exercise
◦ I can make two [or more] different types of exercise conditions and measure which has the most impact on
weight loss
◦ For example: running and swimming
At least two conditions are
created…
◦ Two levels or conditions of the IV:
◦ running and swimming
◦ Or one level of the IV and one level with the absence of the IV known as a control
condition
◦ Running and no exercise

◦ How can I operationalize these variables?

Identify the IV and the DV
◦Effect of light levels and attention.
◦Type of snacks and happiness of the students.
◦Effect of medication and symptoms of depression.
◦Doodling and memory scores.
◦Presence of an authority figure and level of obedience.
◦Type of soft drink and energy levels
◦Aggression levels after video games
◦Noise during studying and test performance
IV & DV
◦Length of talk therapy and symptoms of anxiety
◦Type of animal and reaction of children
◦Temperature of the classroom and attention span
Key terms for today:
◦ Experiment: An investigation looking for a casual relationship in which an independent
variable is manipulated and it is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent
variable.
◦ Reliability: the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent, for example
that it would produce the same results with the same people on each occasion
◦ Demand characteristics: features of the experimental situation which gives away the
aims. They can cause participants to try to change their behaviour, e.g. to match their
beliefs about what is supposed to happen, which reduces the validity of the study.
◦ Extraneous variables: a variable other than the IV that can impact the dependent
variable
◦ Validity: accuracy, are we measuring what we set out to measure
◦ Internal validity: refers to whether the effects observed in a study are due to the manipulation of
the independent variable and not some other factor.
◦ Ecological validity: The extent to which the findings of research in one situation would generalize
to other situations. This is influenced by whether the situation (e.g. a laboratory) represents the
real-world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real life (has mundane realism)
Types of Experiments
◦Laboratory
◦Field
◦Natural
Experiments
 Types of experiments…
◦There are three types of experiments: laboratory experiment,
field experiment and natural (or quasi-) experiment.
◦In both a laboratory and field experiment, the researcher
manipulates the IV and controls any variables extraneous (or
irrelevant) to the study.
◦In a natural experiment, which may be conducted in a
laboratory, the IV varies naturally, without the researcher’s
intervention, for example if people who are left-handed are
compared with people who are right-handed
 Word Bank:
Laboratory Experiment artificial/controlled extraneous
Reliable Valid
Controls x2 natural

◦ Many experiments in psychology are conducted in ______________ surroundings, such as a

laboratory. Experiments conducted in this way are called laboratory experiments; the
participants are not in their ___________ environment for the behavior they are performing,
and there are strict __________ over the situation. For example, a laboratory experiment on
the attention of school children in high and low light levels could be conducted in a
psychology room in a university.
◦ Evaluating lab experiments: laboratory experiments use many _______________. In addition,
researchers in laboratory experiments can use standardization, which means that the
procedure is kept exactly the same for all participants. Both controls and standardization
help to make the findings of the experiment ____________ that is the researchers would be
more certain that the procedures and measures they are using are consistent. Controlling
variables also improves ______________, how certain the researcher can be that they are
testing what they claim to be testing, in other word, their accuracy. By keeping the
situation the same, the researcher can be more certain that any difference in the DV is due
to the difference between levels of the IV rather than due to _________________ variables.
◦ Dr. Splash is conducting a laboratory experiment to test whether older adults detect
emotions as quickly as younger people. He has two groups of participants, older and
younger ones. He tests them by comparing how quickly they press a button to stay they
have recognized the emotions on a screen. Each participant sits the same distance from
the screen. In a pilot study, Dr. Splash had shown the participants pictures and used a
stopwatch to time their reactions himself, but he found he was not very consistent in his
ability to stop timing exactly when the participant responded. He therefore changed to
the computerized system.
◦ Identify the IV

◦ Identify the DV

◦ Identify one control

Field Experiment
◦ Reflecting back on the example of effect of light levels, the school children could be tested by
altering the number of lights turned on in their normal classroom.
◦ Light level would still be the IV and the levels of the IV could be ‘all the lights turned on’ and ‘half
the lights turned on.’ The DV of ________ could then be measured by looking at their scores on a
class test at the end of a lecture.
◦ This is still an experiment because it consists of an IV and a DV (and there could be still some
________like how much time the lecture lasted for, or how much time they could study for the test).
However, it would be a field experiment because the children are being tested on a __________
behavior (the lecture topic test) in their _____________ environment (the classroom)

Word bank: natural, normal, controls, attention

Evaluating field experiments: It is a little harder to control variables and standardize procedures in
a field experiment as compared to a laboratory experiment. Therefore, our ____________ and validity
may lower. However, validity might be improved because the participants are performing a task that
seems normal in a familiar environment. School students taken into a university laboratory might
concentrate really hard because they are nervous or interested. This means the finding from the
laboratory would not _____________ to other settings as well as those from the classroom. This is a
problem of _______________ validity, and field experiments often have better ecological validity than
laboratory experiments.
◦ Another advantage, if participants are unaware that they are in an experiment, is that there may
be fewer _______________________________ that there would be in a laboratory experiment. These are
any features of the experiment that give away the aims and cause participants’ behavior to
change.
◦ However, extraneous variables in a field environment are more difficult to control. There are
extraneous variables known as ______________________ variables that could affect the DV. These
types of variables include:
________________________________________________________________________________.
◦ Research one of the following field experiments or find one of your own: Hofling’s study
on obedience, music in restaurants by North et al. or effects of odour by Chebat and Michon

Word Bank: generalize, reliability, ecological, situational, demand characteristics, odour, noise,
temperature, lighting
Explain two similarities between a laboratory experiment and a
field experiment.
-Has an IV
-Has a DV
-Has controls

Explain one difference between a laboratory experiment and a

field experiment, using any core study as an example.
-a field experiment is conducted in the situation which is
normal for the behaviour being measured
-controlling variables is more difficult in the field
 Natural Experiment
◦ A third type of experiment is the natural experiment. This is when researchers use a
________________ or naturally occurring IV. The differences or changes in the IV exist, or would
occur, even in the absence of the experiment. For example, children’s attention could be
measured on very dull and very bright days, when the amount of light in the classroom
differed even with the lights turned on. The DV could again be measured with a class test.
◦ There are certain instances where the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the IV under
investigation. These usually take place in a real-life situation (e.g. the workplace or a
hospital).  
◦ Evaluating natural experiments: using this method there is less opportunity to _______and
standardize the situation. There may be uncontrolled variables that could have an effect on
the dependent variable. This would lower the validity of the findings, although most of these
experiments have high ___________ validity.

Word bank: control, ecological, pre-existing

◦ In order to be certain that the difference between the conditions is caused by
the IV, the researcher needs to CONTROL any other variables that might
affect the DV. For example, people might find it harder to be attentive if they
haven’t eaten, haven’t exercised or have sat through a dull class. Such
EXTRANEOUS variables should therefore be controlled, i.e. kept the same in
each condition or held constant.

◦ Extraneous variables: are any variables that can affect the DV (other than
the IV); and this effect can be random; e.g. if some participants in a study were
hungry and worked faster to get home

◦ these are called confounding variables / i.e. they confound the results;
these variables can be controlled (if they are identified)

◦ Uncontrolled variables: are variables that have not been identified as a

problem; or have not been/cannot be successfully eliminated
◦ A research team is deciding how to test the effect of watching television on children’s pro-social
behavior, that is, how nice children are to each other. They will measure pro-social behavior by
observing how often the children hold hands. They are considering two methods. The first, an
experiment in which the parents either do or do not allow their child to watch TV. The second, they
could observe children in a remote area that has no television and then observe them again after
the area has begun to receive satellite transmissions.
◦ What is the IV?

◦ What is the DV?

◦ What type of experiment is experiment 1?

◦ What type of experiment is experiment 2?

◦ Explain why both of these studies would have high ecological validity.

◦ Suggest one extraneous variable that it would be important to control.

