PSY 101L:

Introduction to Psychology Lab

Dr. A.K.M. Rezaul Karim

Professor of Psychology
Department of History & Philosophy
North South University
What is a Psychological
Experiment?
 A well defined, systematic and controlled
procedure for identifying the causal relationship
between the variables by:
 deliberately producing a change in one

variable (independent variable) and

 observing the effects of that change on another

variable (dependent variable)

Variables

 A variable is a condition that can change or

produce a change in a behavioral outcome.
 Major Types of Variables
 Independent Variable
 Dependent Variable
 Extraneous Variables
Independent Variable (IV)
 Condition(s) or factors altered or
manipulated by the experimenter
 Experimenter sets their size, amount, or
value.
 Differing values of the IV are called “levels”
 Hypothesized to cause an effect on
another variable
 The “cause variable”
Dependent Variable (DV)

 The outcome of the experiment

 The behavioral variable being observed
and measured
 Hypothesized to be affected by an IV
 The “effect variable”
Extraneous Variables

 Any variables other than independent and

dependent variables.
 Conditions that a researcher wants to
prevent from affecting the outcomes of the
experiment (e.g., number of hours slept
before the experiment)
Example:
Identifying Variables
 The height of a candle decrease ’d’
centimeters for every hour it burns.
 The height of a candle depends on the
number of hours it burns.
 Dependent: height of candle
 Independent: time
 Extraneous variable: Any other variables
(e.g., it may be wet, weather)
Hypothesis Testing
 Hypothesis -- A testable prediction of the outcome of the
experiment or research
Research Hypothesis 
 A hypothesis derived from an in-depth review of the

existing theories or literature

Null Hypothesis
 A statement that the independent variable will have no

effect on the dependent variable.

 We assume the null hypothesis is correct until we can

encounter scientific evidence to reject it.

 Helps to avoid confirmation bias
Research Hypothesis
Manipulating IV or Experimental
Treatment: Choosing the Levels
 Treatment manipulation
 Manipulation implemented by the experimenter
 Methods of manipulation
 Straightforward
 Stimulus manipulation - different conditions use different stimuli
 Instructional manipulation – different groups are given different
instructions (if used as an independent variable)
 Staged
 Event manipulation – manipulate characteristics of the context,
setting, etc.
 Selection– Select participants from pre-existing groups or categories (e.g.,
males vs females; muslim vs nonmuslim)
 leads to a quasi-experiment
Problems in Choosing IV Levels

 Floor Effects

 Ceiling Effects
Floor Effects

 A value below which a response cannot be

made
 As a result the effects of your IV (if there are
indeed any) can’t be seen.
 Imagine a task that is so difficult, that none of your
participants can do it.
Ceiling Effects

 When the dependent variable reaches a level

that cannot be exceeded
 So while there may be an effect of the IV,
that effect can’t be seen because
everybody has “maxed out”
 Imagine a task that is so easy, that
everybody scores a 100%
How to Choose the Right IV Levels
To avoid floor and ceiling effects you want to pick levels
of your IV that results in middle level performance in
your DV
Review the literature
Do a pilot experiment
Consider the costs, your resources, your limitations
Be realistic
Pick levels found in the “real world”
Pick a large enough range to show the effect
 And in the middle of the range
Randomization: How to Select
Experimental Participants
 Randomization
 A procedure that assures that each individual within
the population has an equal chance of being selected.

 Many confounding variables can be eliminated

through randomization.
Experimental Manipulation: Random
Assignment of Ss to IV Levels
 Random Assignment of Participants to Groups
 Participants are assigned to different groups, say A
and B.
 Random Assignment of IV Levels to Groups
 IV levels are assigned to different experimental
groups on the basis of chance.
 Assures that each level of an extraneous variable has
an equal chance of occurring in all conditions of
observation. On average, the extraneous variable is
not confounded with our manipulated variable.
An Example of Random Assignment
of Ss to IV or Treatment Levels
 The research task is to create both a control group and
a experiment group which is chosen from a
population of
 An Example of Random Assignment
Original Group (B) Control Group
(Randomly Selected Participants) (will receive no treatment)

Random
assignment
completed!

