Early Vedic Period 600 B.
C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period
The civilization that is based on Vedic literature is known as Vedic
civilization.
The speakers of Indo-Aryan language, i.e. Sanskrit, entered the north-
west India from the Indo-Iranian region around the Caspian Sea. Those
that came to India are called the Indo-Aryans to distinguish them from the
other Aryans who went to various parts of western Asia and Europe. Their
initial settlements were in the valleys of the north-west and the plains of
the Punjab. Gradually they moved south-eastwards into the region just
north to Delhi. There used to be a flowing river nearby called Saraswati
but the water of this river has now dried up. Here they prepared the
collection of hymns knowns as Veda. In the same region is the plain of
Kurukshetra. Later, they moved into Indo-Gangetic plains, clearing the
thick forest with their newly discovered iron-axes. They had discovered
the use of iron and had begun to make tools and weapons of iron. These in
turn made it easier for them to clear the land.
As they were mainly a cattle-keeping people, they were mainly in search
of pastures. By 6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India,
which was referred to as Aryavarta. The recent studies have established
that the word Aryan does not denote race, but only refers to the original
speakers of Indo-Aryan languages from which later emerged Sanskrit,
Latin, and Greek etc.
The period represented in the Rigveda – the earliest of the Vedas – can be
placed between c. 1500-1000 BCE (2nd half of the 2nd millennium BCE).
However, there is a general agreement that the Vedic people composed
Rigveda in India around 1500 B.C.E. The period between 1500 B.C and
(1500 B.C - 1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C).
Their cultures were essentially agro-pastoral and our understanding of
these cultures is based entirely on archaeological remains because, with
the exception of Harappa culture, none of these cultures have left behind
any written records.
The Aryans brought the knowledge of horses and speedy chariots having
spoked wheels, driven by horses and introduced them for the first time
into West Asia and India as well as the science of mounted archery. In
brief, it was believed that the techniques of Vedic warfare was superior to
that of the Harappans, who stayed in fortified cities .
The Vedas were looked upon as not being created by humans
(apaurusheya) but as divine revelations that were heard (shruti) by sages
and seers (rishis). Not being written at the time of their being revealed
they were handed down to posterity by a near perfect memorization
almost syllable by syllable. This process is beautifully and strikingly
analogized in the frog-hymn (bhekastuti) of the Rigveda.
Geographical Area:
• The core geographical area to which the evidence of the Rigveda relates
was Sapta Sindhava/Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers) which
corresponds to the whole of Punjab and its neighbouring regions,
Haryana, the Gomal
plains, southern Afghanistan and southern Jammu and Kashmir.
• During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined to the
Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven
rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum(Vitasta),
Chenab(Asikni), Ravi(Parushni), Beas(Vipasha) and Sutlaj(Shatdru)
along with the Indus(Sindhu) to the west and Saraswathi(Ghaggar-Hakra)
to the east.
Besides these rivers mentioned in the Vedic literature are Kubha (Kabul),
Gomati (gomal), Suvastu (Swat), etc. Vedic people called the region
enriched by these rivers as the ‘God’s Country’ (Devnirmit Desh).
However, there is no mention of the region of their origin, if they had
arrived in India from outside.
SOURCES
Literary Sources:
• The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word Vid which means ‘to
know’.
• The Vedas are essentially compilation of prayers and hymns offered to
various gods. Though they are primarily about religious life, rites, rituals
and philosophical questions and issues, the invocations dedicated to
various deities often throw light on many aspects such as victory in wars,
long life, freedom from diseases, availability of cattle, horses, food etc.
desire for male offspring and so on. Its language is Sanskrit.
• The four Vedas are also Samhitas in the sense that they represent the oral
tradition of the time. Since the hymns were meant to be recited, learnt and
transmitted orally they were not written when they were composed. Due
to this reason none of the Samhitas can be dated with absolute certainty.
In fact, each Samhita represents a period of many centuries. As such, an
absolute dating of the Vedic literature is out of question.