◦ Explain demand characteristics in the context of this example

Types of Word bank:
extraneous Double-blind individual standardized
Assign matched
variables
◦ Situational variables – environment or situation in which the experimental and control groups
are participating in the experiment. If one group is tested in a one environment and another
group in a different environment, then this might cause the result to be different
◦ Experimenter variables – when the presence of researchers themselves may affect the
outcome of the experiment. This can happen in two different ways:
◦ Demand characteristics: presence of the experimenter may induce demand characteristics, whereby
participants responds to the experiment in a certain way in order to ___________ (or upset!) the
experimenter. One way to control demand characteristics is use a single blind design, in which the
participant is unware of the behaviour expected from them (i.e. not told whether they are in experimental
or control group; not told what behaviour is being measured or why)
◦ Experimenter bias: is a process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in
order to portray a certain outcome. This can be overcome by using a _____________________ design in which
the participant and experimenter are both unaware of the condition the participant is in. Experimenter bias
can also be reduced by ________________________ instructions.
Participant variables – are _________________ differences between the participants, such as level of
motivation, eyesight, intelligence or memory. One solution is to have two very large groups (to minimize the
effect of an outlier) and to __________ participants to the two groups randomly. Another solution is to use a
_______________ pairs design, so participant variables are equally distributed across the groups.
Controlling variables is highly desirable but so is high
ecological validity. Low control means high ecological
validity, and high control means low ecological validity.
Which is better? The solution to this dilemma is not a
desirable one – to be unethical. The field experiment
by Piliavin et al. was done in a real-life setting and
they had many controls. To achieve this, there was no
informed consent, many deceptions, no right to
withdraw, no debriefing and possible psychological
harm.
 Word bank:

Experimental Design One

Naturally
Allocate
sex
Age height
◦ Design of study (experimental or participant design)
◦ If psychologists choose to use an experiment, then they have to decide on an experimental
(participant) design. This refers to how you ___________________ your participants to the
varying conditions of your experiment.
◦ Three types of experimental designs are: independent measures design, repeated measures
design and matched pairs design.

Independent measures/groups – this is when a participant only takes

place in _________ level of the IV. If the IV is ­____________________ occurring (example:
___________________) then an experimenter must use this type of design. Other examples of
naturally occurring IV’s are ____________________ and _______________________. In a true
independent groups design, participants are randomly allocated to one level of the IV (so they
get an equal chance of being placed in any level of your IV). In an independent measures
design separate groups of participants are used for each level of the IV (or control group). This
means that the data for each level of the IV is ‘independent’ because it is not related to any
other data – it has come from different people
 Word bank:
Demand
characteristics
Random allocation
once

This design is good because the participants only encounter the experimental setting ______.
They are therefore unlikely to notice or respond to clues that might tell them the aims of the
experiment, these are referred to as ________________ _________________. One problem is that
there might be individual differences between participants so that could influence the findings.
For example, in a study on the effect of noise on dreams, all the people who normally
remember their dreams well might end up in the ‘no noise’ group. If so, it might look as though
noise prevented dream recall when in fact it had little effect. This risk can be reduced by the
___________________________________ of participants to different conditions. This spreads possible
differences between individuals across the levels of the IV. To randomly allocate participant,
each person is given a number, and the numbers are then randomly divided into two groups.
This can be done by telling each participant a number, putting numbers into a hat and drawing
out, or using a random number generator (e.g. on a computer).
Repeated Measures Word bank: both/all
Intelligence
Design (RMD) Participant variables
naturally

◦ Repeated measures - this is when participant takes part in _________ of the levels of the IV. This
cannot be used if the IV is _______________________________ occurring (example – you cannot be
male and female at the same time). Participants ‘repeat’ their performance under different
conditions. For example, in a study looking at the effects of doodling on learning, we could count
the number of words recalled in the same group of people when they did doodle and when they
did not.
◦ The main advantage of a repeated measures design is that each person acts as their own
baseline. Any differences between participants that could influence their performance and
therefore the DV will both affect levels of the IV in the same way. Individual differences are
therefore unlikely to bias the findings. Imagine that in our experiment on doodling, one person
was generally very quick to learn and another quite slow. In an independent measures design this
might cause a problem if they were in different groups, but using a repeated measures design
makes the differences between them less important. Individual differences between participants
are called _______________________________. These variables such as age, _______, personality or
________________, can affect scores on the DV. It is therefore important to make sure that these
variables do not hide, or exaggerate, differences between the levels of the IV.
Repeated Measures Design
◦ As each individual participates in every level of the IV they will perform the same two tasks two
or more times. This can lead to a problem called ____________________________. Repeated
performance could cause the participants to improve because they have encountered the task
before, known as a _________________ effect. This refers to gains in scores on tests or tasks that
occur when a person is retested on the same thing, or tested more than once on very similar
ones.
◦ Alternatively, repetition might make performance worse, perhaps if they were bored or tired, a
____________ effect. In addition, participants may work out the aim of the study so are more
likely to respond to demand characteristics.
◦ Order effects can be solved by ___________________ which is sometimes called an ABBA design.
For example, if we have an experiment with two conditions learning with music (A) and learning
without music (B). Here, the group of participants is divided into two and one half will do A
followed by B, and the other half of the participants will do B and then A. If on the second test
there was a risk of participants accidentally including items learned in the first test, this would
be a problem for exactly half the participants in the ‘music group’ and exactly half in the ‘no
music’ condition. As a result, both practice and fatigue effects are controlled.

Word bank:
order effects counterbalancing
Practice
fatigue
Matched Pairs Design
The problems associated with both independent measures designs and repeated
measures designs are overcome in a matched pairs design. This is when the
participants are matched on a variable researches wish to ­________________ for in
the study. Examples of variables they may match participants on include gender,
age, intelligence or personality. A good source of participants for this type of
design is _____________________ as many variables are already matched
genetically. Once participants are matched, each member of the pair takes part
in one level of the IV, so it is a type of independent measures design.

Control
Identical twins
 Exam Style Questions, CIE November, 2019 (21)

Jia has conducted an experiment on memory. Each participant played

a memory game twice, first with a distracting noise and then without a
noise.

◦ State the control condition in Jia’s study (1)

◦ The participants had never played the game before. Explain why this was important
(2)
◦  The experimental design of Jia’s study was repeated measures.
◦ Suggest one advantage of using this experimental design in Jia’s study (2) 
◦ Suggest why order effects could have been a problem in Jia’s study(2)
◦ Suggest one way that Jia could have overcome the order effects in his study (2)
Self-reports
In a self-report, the participant gives the researcher information about themselves
directly. It essentially means asking participants about something so they can report
on it themselves. There are three main components to take into account:
◦ The specific method (questionnaire or interview) used to ask questions and gather
data (the answers)
◦ The format or structure of the questions themselves
◦ The way in which participants will provide answers to the questions.
Two types of self-reports:
interviews and questionnaires
◦ Questionnaires: asks participants to answer a series of questions in the _____________
form. This may be on paper or online. There are various types of questions that a
psychologist can use in a questionnaire-based study.
◦ The two most important are ___________ questions, which have a fixed set of
possible responses, and ____________ questions which ask for descriptive answers in
the participant’s own words. Closed questions can take the form of simple choices,
such as those asking yes/no or items from a list. Other forms of closed questions
include rating scales (where a number is chosen e.g. between 0 and 5) and Likert
scales, which ask the respondent to say how much they agree with a statement.

Word bank:
Closed
Open
Written
Types of closed questions:
◦ Likert scales – these are statements that participants read and then state whether
they strongly agree, disagree, etc. Example: “Owning a pet is good for your
psychological health.” Agree, Neutral, Disagree. Each option has a label. Write your
own example:
◦ Rating scales- these are questions or statements where participants give an answer
in the form of a _____________. For example:
◦ Closed: these are questions where there are a set amount of answers and
participants choose which answer best fits how they want to respond. Are you
happy today: yes or no?