Let the
experiment
begin!
(A) Experimental Group
(will receive a treatment)
Experimental Group

 A group of subjects in an experiment who are

exposed to the treatment (receive non-zero
values of the IV)
 Also called the experimental condition
 The group being studied and compared to the
control group
Control Group
 A group of subjects who are not exposed to
the IV (receive a value of zero or a placebo).
 Results are compared to those of the
experimental group
 Also called the control condition

In some experiments there can be more than one

experimental group and/or more than one control group
What a Psychological Experiment
Looks Like?
Experimental Research: In Action!
Choosing Your Dependent Variable

 Is the dependent variable directly observable?

 Choice/decision (sometimes timed)
 Behavioral measures (e.g. speed, accuracy)

 Is the dependent variable indirectly observable?

 Physiological measures (e.g. GSR, heart rate)
 Measuring Your DV

 How to measure your construct:

 Can the participant provide self-report?
 Scales/tests of measurement

 Ask questions
 Physiological recordings– e.g., blood-oxygen
level dependent (BOLD) signal, Galvanic Skin Response
Operational Definitions of
Variables
 Variables must be operationally defined.
 Specify the operations or procedures necessary to
manipulate the IV of interest.
 Specify the operations or procedures
necessary to measure the DV of interest.
 The procedure is specified precisely enough to allow
replication by others.
There may be many operational definitions (and
DVs) for a single conceptual definition.
ODs and CDs - Example 1
 Conceptual - Amount of alcohol consumed

 Operational - number of beers in 1 hour

(0,1,2,3)
 Operational - grams of alcohol/kg body weight
 Operational - blood alcohol content, BAC (mg
alcohol/deciliter blood).
ODs and CDs - Example 2

 Conceptual - Helping behavior

 Operational - number of people who help a

“victim” in a defined context.
 Operational - duration of helping behavior.
 Operational – number of seconds before
helping occurs (latency).
Operational Definitions of Variables
Not-operational Operational
 Hunger 8h without food
 Good salesman Sells 10 cars a week,
provides client with
correct information, …
Answers to fear
 Fear
questionnaire, Galvanic
Skin Response, Amount
of droppings in rats
Potential Problems in Experiments

 Experimental Flaws to Look Out For

Confounding Variables
 A type of extraneous variable that changes or
varies systematically across levels of the IV.
 The most dangerous type in terms of
challenging the validity of experimental results
 A potential cause for the experimental effect,
other than the IV.
 An alternative explanation for observed findings
in a study.
 Sources of Confounding Variables

 Individual Differences
 Ideally there should be minimum individual
differences between the experimental groups.
 Sources of Confounding Variables
 Environmental Differences
 Any differences in the experiment’s conditions
 between the experimental and control groups

 Differences include temperature, lighting, noise

levels, distractions, etc.
 Ideally, there should be a minimum of
environmental differences between the two
groups.
 Sources of Confounding Variables
 Subject’s Expectancy Effects
 Any change in DV due to the subject anticipating
certain outcomes to the experiment
 Self-fulfilling prophecy: A prediction that leads
participants to act in ways to make the prediction
come true.
 Experiment’s title: The effects of horror movies
on mood
 Subtle cues or signals by the researcher that
communicate type of responses that is expected.
 Biased or leading questions: Don’t you think it’s
bad to murder unborn children?
Sources of Confounding Variables

 Experimenter’s Expectancy Effects

 The experimenter may influence the results
(intentionally and unintentionally)
Sources of Confounding Variables
Techniques to Control Confounding/
Extraneous Variables
 Except for the IV, each subject should have as
closely similar an experience in the experiment
as possible.
 Elimination
 A goal in experimentation is to eliminate as
many confounding/ extraneous variables as
possible, to remove their potential effects on
the DV.
 Applies for the known extraneous/ confounding
variables (e.g., sound, noise).
Techniques to Control Confounding/
Extraneous Variables
 Constancy of Conditions
 Applies when confounding/ extraneous
variables are known but elimination is not
possible.
 The values of the known confounding/
extraneous variables remain the same across
levels of the IV (e.g., room temp, light levels,
time-of-day, etc).
Techniques to Control Confounding/
Extraneous Variables
 Balancing
 Personal characteristics
 Sometimes called “demographic” variables.
 Sex, height, weight, age, education, ethnicity,
socio-economic status, etc.
 Can be balanced by getting an equal number of
participants of each characteristic in each study
group.
Techniques to Control Confounding/
Extraneous Variables
 Counterbalancing
 Counterbalancing is a type of experimental design in which all possible orders of presenting the variables are included. 
 The general principles of counterbalancing are
 Each condition is presented to each subject an equal number of times.