• The following are four Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda,
and Atharvaveda
Rig Veda:
• They are the earliest compositions and hence depict the life of the early
Vedic people in India. The Rigveda belongs to and is the only literary
source for the Early Vedic period. The rest three Vedas are all dated later
and, thus, labelled as the Later Vedic texts.
• During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined to the
Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven
rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswathi.
• Each verse of the Veda is known as a richa/rucha. So, the Veda
consisting of richas is called ‘Rigveda’. Richa means a verse composed to
praise a deity. When a number of richas are put together to praise a
particular deity, the poetic composition is called a sukta. The Rigveda
consists of many suktas composed to praise different deities. Many Suktas
make one Mandala.
• Rigvedic Samhita contains 1028 hymns (suktas) divided into 10 books
(Mandalas) of unequal sizes of which books II to VII are considered to be
the earliest and belong specifically to the Early Vedic phase. They are
referred to as the “Family Books” after the name of the family or clan of
poets who composed the hymns in them. Books I, VIII, IX and X are
considered to be later additions. Among the commentaries on the text the
best known is that of Sayana of the 14th century CE who lived in the
Vijayanagara dominion. Without Sayanacharya’s commentary it would
have been impossible for Max Mueller to prepare the edited version of
Rigveda in the 19th century.
• The contents of the Rigveda, if they are analyzed carefully, do not give
the impression of a very advanced material culture. When the contents of
the Rigveda are compared with those of the Later Vedas and allied texts it
becomes clear that significant changes took place in the Vedic society
itself. This means that there was no fixed cultural pattern which can be
called Vedic culture or Aryan culture.
• There is no trace of the urban way of life in the Rig Veda. Hence, the
identity of Aryans is not correlated with the Harappan culture, where
there is no evidence for horse.
• The term asva, and vrishabha (bull) and several other terms in Rig Veda
have common roots in various Indo-Aryan languages. Tiger and
rhinoceros, which are tropical animals, are not mentioned in the Rig Veda.
• Recently, the Rigveda has been included by the UNESCO in the list of
literature signifying World Human Heritage.
Archaeological Sources:
ECONOMY
• The Early Vedic society was pastoral; cattle-rearing being the dominant
occupational activity.
• A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural
produce. Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people who live
in areas where large-scale agriculture is not feasible due to some
environmental and, to a certain extent, cultural constraints.
Importance of Cattle:
• The hymns of Rigveda yield extensive evidence of the importance of
cattle. Many linguistic expressions in it are associated with cow (gau).
• It was a measure of wealth and value. A wealthy man who owned many
cattle was called gomat.
• The terms used for conflicts and battles are: gavishti, gavesana,
gavyat etc. The former literally means “to search for cows”. These
terms themselves suggest that possession of cattle was the bone of
contention between groups and led to occasional inter-tribal fights and
disputes.
• The raja or the chief is called gopati, one who protects the cows. A
daughter is called duhitri: one who milks the cows. Kinship units are
labeled as gotra. A person rich in cattle (gomaan) was considered wealthy
(maghavan) and eligible for membership of the sabha (sabhasad). Godhuli
is used as a term for a measure of time. Distance is called gavyuti. All
these terms are derived from gau and suggest that social, religious and all
other important areas of Rigvedic life centered round the rearing of cows.
• Literary references to pasture lands, cow-pen, dairy products and
domesticated animals are also found in most of the hymns and prayers. It
appears that cow was looked upon as a totem animal and also an object of
veneration.
• Besides cow, horse was also immensely important as this animal was
crucial to movement in search of pastures and in war. In mythology it is
projected as drawing not only the chariots of men but also those of gods.
And where the grazing grounds were extensive it was easier to herd cattle
from horseback. Horses were brought from Iran.
• Cattle, Buffaloes and horses formed part of their pastoral wealth. The
god who protected their animals was known as ‘Pushan’.
Agriculture:
• Compared to the very substantial linguistic evidence for cattle rearing in
Rigveda, agricultural activities find very few references. Most of the
references to agriculture are of a later date. Agriculture had secondary
importance in the life of the Early Vedic people.