Psychology is What is the

the best subject problem with
ever, how much the wording of
do you agree? this question?
Open-ended q’s
◦ Open ended questions prompt the respondent to give detailed answers, which may
be quite long. They contain more depth than the answers to closed questions and
are more likely to explore the reasons behind behaviors, emotions or reasoning.
They typically ask “why…” or simply “Describe…” Not all open questions are good
questions, sometimes they can be leading.
Choose a theme and write 4 different questions
total one for each style of question given below.
All questions must fit into your theme

*write a likert style q

*write a rating scale q
*write a yes/no or MCQ
*write an open-ended Q
Types of data: Quantitative and
Qualitative
◦ Quantitative data is in the _____________ form and researchers can perform
statistical analyses on it. Anything in the form of a number is quantitative data. The
sources of quantitative data are typically highly objective, as the scales or
questions used need little if any interpretation, making them high in validity.
Qualitative data takes the forms of ____________________ via words, sentences and
____________________. These data are ________ in detail and are data where
participants can explain their answers to questions asked. It is much more in –depth
than quantitative data and includes detailed observer accounts and responses to
open questions in questionnaires, interviews or case studies. Although there is a
risk to subjectivity, qualitative data may be more representative or valid as the
participant can express themselves fully.
Evaluating questionnaires: questionnaires using mainly closed questionnaires are easier to analyze
than interviews (using more open questions) as they can be used to produce totals of each category
of answers to making it simple to _____________ the findings. Where qualitative data is collected from
questionnaires, it produces more ____________, in-depth information. This is an advantage, although it
leads to a problem. Answers to open ended questions need to be ________________, and this can lead
to a lack of reliability as the researchers may not be consistent in their interpretation. Additionally, if
a study is replicated it is difficult to check for consistencies with qualitative data. If more than one
researcher is involved there may be a difference between the two researchers, this would be a lack
of inter-rater reliability. This refers to the extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative
responses in a questionnaire or interview will produce the same records for the same data.
◦ One problem with questionnaires, is that it is easy for participants to __________ them, which means
the return rate may be very low. Importantly, the people who do reply to a questionnaire may all be
quite similar, for example have time to spend because they are unemployed or retired. This would
mean all the people who filled out the questionnaire would be quite similar.
◦ Another problem with questionnaires is that participants may lie. They may do this because they
want to look more acceptable, this is called­­______________________________. Participants may lie to
make themselves look better or to hide something undesirable. To avoid this, researchers
sometimes include filler questions among the real questions. The answers to filler questions are not
analyzed in the research since they serve only to hide the real purpose of the study.
◦Think about the advantages and disadvantages of these different ways
in relation to:
◦Cost: posting out a questionnaire and having it returned is relatively
very expensive; asking people in the street has no monetary cost
◦Return of answers: postal questionnaires take the most time because of
postage and not every person will return the questionnaire immediately.
◦Target population: a postal questionnaire can target specific individuals
or it can cover a wide area; asking people in the street limits the
sample. Completing a questionnaire online only targets people who are
online and the sample may therefore be very restricted.
◦Question design: asking ‘in the street’ means that questions needs to be
relatively short
 Interviews
◦ In an interview, the researcher is typically face-to-face with the participant.
Interviews can, however, be conducted through any medium that allows real-time
interaction, such as by telephone or through a chat facility. The same kinds of
questions can be asked in interviews as in questionnaires, although more open
questions may be used.
◦ Interviews- these are similar to questionnaires but answers are in the_________
not written form. Interviewers ask a series of questions using the types listed
above. They may go back and transcribe exactly what participants said. An
interview that is face-to-face is not anonymous and neither is a telephone
interview. Depending on what the psychologist is studying, there are three main
types of interview:
Interviews
◦ _______________: this is when a set order of questions is used. Each participants
will be asked the questions in that order. There may even be _________________
for the interviewer about how to sit or dress in order that the procedure is
standardized each time data is collected.
◦ ________________________: there are certain questions that ____________ be asked
from every participant. However, the interviewer can ask them in a different
order and/or ask them other questions to help clarify a participant’s response.
This is a compromise between structured and unstructured interviews. This
allow the researcher to develop ideas and explore issues that are particular to
that person.
◦ Unstructured: this is when the interviewer has a ____________ or ___________ that
needs to be discussed. The interviewer may have an initial question to begin
the interview but each subsequent question is based on the response given by
the participant. This is a very flexible technique but it may be hard to compare
data collected from different participants or researchers
◦Evaluating interviews: as with questionnaires, interviewees may lie
either because they want to seem more acceptable (a social desirability
bias) or because they think they know the aim of the study and are
either trying to help the experimenter by giving the answers they need,
or disrupt the research by doing the opposite. Interviewing is often time
consuming and this can be a problem if it restricts the types of
participants who volunteer for the research because it would give a
narrow representation of feelings, beliefs or experiences.
◦When interpreting participants’ responses to questions in an interview,
researchers must be careful not to be _________________, that is, produce
findings which are based on a personal perspective. Instead they should
aim to for _______________, i.e. taking a view that is not led by one’s own
feeling or beliefs. To achieve this, the interviewer may ask other
researchers, who are experienced but unaware of the aims of the study,
to interpret the findings.
 Questionnaire
They can be easily distributed to a large sample relatively
quickly and cheaply.
 
They are only completed by people who can read and write
AND spend time filling them in. This can mean that the sample interviewer gives.
lacks validity.
 
Respondents may be more willing to share personal
information than in an interview as the questionnaire may be
anonymous and this may also reduce social desirability bias  
(wanting to give the right answers to look good!)
 
People may lie on questionnaires or try to give a socially
desirable answer. This affects the validity of the research. To
help avoid this, a researcher may use filler questions.
 
They are relatively quicker to analyse.
Questionnaires generally only produce quantitative data.
 
It may be difficult to draw an accurate sample and therefore
the sample may lack representativeness and the data cannot
be generalised.
 
 
Interview
They are relatively quicker to analyse.
In all cases of interviews, the interviewer effect may
inadvertently (or deliberately) influence the answers that the
Structured interviews can be easily repeated (like
questionnaires and) are therefore quicker and cheaper than
other forms of interview.
In unstructured interviews, the interviewer needs to be highly
skilled to be able to develop answers on the spot. Therefore,
unstructured interviews are likely to be more expensive than
structured interviews.
Unstructured interviews produce more qualitative data that
can provide more insights into the way that someone is
thinking and feeling.
Comparability may be a problem if the interviewer acts
differently in different interviews (which could lower
reliability).
Some of the questions in an unstructured interview may lack
objectivity due to their spontaneous nature.
Case studies
◦ A case study is a detailed investigation of a single instance, usually just one person, although it could, for
example, be a single family or institution. The data collected is detailed and in-depth and may be obtained
using a variety of different techniques.
◦ This is not a ‘true’ research method as it utilizes other methods to collect the data. A case study examines a
_________________ person or a unit of people (example: _____________) in depth. There may be something
unusual about the case (for example a trauma or mental health issue). The psychologist will use
questionnaires, interviews and observations to collect the data. Case studies are in-depth and detailed,
collecting a lot of data. Variables are not manipulated/controlled as in experiments. Case studies see
changes over time. Case studies are particularly useful for looking at rare cases where a detailed description
is useful, and for following developmental changes, where the progress of a child, or a person with a disorder
can be tracked through their improvement or decline. Case studies are not automatically longitudinal, so this
is not a key feature. For example, Griffiths (2003) interviewed ‘Jo’ about her gambling behaviour. This was a
study of one person, but she was interviewed on three different occasions in quick succession.
◦ Evaluating case studies: in some ways, the findings from case studies are highly valid, as the individual is
explored in great depth and within a genuine context such as their work or family. Validity may be improved
further using ______________________, where the use of different techniques should produce similar findings,
for examples observations and interviews with the participants and questionnaires for their family should all
lead to similar conclusions. The research includes details such as their past and present situation, their social
interactions, their thinking, their emotions and as well as their behaviors.
Stephanie and Justin are investigating people’s phobias. They have
decided to use self-reports. Stephanie is suggesting a
questionnaire and Justin wants to interview people instead.

◦Suggest one closed question and one open question that

Stephanie could use.
◦Suggest one reason why Justin may want to do an unstructured
interview.
◦Explain a problem with unstructured interviews.
◦Suggest an advantage of a semi-structured interview in the
context of this example.
Exam Style Questions, CIE November, 2019 (21)
◦Freya is planning a semi-structured interview to find
out whether people sleep better in the winter or the
summer.
◦State what is meant by a ‘semi-structured interview
(1)
◦Suggest one open question that Freya could ask (1)
◦Explain one advantage of using a semi-structured
interview in Freya’s study (2)
Observations
◦ This research method involves watching and observing people or animals and their behaviors.
An observation can be best understood how it applies to its four main features: the participants,
the observers, the data to be gathered and the setting.
◦ The participants: is the observation ________or __________? Overt is where a participants
__________ they are being observed, whereas in a ____________ observation the participant does
not know they are being observed.
◦ The observers: are they ____________________ or _________________________? Participant
observation is where the observer becomes part of the group they wish to observe (this can be
overt or covert). Non-participant observation is when the observer ____________ part of the group
and observes from a _______________ (this can be overt or covert)

Covert overt
Aware participant
Non-participant
Isn’t distance
 ◦ The setting: is the setting __________________ or __________________? Naturalistic
observation is conducted in an environment that is ____________ for the participant.
Controlled observation is when the observation is conducted in a non-natural
environment such as a ____________________ where the environment is controlled.
◦ The data: will it be _____________________ or _______________________? In a structured
observation, the observer creates a list of what is to be observed (response
categories or tally chart) before beginning the observation. In a non-structured
observation, the observer records what is happening as it ________________.