 Each condition must occur an equal number of times at each experimental session.

 Each condition must precede and follow all other conditions an equal number of times.
Techniques to Control Confounding/
Extraneous Variables
 Counterbalancing with 2 Conditions
 Using an ABBA design when there are 2 experimental conditions, such as A and B.
 The simplest form of counterbalancing.
 Every subject is tested in both conditions. Researchers divide the Ss into two equal groups; one group is treated with Condition A, followed by Condition B, and the other group is tested with Condition B followed by Condition A.
Techniques to Control Confounding/
Extraneous Variables
 Counter Balancing with 3 Conditions
 If you have three experimental conditions, the process is exactly the same and you would divide the subjects into 6 equal groups, treated as orders
ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB and CBA.
Techniques to Control Confounding/
Extraneous Variables
 Randomization
 Confounding or extraneous variables can be controlled by allowing
them to vary randomly in an unsystematic or unbiased way across
levels of the IV.
 This can be done by random assignment of Ss to the IV levels.
 Personal/demographic characteristics
 Sex, height, weight, age, education, ethnicity, socio-economic status, etc.
 The variable thus created is known as a random variable.
 Techniques to Control Confounding/
Extraneous Variables
 Using a placebo
 Placebo- A false treatment or a non-active chemical
substance (e.g., pill) used instead of a drug or active
ingredient.
 The placebo group serves as a baseline to compare with
the behavior of the experimental group.
 Reduces expectancy effects.
Placebo: A Threat to Experimental
Validity
 Why is Placebo a Threat?
 The placebo effect is the effect produced by a sham
(placebo) treatment (e.g., sugar pill), generated by
subject's thinking they are being treated. This means that
a study that does a pre-test measure, gives all subjects a
treatment, then gives a post-test measure, has a
confounding variable.
Techniques to Control the Threat of
Placebo
 Single Blind Procedure
 An experimental procedure where the research
participants are ignorant (blind) to the expected
outcome of the experiment.
 Only the subjects have no idea whether they
get real treatment or placebo.
Techniques to Control the Threat of
Placebo
 Single Blind Procedure
 Techniques to Control the Threat of
Placebo
 Double Blind Procedure
 Technique in which neither the experimenter
nor participant is aware of the group to which
participant is assigned.
 The subjects AND the experimenter have no
idea whether the subjects get real treatment or
placebo
 Best type of experiment, if properly set up
 Techniques to Control the Threat of
Placebo
 Double Blind Procedure
Basic Characteristics of an
Experiment
 A causal relationship can be established between
the independent and dependent variables.
 Operational definitions of variables

 Many basic experiments consist of two levels of the

independent variable. These levels are randomly
assigned to study groups.
 Control over extraneous variables
Experiments Step by Step
 The Ethics of Experiment
/Research
 Ethics to Protect Participants
 APA Ethical Guidelines:
 Assurance that participation is completely
voluntary
 Protect from physical and mental harm
 Participants’ right to privacy regarding behavior
 Informing participants about the procedures prior
to participation
The Ethics of Experiment
/Research
 Informed Consent
 Participants sign a document affirming that
they know:
 the basic outlines of the study
 what their participation will involve

 the risks the experiment may hold

 that their participation is purely voluntary

 they may terminate the study at any time

Deception in a Psychological
Experiment/Research
 Deception-- A technique whereby a participant is not
made fully aware of the true nature of a research study,
such as omitting some information or not informing
specific purposes of the study.
 In a psychological research, deception is a highly
debatable ethical issue.
 Sometimes, deception is used in social, behavioral and
educational research in order to obtain accuracy
information. For such a research, the less the subjects
know the better.
 Some psychologists argue that deceiving participants in
a research study is dishonest.
Post-Experimental Interview
The participant’s reactions to the test/
experiment/ research are assessed.
Participants are asked to express their thought
about the research.
When a researcher uses deception, the
participants will be given a suspicion check
-questions about the extent to which they believe
the experimental manipulation was real.
Questions?