• The importance of agriculture is clearly emphasised in the 10th mandala
of the Rigveda. It states, that for the farmer his ploughshare is the means
of obtaining food. ‘Urvara’ means cultivable land prepared by ploughing.
The deities, Ashwins and Indra were supposed to be the gods of
agriculture. It is mentioned that the Ashwins hold the plough and make
available food in large quantities. Indra is mentioned as the ‘Lord of
Urvara’ (Urvarapati). The 10th mandala of the Rigveda mentions well
water used for irrigation.
• Apart from Yava (barley) no other grains are mentioned.
• The Early Vedic people were not familiar with iron technology. Copper,
with which they were familiar, did not have as much value in agricultural
operations as iron implements. Stone tools like axes were used and these
are mentioned in the Rigveda.
• Shifting agriculture was practiced. The field was known as kshetra and
the term krishi referred to ploughing. The people who ploughed and also
their settlements were metioned as ‘Krishtya’.The terms langla and sura
referred to plough and the term sita meant the furrow created by
ploughing. Bulls and Oxens were used for ploughing.
• Further, the region under discussion receives low rainfall and all the
rivers mentioned in the Rigveda i.e. the Sutlej, the Indus, the Ghaggar, the
Ravi etc. are known to change their courses frequently. Fields were
ploughed and were irrigated with water from well and canals. This was
different from the method of cultivation of the Harappans.
• Without the facilities of large-scale irrigation which were not developed
in this period the alluvial lands near the rivers could not be cultivated on a
permanent basis. Thus, hoes, sickles and axes mentioned in the text were
probably used for slashing purposes or shifting cultivation.
• The evidence of pastoralism as well as shifting cultivation suggests that
people were either nomadic or semi-nomadic. They moved out of their
villages with their herds for a certain period in order to feed their cattle.
The literary and the archaeological sources do show that they did not lead
a fully sedentary life.
• The mobile character of the population is seen in the term vish which
implied a settlement. The suffixes Punar (vish), Upa (vish) and Pra (vish)
are constantly used and the settlements were qualified by them to mean
settling near (a settlement), re-entering (a settlement) or coming back (to
the settlement).
• They had knowledge of different seasons, sowing, harvesting and
thrashing. They cultivated barley (yavam) and wheat (godhuma)
SOCIETY
• The Early Vedic society was a tribal society in which the social relations
based on kinship ties were predominant.
• The society was not divided according to caste lines and even rajas
(kings), purohits (priests), artisans etc. were part of clan networks.
• The basic social unit was Kula/griha (family) and Kulapa/grihapati (one
who protects the family) denoted the eldest male member or the head of
the family and his wife was known as sapatni. And the family at that point
of time was perhaps a joint family.
• A number of kulas made a grama, suggesting the settlements based on
kinship ties. The clans settled in villages (grama). The leader of grama
was known as gramani.
• Many clans (vish) formed a tribe or A group of villages constituted a
larger unit called visu/vis. It was headed by vishayapati/vishpati.
• The chief of tribe was the raja or gopati or nripa.
• Several vish formed a jana or The highest political unit (tribe) was
referred to as jana and many references to different tribes are found in the
Rigveda. Later, when the jana settled into a specific region, it came to be
known as a janapad. A cluster of gramas consisting of the same jana was
known by the name of that particular jana. In the beginning, however, the
concept of jana included only an extended family (kul), its settlement
(grama) and the cattle-pen (goshtha-gotra-gaulwada). The concept of jana
was not yet inclusive of the concept of territoriality. Hence, the
geographic boundaries of a jana were not defined.
• The Family Books suggest that the family, as a social unit, extended
over three generations, with the sons often living collectively in parental
home.
• There were no legal institutions. Custom was law and discretion of the
tribal chief and priest was final. However, the elders of the community
seem to have had a say too.