Naturalistic controlled
Normal laboratory
Structured unstructured
happens
◦ A _______________________ observation is conducted in the participants’ normal environment,
without interference from the researchers in either the social or physical environment. A
_____________________ observation is conducted in a situation which has been manipulated by the
researcher. Controlled observations can be done in either the participants’ normal environment or
in an artificial situation such as a _______________________.
◦ At the beginning of a study, observations may be non-focused, that is, the whole range of
possible behaviors are considered. If this continues throughout the study it is called an ­
______________________ observation. Usually, however, the range of behaviors studied is narrowed
down to a set of behaviors, and this technique is called a ____________________ observation. The
specific activities to be recorded are clearly defined in behavioral categories. This helps the
observers to be consistent and improves inter-observer reliability. This checklist must name each
behavior that the psychologist is expecting to see. In addition, a picture of the behavior
happening and a brief description is useful. This makes sure that if there is more than one
observer, they are looking for the ___________ behaviors.

Word bank:

Naturalistic controlled
Unstructured laboratory
Structured same
 ◦ The behavioral checklist or _______________ must be “tested” before the main
observation to ensure that all potential behaviors are covered and the observers can
use the checklist or ethogram successfully. This is called a ­______________ observation.
Additional behaviors may be added to the checklist or ethogram _______________ this
process.
◦ There are two ways in which an observer can “sample” behaviours:
◦ Time sampling: behaviors are recorded in specified time ____________________.
◦ Event sampling: every time a behavior is seen in the person being observed it is tallied.
A set time period is decided upon before recording begins.
Ethogram pilot
After intervals

Behaviou
r 1 min 2 mins 3 mins 4 mins 5 mins 6 mins
             

Smiling // //   /// /  
             

Eating /   / //   /
             

Crying   //     ///  
             
◦ Another decision to be made is the role of the observer in the social setting. This may be
participant or non-participant. A participant observer is _________ of the social setting, where as
a non-participant observer does not become involved in the situation being studied. This can
be achieved by watching through one-way class or keeping apart from the social group of the
participants.
◦ The role played by the observer can be either overt (it is obvious that they are an observer) or
covert (they are hidden or disguised so the participants do not know who the individual
observer is).
◦ Participant observers can be ________ for example, if they are holding a clipboard. When a
participant observer is disguised as a member of the group, or when a non-participant observer
is physically hidden (by using CCTV or e.g.) then they are covert. Participants cannot be aware
they are being watched if the observer is covert. This increases the validity of the study as it is
unlikely the participants will have demand characteristics or behave with socially desirability.
However, covert observation raise practical issues as the observer must be hidden, far away,
discrete or disguised in their role. This may make data collection much more difficult which can
potentially reduce the validity and reliability. Also, covert observations raise _______________
issues.
Apart ethical
overt
◦ Using an unstructured observation ensure that any important behaviors are recognized, but it
may be very difficult to record all the activities accurately and many may be irrelevant. It is
therefore likely, especially when only specific activities are of interest, that a structured
observation will produce more ______________ data.
◦ The role played by the experimenter and the participants’ _______________ of this, affect
validity. If the participants are unaware of the observer, or can ignore them, their activities are
more likely to reflect their normal behavior. This means that covert observers would produce
more ___________ results. However, covert observers raise the ethical issue of deception.
However, an overt observer is likely to __________ the behavior of the participants as they are
aware they are being watched.
◦ Observations can used either as a research method or as a means to collect data in other
research methods such as case studies, experiments or correlations.

Awareness reliable
Valid alter
Worksheet
Exam style questions, CIE June, 2019 (21)

◦Exam Style Questions, CIE June, 2019 (21)

◦Explain what is meant by a ‘covert observation’. (2)

◦Suggest one disadvantage of conducting a covert
observation (2) 
Correlations
◦Correlational designs look for _____________between the measures
collected from other research methods (e.g. questionnaires or
observations). Correlations can be defined as the relationship between
two ___________variables. Correlations are useful when it is possible only
to measure variables, rather than manipulate them, i.e. when an
experiment cannot be conducted. This may be because changing the
variables would not be practical or would be ______________.

Unethical
Measured
Relationships
◦For example, it would not be ________to conduct an experiment
which controlled children's long-term exposure to television and it
would not be ethical to increase real-life exposure to violent
television programs. Both of these could, however, be
__________using correlations. It is important to recognize that any
link found between two variables in a correlation ___________be
assumed to be a ___________relationship, that is, we cannot know
whether the change in one variable is ___________for the change
in the other variable.

Responsible
Practical
Cannot
Investigated
Causal
◦For example, a bizarre positive correlation has been reported between
ice cream consumption and murder rates. This relationship is a
correlation, however, so we cannot conclude that eating ice cream
causes people to commit murder.
◦ To look for a correlation between two variables, each variable must
exist over a range and it must be possible to measure them numerically.
Several techniques can be used to collect data for correlations, such as
self-reports, observations and different types of tests.
◦ We cannot say from one correlation that an increase in one variable
has caused an increase (or decrease) in the other, because it is possible
that the changes in both variables could be the result of another
________. Imagine that two variables are being measured: attention in
class and score on a test.
◦ We cannot say from one correlation that an increase in one variable has caused an
increase (or decrease) in the other, because it is possible that the changes in both
variables could be the result of another ________. Imagine that two variables are being
measured: attention in class and score on a test. If these two correlate it would be
tempting to say that paying attention in class is responsible for good test results but we
cannot be sure of this. It is possible that both of these factors _______ on another variable,
such as the dedication of the individual student. The sort of student that pays attention in
class might also study much harder for a test. All we can conclude is that these two
measured variables vary together, not that there is a _______ and effect relationship
between them. As a consequence, we must refer to these variables as ‘________________
variables’ or ‘co-variables’ in a correlation and not an IV and DV. To make judgments
about causality, an experiment must be used so that we can be more certain that it is
the manipulation of one variable that is responsible for the change in the other.

Factor depend
Measured cause
◦ There are three broad categories that results of correlational studies can fall into in terms of its
direction: positive, negative or no correlation.
◦ Positive correlation – takes the form that if one variable increases, the second variable is also
likely to increase. These variables vary in the same direction.
◦ Negative correlation- takes the form that if one measured variable increases, the other
measured variable decreases.
◦ No correlation – refers to the situation where no definite trend occurs and the two measured
variables do not appear to be related to each other.
◦ Evaluating correlations: a correlational study can only be valid if the measures of both
variables test real phenomena in ________ways. To achieve this, the variables must be
clearly ___________ and relate directly to the relationship being investigated. The reliability
of a correlation depends on the measures of both variables being consistent. So, for some
correlations, such as those using _____________scales (time in seconds, length in cm), the
measures will be highly reliable. In other cases, such as studies correlating variables
measured using self-reports or observations, there is a risk that the reliability will be lower.
This is because results from these measures may be less objective than from scientific
measures.
◦ The main issues with correlations, however, is to remember that the conclusions do not
necessarily reflect a causal relationship.
◦ Correlations can be used when manipulating variables would be _____________ or
impractical. Correlations are also a good starting point _________ conducting an experiment

Effective defined
before
Scientific unethical
 Practice Questions:

◦ Brian and Laurie are going to find out if there is a correlation between the amount
of coffee people drink and the number of dreams they recall.
◦ Explain why this is a correlational study and not an experiment.
◦ Suggest one way to measure the amount of coffee that people drink.
◦ Explain how they could measure the number of dreams that are recalled.
◦ Hamza is studying phobias. He thinks that there may be a correlation between how long a
phobia has lasted and how severe it is. She has a sample of participants with various
phobias.
◦ What are his two measured variables?

◦ How he collect data for his two variables using the self-report method.

◦ Explain what is meant by a positive correlation in the context of this example.

 The research process…
In this section we will consider the steps a psychologist might take in developing research
to investigate a question or problem. This research process can be thought of having
several steps.
◦ Development of an aim or hypothesis
◦ Selection of a research method and in an experiment the experimental design
◦ Definition, manipulation, measurement and control of variables
◦ Ethical considerations
◦ Selection of participants
◦ Analysis of data, including the drawing of conclusions
◦ Evaluation of research
Aims & Hypotheses
◦ Aim- is written before a study is run. It is a statement that tells people what the
purpose of the study is. It does not __________ the outcome of the study but merely
states what the study is about. It can be written as a question.
◦ Hypothesis – ______________ the findings of a study. A hypothesis is a testable
statement. It is also written before the study is run. An experimental hypothesis
always contains the IV and DV (fully operationalized). A correlational hypothesis
will always have both measured variables operationalized

◦ Aim does not predict

◦ Hypothesis does predict
 Rewind…identify the IV & DV in
these examples…
◦Participants who have drunk four pints of beer will perform worse on a
co-ordination test than those who have drunk none.
◦ Pupils who attend Oxford University will have passed more IGCSE’s
than pupils who attended Harvard University.
◦ There will be a difference between genders (males and females) in
their scores out of 25 on a memory word list test.
◦In a memory test participants show words and images will recall more,
than those just shown words.
◦ Extroverts will go to more parties than introverts.
◦An example… athletes tend to perform better when they have
a training partner
◦Aim would be to investigate the effect of having a training
partner on athletes’ motivation levels
◦Hypothesis would be: Athletes who have a training partner are
likely to score higher on a questionnaire measuring motivation
levels than athletes who train alone
Types of hypotheses
Null Hypothesis Alternative

Directional Non-directional
 Alternative hypothesis: directional
hypothesis (one-tailed)
◦ Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis
◦ A directional, or one-tailed, hypothesis predicts a significant difference or correlation
and also the direction of the results. If previous research conducted or other evidence
suggests the nature or direction of an effect we can use a directional hypothesis. In an
experiment this means saying which condition will be ‘best’ (i.e. produce the highest
scores) and in a correlational study whether there will be a positive or negative
correlation.
Directional (one-tailed)
hypothesis
◦ Athletes who have a training partner will score higher on a questionnaire
measuring motivation levels than athletes who train alone.
◦ Females will be able to spell more words correctly (out of 25 words) compared to
males.
◦ There will be a positive correlation between the amount of hours spent revising for
an AS Level CIE psychology exam and the final score a student achieves.
Alternative hypothesis: non-directional
hypothesis (two-tailed hypothesis)
◦ A non-directional, or two-tailed, hypothesis still predicts a difference or correlation
but not the expected direction of results. A non-directional hypothesis, in an
experiment, suggests that the IV will change the DV but not whether the effect will
be an increase or a decrease. This type of hypothesis is chosen if the effect of a
variable is being tested for the first time, so there are no previous results to suggest
what the results might be. In a correlational study, a non-directional hypothesis tells
us there will be a relationship but not if it’s positive or negative.
Non-directional (two-tailed
hypothesis)
◦ Examples:
◦ There will be a difference in between questionnaire scores in athletes who train
alone and with a training partner.
◦ There will be a difference in the number of words spelt correctly (out of 25 words)
by females compared to males.
◦ There will be a correlation between the amount of hours spent revising for an AS
Level CIE psychology exam and the final score a student achieves.
Directional (one-tailed)
Non-directional (two-tailed)
Null Hypothesis
◦ The alternative hypothesis is an alternative to the null hypothesis. In an
experiment, the null hypothesis states that any difference in the DV between levels
of the IV is so small that it is likely due to chance. Or it will state that there is no
difference. Researchers want to reject their null hypothesis. Both levels of the IV
need to be clearly stated when writing your null hypothesis. Correlational studies
also need a null hypothesis, which would predict that there either there is no
relationship or the relationship that exists is due to chance.
Null hypothesis
◦ There will be no significant difference in motivation questionnaire scores between
athletes who train with and without a training partner.
◦ Any difference in the number of words spelt correctly (out of 25 words) of females
compared to males will be due to chance.
◦ Any correlation between the amount of hours spent revising for an AS level CIE
psychology exam and the final score a student achieves will be due to chance.
Exam Style Q’s
Exam Style Questions, CIE March, 2019 (21)
◦ An experiment is testing the aim that smiling affects helplessness. The procedure is
to investigate whether people leaving a shop will hold a door open for people who
are smiling.
a) Write an operationalized directional (one-tailed) hypothesis for this experiment (2)
b) Write a null hypothesis for this experiment (1)
June, 2018 (23)
a) Explain what is meant by the ‘aim’ of a study, using an example (2)
Variables review
Practice Q’s! Try to complete as many of these questions as
you can without referring to your notes:
◦ What are the three types of experiment?
◦ Identify one strength of the use of laboratory experiments
◦  What is a repeated measures experimental design?
◦ What is a weakness of an independent groups experimental design?
◦ Identify two examples of situational variables
◦  What is the purpose of a null hypothesis?
◦  What is the purpose of a research aim? 
◦ What is a natural experiment?
◦ Identify one strength of a field experiment
◦ What is the difference between an independent groups experimental design and a matched
pairs design?
◦ Why might a researcher use a single-blind test in a piece of research?
◦  What is counterbalancing and when is it used?
 Practice Q’s
Exam Style Questions, CIE November, 2019 (21)
Jia has conducted an experiment on memory. Each participant played a memory game twice,
first with a distracting noise and then without a noise.
◦ State the control condition in Jia’s study (1)
◦  The participants had never played the game before. Explain why this was important (2)
◦  The experimental design of Jia’s study was repeated measures.
◦ Suggest one advantage of using this experimental design in Jia’s study (2)
◦  Suggest why order effects could have been a problem in Jia’s study (2)
◦  Suggest one way that Jia could have overcome the order effects in his study (2)
Sampling
◦ In any study the researcher cannot study everyone and so therefore they need to
identify a sample from the population. The target population is the group of people
that they are interested in researching and once the research is conducted then
generalisations can be made.
◦ The target population is the group to which research is hoping to generalize to.
◦ Generalizations: the extent to which results or the findings of a study can be
transferred to situations or people who were not originally studied
◦ Generalizations are more likely in biological studies (because human biology is
likely the same for all)
◦ Generalizations are less likely in social psychology where society influences us
 Sampling…
◦ There are different sampling techniques used to _______________ participants from the TP.
◦ Opportunity sampling – this technique involves researchers recruiting participants
who happen to be _______________________ at the time they need participants. Once the
correct number has been chosen and have completed the study, no more participants
are asked. An opportunity sample is unlikely to be representative of the population or do
so fairly, because readily available people will tend to be alike so they are unlikely to
produce the variety that exists. For e.g., many studies are conducted using university
students as they are __________________ for researchers. However, this means the sample
will be predominately young, with a better than average education. That being said, it is
still the most common sampling method used by psychologists. Participants can be
aware or unaware that they are in a study.
◦ Self-selected or volunteer sampling- this technique involves researchers
___________________________ for participants. It is frequently used in universities to
recruit participants for a range of studies. This requires putting up an
advertisement, making an announcement or posting a request online. In this way,
the people who respond and become participants choose to do so, i.e. are
volunteers. As the individuals are self-selected, the sample is unlikely to be
representative of the population.
◦ Volunteers may have more free-time than others, be more willing, or share other
common characteristics like being better educated. Nevertheless, it is a useful
technique and can be useful when looking for participants who may be ‘unusual.’
There is less researcher bias in the selection of participants. However, it can be
expensive to advertise and if an incentive is provided that would cost additional.
Incentives offered to volunteers can lead to demand characteristics or can be
unethical
◦ In Random sampling each person in the population has an equal chance of being
chosen so the sample is much more likely to be representative. Imagine you are
looking for sample of students at your school and you put an advert for volunteers
in the library. Students who never use the library cannot be included in your study
so your sample might biased towards those who work the hardest. Similarly if you
took an opportunity sample from the common room, it might be biased towards
students who work the least.
◦ To obtain a representative sample you could use a numbered list of all students and
use a random number generator to choose the participants. This would be a
random sample as any individual is equally likely to be chosen
 Practice
Read the following examples below and identify the sampling technique used in each:
◦ Stephanie is doing some research online and is recruiting participants by posting on
Facebook asking for people to help with her study.
◦ Stephanie is investigating the effects of aging and is asking all the residents at two
local care homes for their help.
◦ Stephanie pulls student numbers on a college register from a hat to select a sample for
a new study on homework and part-time jobs.
◦ Exam Style Questions, CIE March, 2018 (22)
◦ State the difference between a ‘population’ and a ‘sample’ (2)
◦ Name one sampling technique (1)
◦ Explain one advantage of using this sampling technique (2)
ETHICS
◦ Investigations using animals or humans have the potential to cause concerns about the welfare
of the participants. Such concerns are called ethical issues. Problems may arise through the
nature of the study, such as the potential for psychological discomfort caused by a study about
stress, or from aspects of the procedure, such as the need to hide the real aim of the study.
Ethical issues may also arise from the implications of the research, for example the possibility
of results having a negative impact on society.
◦ To help psychologists to cope with potential ethical issues that could arise in their research,
many countries have an organization which produces a code of conduct. In addition, research
that is being conducted at a university is likely to require ethical approval from the institution’s
ethical committee.
◦ An ethical code provides advice, for example, a set of ethical guidelines that helps
psychologists to work in a way that satisfies the primary concern of the welfare of individual
involved in the research as well as the perception of psychology in society. Participants who are
deceived or distressed may not want to participate again, may view psychology badly and pass
this message on to others, and are less likely to trust the finding of psychological research.
These are all outcomes that should be avoided.
◦ The British Psychological Society (BPS) has a code of ethics that all researchers must stick to
when conducting psychological research. It is their professional duty to follow them, failure to do
so may result in loss of reputation or career.