• Theft, particularly cattle-stealing, were the commonest crimes. The
retribution for killing a man was 100 cows.
• Inter-tribal conflicts, chiefly related to cattle raids and thefts, were
frequent; an example being the Battle of 10 Kings mentioned in the
Rigveda. Some of the tribes who fought in this battle were: i)The
Bharatas, ii)The Purus, iii)The Yadus, iv) The Druhyus, v) The Anus, and
vi) The Turvasus. The region of India was named Bharata Varsha after the
tribe of Bharatas.
• The officer who controlled the territory was called Vrajapati. He helped
the heads of fighting groups called gramini. Gramini was the head of the
village and fighting unit.
• In the beginning the gramani was just the head of a small fighting unit.
But when the unit settled the gramani became the head of the village, and
in course of time he became indentical with the vrajapati.
• The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but in times of
war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by
different tribal groups called vata, gana, grama, sardha.
• By and large it was a tribal system of government in which the military
element was strong. There was no civil system or territorial
administration because people were in a stage of perpetual expansion,
migrating from one area to another.
Social Division:
• Vedic society was largely egalitarian initially, and social distinctions
emerged later.
• The Vedic people distinguished themselves from the non-Aryan people.
Varna was the term used by Aryans to refer to colour and category. The
Rig Veda refers to Arya varna and Dasa varna. The varna system is first
mentioned in the tenth mandala (chapter) of the Rigveda.
• The Dasas and Dasyus were conquered and treated as slaves. They came
to be considered sudras in the later period. Sudras as a category of people
appeared at the end of the Rig Vedic period.
• Social classes were classified as warriors, priests and common people.
• Slavery was common and slaves were given as gifts to the priests, but
there is no reference to wage labour.
• The slaves were not used directly in agriculture or other producing
activities.
• According to the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda the various varnas • The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of
emerged thus: Brahmanas from the mouth, the kshatriya from the arms, the army in his administration.
the vaisya from the thighs and the sudra from the feet of Purusha, when
• It seems that in Rig Vedic period the king's post was hereditary, we have
he was sacrificed.
also some traces of election by the tribal assembly called the samiti.
• Panis were itinerary traders or perhaps caravan traders. Panis are also Initally the king were selected for his strength and bravery. Later,
seen as enemies in some verses. kingship became hereditary.
• In the early Vedic period lineage and tribes constituted society, and the • The warrior category was the rajanya.
king had limited power. The various tribal groups of Aryans and non-
The Priests:
Aryans fought to control the territories.
• The purohita or priest offered advice to the king. Vedic priests advised
• Divisions based on occupation had started but this divisions was not
the kings, inspired them and praised their deeds. In turn they received
very sharp.
rewards for their services.
• Social divisions did not take deep root, although the concept of varna
• The two priests who played a major part in the time of the Rig Veda are
and Aryan identities existed.
Vasishtha and Visvamitra.
• These social divisions are considered to have arisen towards the end of
• The priests kept occupied with performing religious ceremonies,
the early Vedic period.
specially the big sacrifices in which the entire tribe took part and which
The Chief: lasted for many days.
• The chief of tribe was the raja or gopati/gopa. • The priests were also teachers. Young boys stayed with the priests who
taught them how to recite the hymns of the Vedas.
• He was the military leader in battle and protector of the tribe.
• The priests were also doctors in the village. They knew about herbs and
• His skills lay in safeguarding the settlement and winning booty: both
plants.
crucial to his status.
The Senani:
• The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He protected wealth,
fought wars, and offered prayers on behalf of gods. The king ruled • They used spears, axes, swords etc.
according to the wishes of the tribe.
Weapons:
• The office of the raja assumed importance on account of wars. The
• Vedic society was militaristic. Bows, daggers, axes and lances were the
division between senior and junior lineages became sharper.
main weapons of war.
• The Aryan soldiers were probably equipped also with coats of
mail(varman) and better arms.