◦ Usually ethics committees in institutions and universities will use a cost-benefit approach to
determine whether research proposals are ethically sound to go ahead.
 Informed consent
◦ Sometimes it is important in experiments to hide the aims from participants in order to
reduce demand characteristics. However, participants have the right to know what will happen
in a study so they can give their informed consent. The researcher’s need to hide the aim makes
it hard to get genuine consent. Ideally, full and informed consent should be obtained from
participant’s _____________ the study starts by giving them sufficient information about the
procedure to decide whether they want to participate. In some situations it is not even
________________ to ask for consent. This is often the case in __________________________ and
_______________________________. In such situations, a researcher may ask people similar to those
who will become participants whether they would find the study acceptable if they were
involved. This is called ________________________ consent because it allows the researcher to
presume that the actual participants would also have agreed to participate if asked.
◦ The __________________ should be clear and accessible to people with limited literacy, using short
words and sentences, written in the active voice, and avoiding the use of technical terms.
Sufficient time should be given for potential participants to absorb and consider the information
given about the research and what is expected of their participation before they are asked to
make a decision regarding participation.
Protection (physical and
psychological)
◦ Guidelines state that participants should leave any study in the ________________ physical and
psychological state as they entered. A study may have the potential to cause psychological
harm (e.g. embarrassment or stress) or physical harm (e.g. engaging in risky behaviors or
receiving an injection). Participants have the right to be protected and should not be exposed to
any greater risk than they would in their ________________ lives. Care should be taken to
eliminate such risks for e.g. by screening participants, experienced researchers should be used
and studies should be _________________ if unexpected risks arise. If a study requires negative
imagery or makes participants think about negative things then a “positive mood” task must be
used at the end of the study.
Psychologists should always:
◦ Consider research from the __________________ of participants to help eliminate potential risks to
their psychological and physiological well-being
◦ Assess the risk of “harming” participants based on aspects such as sexual orientation, race,
religion and family status
◦ Refrain from ______________________________ that may make participants risk harm beyond what
they would do in their everyday lives
Deception
◦ To many outside (and some within!) the psychology profession, the idea of deceiving the participants in research is
seen as quite _____________________. The experience of deception can cause ___________ and harm and can make
participants cynical about the activities and attitudes of psychologists. However, there are many psychological
processes that can be modifiable by participants if they’re ____________ they are being studied, informing participants
about research beforehand would make much psychological research impossible. There is a difference between
withholding details of the hypothesis under test and deliberately falsely informing the participants of the purpose of the
research, especially if the information given implies a more benign topic of study than really is the case. The Code
expects all psychologists to seek to supply as much information as possible to those taking part in their research,
recognizing that if providing all of that information at the start of a person’s participation may not be possible for
methodological reasons. If the reactions after deception is revealed is likely to lead to discomfort, anger or objections
from the participants then the deception is inappropriate.
◦ If a designed study involves deception, it should be designed in such a way that it protects the ____________ and
autonomy of the participants. Additionally, details of the deception and the reason for withholding information should
be specified in the project protocol that is subjected to ________________________ and explicit procedures should be
stated to obviate any potential harm arising from such withholding.
◦ Deception or covert collection of data should only take place when:
◦ The research objective has strong scientific merit
◦ There is appropriate risk management and harm alleviation strategy
◦ Studies based on observation in ____________ settings must respect the privacy and psychological wellbeing of the
individuals studied. Unless those observed give their consent to being observed, observational research is only
acceptable in _________ situations where those observed would expect to be observed by _____________. Additionally,
particular account should be taken of local ___________ ______ and of the possibility of intruding upon the privacy of
individuals who, even while in a normally public space, may believe they are ______________.
Right to withdraw
◦ Participant should be able to leave a study whenever they wish. This is their right to
withdraw and it must be made clear to participants at the _____________ of the study.
Although participants can be offered incentives to join a study, these cannot be
taken away if they leave. This __________________ participants into thinking that they
have to continue. Researchers should not use their position of authority to
encourage participants to remain in a study if they want to stop. So in practice,
participants may need to be reminded of this right and researchers should follow
this guideline even if _____________ will be lost.
Confidentiality
◦ Information obtained and about a participant during an investigation is
________________ unless otherwise agreed in advance. Investigators who are put
under pressure to disclose confidential information should draw this point to the
attention of those exerting the pressure. Participants in psychological research have
a right to expect that information they provide will be treated confidentially, and, if
published, will not be ______________ as theirs. In the event that confidentiality
and/or anonymity cannot be guaranteed, the participant must be warned of this in
advance of agreeing to participate. The duty of confidentiality is not the absolute in
law and may in exceptional circumstances be overridden by more compelling duties
such as the duty to _________ individuals from harm.
Privacy
◦ A researcher should make it clear that participants have the right to ___________ any
questions or aspects of a study that they do not want to answer or engage in. this
protects individuals’ privacy. Also, studies should try to refrain from making people
_________ personal details that they would not reveal in their everyday lives.
Observations, self-reports which ask personal questions
Debriefing
◦ When the research data gathering is completed, especially where any
_________________ or withholding of information has taken place, it is important to
provide an appropriate debriefing for participants. In some circumstances, the
verbal description of the nature of the investigation will not be _______________ to
eliminate all possibility of harmful after-effects. For example, following an
experiment in which negative mood was induced, it would be ethical to induce a
_____________ mood state before the participant _________ the experimental setting.
However, debriefing is not an alternative to designing an ethical study, so it is
important to consider all the ways in which a study could cause distress and to
minimize them.
Read the following scenarios and identify which ethical
guidelines were broken and why they might have broken those
particular ethical guidelines

◦ In a busy subway, a person collapses. The person is a confederate of the experimenter and the
event is staged. Bystanders are covertly observed to see if they help and how long they take to
help. An investigation into bystander responses to emergency situations.
◦ A hidden observer in a men’s toilet records the time taken before participants begin to urinate and
the time they take urinating. A confederate of the experimenter either stands in the next stall to
the subject or one stall away. An investigation into the effects of invasion of privacy.
◦ The purpose of the experiment was to study the causes of conflict between prisoners and those
who guard them. Twenty-four male students were randomly assigned the role of either guard or
prisoner, and then set up according to their role in a specifically designed model prison located in
the basement of the psychology building. Those who were assigned guards took their role
seriously and were harsh with the prisoners. Many of the prisoners accepted their treatment. The
authoritarian measures adopted by the guards became so extreme that the experiment was
abruptly stopped after just six days.
 Animal Ethics
◦ Animals are used in psychological research for a number of different reasons. Driscoll and
Bateman (1988) suggested animals may be: convenient models (e.g. processes such as
learning), a way to carry out procedures that could not be done ethically on humans (e.g.
isolation or brain surgery) or be good or interesting examples in their own right (e.g.
communication in birds, bats or whales). As a consequence, much psychological research is
conducted on animals and therefore their welfare needs protecting.
◦ The following guidelines are laid out by the British Psychological Society Guidelines for
Psychologists Working with Animals (2012). Animals are also protected by law, but these
guidelines specifically consider the effects of research in which animals may be confined,
harmed, stressed or in pain, so suffering should be minimized. Veterinary advice should also be
sought in any case of doubt.
◦ Replacement – psychologists should at least consider using _____ footage of animal behavior or
computer simulations when possible
◦ Species and strain – psychologists should choose a species that is __________________ and
ethically suitable for the intended use. Choosing an appropriate subject species usually requires
_________________ of that species’ natural history. Knowledge of an individual animal’s previous
experience, such as whether or not it was bred in ______________, is also important. When the use
involves regulated procedures, and when a variety of species can be used, the psychologist
should employ the species which, in the opinion of the psychologist and other qualified
colleagues, is likely to suffer _______ while still attaining the scientific objective, and must
_____________ their choice in any project license application.
◦ Numbers-under the Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, psychologists should always use
the _________________________ number of animals that still accomplishes the research aims and
goals. This could be calculated via pilot study work and statistical programs.
◦ Procedures (pain and distress) – a range of well-documented procedures are contained in the
Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act. They cover any procedure that involves a
_____________________ species that may cause pain, suffering or lasting harm or distress.
Psychologists should always consider research that ____________ rather than deprives, for
example. Procedures that may cause discomfort, injury, stress etc. need a project license which
will specify the species, _____________ of animals and _____________ that are allowed. To gain the
license there has to be a cost-benefit analysis.
◦ Housing – caging conditions should take into consideration the _______ behavior of the
species. Caging in isolation may be stressful to social animals; ____________________ may
cause distress and possible harm through aggression. Because the degree of stress
experienced by an animal can vary with species, age, sex, reproductive condition,
developmental history, depression of the immune system and social status, the natural
social behavior of the animals concerned and their previous social experience must be
considered in order to minimize ____________.
◦ Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli – normal feeding patterns should be
adhered to and deprivation or aversive stimulation should be avoided, or kept to the
minimum to achieve the goals of the study.
◦ Anesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia – after conducting ___________ procedures, close
attention should be given to proper post-operative care in order to minimize preparatory
stress and residual effects. Regular and frequent post-operative monitoring of the animal’s
condition is essential, and it is a requirement of the personal license that if at any time an
animal is found to be ______________ severe pain or distress that cannot be
_________________ it must be killed ____________ using an approved technique. Unless
specifically contra-indicated by the experimental design, procedures that are likely to
cause pain or discomfort should be performed only on animals that have been adequately
anaesthetized, and analgesics should be used before and after such procedures to
minimize pain and distress whenever possible.
 Exam Style Questions, CIE
November, 2019 (22)
Dr Shah is conducting a naturalistic observation in a children’s play time.
◦ Suggest two ways that Dr Shah could make her study ethical (4) 
◦ State why this study is a ‘naturalistic observation’. (1)
◦  Suggest how Dr Shah could conduct her study if she were a covert, non-participant observer (4)
 Exam Style Questions, CIE
June, 2018 (22)
Hanif is investigating helping behavior in animals. As part of his experiment, two chimpanzees are
put together but it is possible that they might hurt each other, for example, by fighting rather than
helping .
◦ Explain how one ethical guideline, which relates to animals, is relevant to this study (2)
◦ Hanif is the only observer and wants to find out whether his recording of fighting behavior is
reliable over time. Explain what Hanif should to do measure his reliability (4) 
◦ Explain why Hanif may be more objective if he collects quantitative data rather than qualitative
data (2) – Come back to this question if unsure, as we will cover types of data in the next
section…
 Evaluating Research
◦ When conducting research, a psychologist will try to address any ethical concerns as well as
methodological issues (whether the methods used in the research are appropriate in terms of
the research studied itself).
◦ Two significant aspects to this are whether the methods used in research are reliable and valid.
To help find out more about these we need to take a small quiz:
Quiz on Vegetarianism
1. Do you like bananas? Yes/No

2. Do you like apples? Yes/No

3. Do you like watermelon? Yes/No

4.Do you like pears? Yes/No

Reliability
◦ Reliability refers to the consistency of a research study or test. For example, if you were to weigh
yourself in the morning you would expect that you would weigh the same later in the day.
◦ However, if your weight fluctuated significantly then we could argue that the scales are not
reliable.
This can be assessed in two ways:
◦ Inter-rater/observer reliability: this refers to whether the results of different researcher
produce similar results. One way to ensure that a study has high inter-rater reliability is to ensure
that procedures are standardised, researchers have sufficient training and/or practice through a
pilot study (this is where researchers carry out a small-scale trial to test any aspects including
questionnaires, recording techniques and then improvements can be made.
◦ Test-retest method: this involves measuring the stability of a test over time. Participants may
be given the same test on two different occasions. If the same or similar results are obtained then
a study has high external reliability.
 Validity
◦ The term validity refers to how true or legitimate something is as an explanation of behaviour.
Psychologists wish to ensure that their study has face validity; does it test what it is supposed
to? As otherwise, the test would be invalid.

◦ You will have seen the term demand characteristics before and this refers to participants
understanding the true purpose of a piece of research and potentially (consciously or not!)
changing their behaviour. Therefore this would lower the validity of the study. To avoid the
issue of demand characteristics, a researcher may hide the aim of the work to ensure it
doesn’t affect the results or carry out the work outside of a laboratory setting (where people
are more likely to change their behaviour).
Generalizability
◦ A problem with conducting research outside of a laboratory setting is that the study
will be lower in ecological validity. This is the extent to which the findings of a study
can be generalised to settings outside of the one studied. This is also influenced by
whether the situation (like a laboratory) represents the real world effectively and
whether the task is relevant to real life (it has mundane realism).
Write your own definitions for the following
key terms – some of them you will need to
find out for yourself:
◦ Validity
◦  Reliability
◦ Generalisability
◦  Inter-rater/observer reliability
◦  Test-retest method
◦  Face validity
◦ Ecological validity 
◦ Historical validity
◦ Demand characteristics
◦ Order effects
◦  Mundane realism
Type of data [review!]
◦ Qualitative data

◦ Quantitative data
Data Analysis
◦ A measure of central tendency (sometimes called a measure of ______________) represents how
data clusters around a central point in the data set. It is supposed to represent a ______________
score from the collected data.
◦ A measure of spread (sometimes called a measure of dispersion) gives an index of how spread
the data is around a measure of central tendency.
 Mean
◦ The mean is usually called the average. It is the most informative central tendency because it
takes every score into account.
◦ To calculate this we must…
◦ Add up all the scores we have collected to form our data set. Find the sum (Σ)
◦ Divide the total by the number of scores (N) that we have just added up.
◦ For example, we measured the height of ten people and the results were as follows (in
centimeters).
◦ 158 163 165 165 165 168 170 170 170 175
◦ First we add up all the scores. We get: ______
◦ Next we divide by total number of scores: ______ / 10
◦ The mean is ____________.
Median
◦ The measure of average is the middlemost score. That is when data has been placed in rank order from the smallest
number to the largest number (including every repetition score), the median is the score that lies in the middle of the
data set. It can be used with data on a linear scale (i.e. a rating scale for example, data in sequence).To calculate a
median, follow these steps:
◦ Rank the data from smallest number to the largest number.
◦ Eliminate one score from the lowest end of the ranked data and one score from the highest end of the ranked data
(known as: ___________________________)
◦ Continue eliminating these pairs of scores until either one or two scores are remaining. If there is an odd number of
scores left in the data set you should be left with just one number. If there are an even number of scores left in the data
set you should be left with two numbers. In this case, refer to step 4.
◦ Add up the two remaining numbers and divide the total by 2. This is the median.
◦ For example, data set:
◦ 11 13 13 13 15 17 17 17 18 19 19
◦ What is the median? ___________
◦ Another example:
◦ 11 13 13 13 13 15 17 17 17 18 19 19
◦ What is the median? _________
 Mode
◦ This measure of average is the most ___________ score in the data set. Therefore, on inspecting
the data set you can discover the mode by seeing which score or value is represented the most
times. If two scores are equally represented then we call the distribution bi-modal. If there are
three modes then it is tri-modal, and so on. The best way of calculating the mode is to draw up a
_______________ table and see which score has the highest frequency.

Shoe colour choice in males Frequency

Brown 10

Green 15

Blue 18

Black 27

White 17

Red 4
When is it the most appropriate to
use each measure of average?

◦ Each particular measure of average and measure of dispersion cannot be used on

any data collected. That is, the mode, median and mean for the data are not simply
calculated and all reported on every occasion. The below table shows that the type
of measure of average and measure of dispersion used depends on the type (level)
of data collected.

Level of measurement Appropriate measure of

average

Nominal: categories of data (e.g. favourite Mode

subject)

Ordinal: numerical data on a scale devised by the Median

researcher (e.g. a happiness index)

Interval/ratio: a numerical data measured on a Mean

universal scale (e.g. height or weight)
 Measures of spread
◦ A set of data can be described in terms of how dispersed or spread out the data items are:
◦ Range: the difference between the highest and lowest item in a set of data. Usually 1 is added
to balance out the bottom and top values.
◦ Standard deviation: this shows the amount of variation in a data set. It assesses the spread
of data/difference between the data points and the mean. This is called the deviation. As the
SD tells us the spread of the group, groups with scores that are more spread out have larger
SDs, groups with closely clustered scores have smaller SDs. When the SDs of two groups are
similar, this means they have a similar variation around the mean.
Range
◦ Range: this measure of spread is used in conjunction with the _____________ but can
be used with any continuous data. It is the simplest to calculate as follows:
◦ Rank the data from the smallest to the largest number (as for calculating the
median).
◦ In psychology, they often add 1
◦ In psychology we add 1 to account for any error. For e.g. if my highest score on a
happiness scale is 6, someone who indicates a 6 could fall anywhere between 5.5
and a 6.5. If my lowest score is 3, then my scores would fall between 2.5 and 3.5.
So I calculate my range as (6-3) +1, or 6.5-2.5.
◦ A problem with the range is that it does not accurately reflect outliers.
That is, it would not be clear from the range whether the most extreme
scores, e.g. very large scores, were single odd scores or typical of the
data set.
 Standard Deviation
◦ In the same way the mean can tell us more than the mode, a measure of spread called the
standard deviation can tell us more than the range. Rather than only looking at the extremes of
a data set, the standard deviation, (referred to as s or SD or σ). This measure of spread is used
in conjunction with the __________________. This measure is the spread of data around the mean
point. It is the most stringent measure of dispersion as it uses all the data in the collection. It
considers the difference between each data point and the mean. This is called the deviation.
◦ It is easier to interpret a standard deviation if you have two or more data sets to compare. For
example, say that you have timed males and females on their ability to solve a maze. Your
results are as follows
◦The means are similar so, on average, females and solve mazes in
roughly the same time. However, the standard deviation is telling us that
the results for females have less spread around the mean than the
results for males. This is because, for the results for females, the
standard deviation is smaller. Many of the females would have
completed the maze around the mean time of 68.4 seconds. However,
for the males the data set is much more spread out. Therefore, there
were some males who were much slower than the 69.3 seconds average
to solve the maze but there were some males who solved it much faster.

Females Males

Mean = 68.4 Mean = 69.3

Standard deviation = 3.9 seconds Standard deviation = 10.4 seconds

 Normal Distribution
Normal distribution is sometimes referred to as a _____________________ curve; that is, the data is
symmetrical around the central point of the data. If a data set is normally distributed then the
mean, median and mode are all the same value. Additionally, 50% of the scores should be to the
left and 50% of the scores should be to the right; it should be symmetrical.
◦ Normal distribution looks like this:
◦ Therefore, 68% of the data set is between one standard deviation less and one standard
deviation more than the central point (the mean, median and mode). A standard deviation
of +/-2 standard deviations from the mean will be where 95% of the scores lie, and +/-3
standard deviations from the mean will be where 99.7% of the data lies. Many things
follow this curve, such as blood pressure, the height of people and IQ.
◦Characteristics of a normal distribution curve, also known as a
bell-shaped curve 
◦It is bell-shaped
◦It is symmetrical
◦The mean, median and mode all fall on the same central point
Visual Displays of Data
◦ A graph is a visual representation of data. There are many different types of graphs
and we will look at bar charts, histograms and scatter graphs, each of which you
will need to be able to name, recognize, draw and use to interpret data. Additionally
you will also need to be able to recognize, interpret and understand a normal
distribution curve.
Bar Charts
◦ These are usually for nominal data (results in named categories) or for plotting the
average scores for the groups of data collected. The data are in categories rather
than on a continuous scale. The bars on a bar chart must be separated as the data
is not on a continuous scale, and is separate categories.
◦ The x-axis (horizontal axis) should always have categories/groups/ conditions (e.g.
of the IV) of data while the y-axis (vertical axis) should always have the scale or
frequency (e.g. of the DV) of occurrences or the average value that is to be
represented. Levels of the IV go on the x-axis, DV goes on the y-axis.
Bar Charts
To plot a bar chart…
◦ Enter the categories of data collected (for example, favorite animal, or a score on a
happiness scale) along the x-axis.
◦ On the y-axis, write the frequency that each category was recorded.
◦ Ensure that there are gaps between each bar because the bars represent separate
categories.
◦ Draw a bar chart using the following data:
◦ People were asked what their favorite color was. Their answers were: blue, red,
black, blue, green, pink, green, red, red, red, blue, black, yellow, blue, green, green,
pink, blue, blue and brown.
◦ Draw a bar chart:
Histogram
◦ These are usually used when the data is continuous (on a numerical scale) and is
plotted on the x-axis (horizontal axis). The y-axis (vertical axis) should always be
used for the frequency of occurrences.
To plot a histogram…
◦ Choose an appropriate width for each bar along the x-axis. Try to keep them
exactly the same; for example, if you are entering the speed of completing a task,
use 1 to 5 seconds, 6 to 10 seconds, 11 to 15 seconds, 16 to 20 seconds and so on.
◦ On the y-axis, enter the frequency at which data fell within the width of each bar on
the x-axis.

◦ From this data set, plot a histogram:

◦ People were timed how quickly they could write a text message to a friend. The
results were 10, 12, 5, 32, 17, 15, 17, 12, 6, 44, 18, 22, 21, 15, 13, 12, 11, 10, 8, 37,
22, 22, 22, 20, 17, 11, and 12.
 Scattergraph
◦ Sometimes these are referred to as scatterplots or scatter grams. These are used for plotting
_________________, the relationship between two numerical measures. From these, it is clear
what type of correlation has been found. Sometimes you will see a line of best fit drawn on a
scatter graph. The position of the line is calculated and its line is drawn so that it comes as
close as possible to as many points as possible. In a strong correlation the points lie close to
the line, in a weak correlation they are far from the line. The strength of the correlation can be
described as a number, the correlation coefficient. This can range from +1 to -1. Values close
to +1 for e.g. are strong positive correlations, and close to -1 a strong negative. Numbers
closer to 0 represent a weak correlation.
◦ The x-axis (horizontal) should represent one of the numerical measures and the y-axis
(vertical) should represent the other.
◦ To plot a scatter graph, in the example below of participants’ scores in two psychology
tests, follow these steps:
◦ Enter the participants first score along the x-axis
◦ Enter the participants second score along the y-axis
◦ Each cross placed on the scatter graph represents a participant’s pair of scores, so find a
participant’s score on the x-axis and then move up to that person’s score on the y-axis
and plot a dot.
◦ The following are scores from two tests completed by psychology students. The first test
was on cognitive psychology and the second on biological psychology. The scores are
percentages and are presented as cognitive/biological.
◦ 76/44, 88/67, 44/44, 55/32, 88/78, 21/7, 55/33, 50/50, 79/55, 42/65, 33/12, 76/67, 60/40,
93/52, 77/65, 66/60, 10/17, 58/49, 76/42, 45/35. Plot a scatter graph.
 Exam Style Questions, CIE March, 2018 (22)

Keelan has collected data about children’s aggression. He has several

different types of data.

a) In one experiment, Keelan recorded the total number of aggressive

acts per hour in children of each age between 3-18 years old. Name
the type of graph that would be most suitable to display this
frequency data (1)

b) Label the axes for the graph that Keelan should use (3)

Y-axis label:

X-axis label:

c) Name one measure of spread that Keelan could calculate from his
data (1)

d) Keelan also counted the total number of aggressive acts in

categories:: bite, kick, slap and pinch.

i) Name the measure of central tendency that Keelan should use for
this data (1)

ii) State how Keelan would calculate this measure of central tendency
(1)