Condition of Women:
• The society was patriarchal. The birth of a son was the common desire
of people and was especially welcome, as a son’s presence became
increasingly significant in various ceremonies. The importance given to
male members is reflected in hymns where the desire for a son is a
constant prayer. However, the women had also important position in
society.
• They were educated and had access to assemblies. Education was
imparted orally but the tradition of education was not very well developed
in this period.
• They had a right to choose their partners and could marry late. But, they
were always thought to be dependent on their fathers, brothers or
husbands.
• The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major
ceremonies.
• Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and
intellectual development.
• Women could even attend the popular assemblies. Women attended the
sabhas and vidhatas.
• People married at the age of 16–17. There was no child marriage and the
practice of sati was absent.
• Polyandry seems to have existed, the practice of levirate and widow
remarriage was also known. Monogamy was generally practiced while
polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families.
• There are also instances of women who composed hymns. There were
women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, Gargi, Maitreyi and
Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
Dasas/Dasyus:
• In the Early Vedic period along with the Rigvedic tribes, other local
tribes also stayed in the Saptasindhu region, who did not belong to the
Rigvedic people. They were called ‘Das’, ‘Dasyu’ and ‘Pani’.
• The authors of Rigveda distinguished themselves from other groups
whom they called the Dasas and Dasyus. The term dasa is deployed in
Rigveda to denote the other person of different culture.
• The Dasas are described as dark, full-lipped, snub-nosed, worshippers of
phallus and of hostile speech. They are admonished in the Rigveda for not
observing the rituals but rather practicing a fertility cult. They were rich
in cattle and lived in fortified strongholds.
• We learn about another people called the Panis who were wealthy in
cattle treasures. Panis were looked upon as enemies by the Vedic people.
Panis used to steal the cattle of the Vedic people.The term Pani came to be
associated with merchants and wealth in subsequent ages.
• These groups fought and befriended each other from time to time and
one cannot define them as separate racial or linguistic groups.
• The most famous chief mentioned in the Rigveda is Sudas who led the
Bharata tribe in the Battle of 10 Kings(‘Dashradnya Yuddha’). The Dasa
ending in his name might suggest some links with the Dasas.
• However, the presence of different groups in the same area might have
contributed to the emergence of Varna system.
• Simyu and Kikata are grouped with the dasyus. The Rig Veda mentions
the defeat of a chief called Sambara by Divodasa of the Bharata clan.
House:
• The village consisted of a group of thatched huts surrounded by a fence,
with the fields lying outside the fence.
• A house was called griha or shala.
Dress:
• The dress worn by the Aryans were was not very different from that of
the Harappan people. It contains of two pieces of cloth – The uttariya or
the upper and the antariya or lower.
• A garment which reached down to the ankles and a turban to the round
the head were also in use. The richer people wore cloth which was
embroidered with gold thread.
• The aryans were fond of Ornaments. These werre made of Gold or other
metal, and the women wore beads in various fashion.
Food:
• The Aryans drank a great deal of milk and ate plenty of butter and ghee.
• Fruits, vegetables, cereals and meat were eaten in large quantities.
• The Aryans also drank intoxicating drinks such as soma, ++sura and
madhu.
Economy:
• The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation
was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle.
• Various occupational groups such as weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather
workers, chariot-makers, priests etc. are also mentioned. The chariot-
makers(rathakara) occupied a special social status. The chariot was light
two-wheeled. There are no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages
in Rigveda.
• Carpentry(takshan) was another important profession and the
availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession
profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs. A cart was known
as ‘Anas’.
• Workers in metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and
iron. Metal-workers now had new metal with which to work—iron. The
use of iron made life easier for Aryans. Iron being hard, tough metal, was
better suited than copper or bronze for making tools and weapons.. Iron
was not yet common in the Early Vedic period. Goldsmiths were active in
making ornaments. Objects made of gold (hiranya), of copper-bronze or
iron (ayas) are mentioned. The artisans who made the metal objects were
known as ‘Karmar’.
• Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen
fabrics were made. ‘Vayya; means the weaver, and its feminine as it
occurs in the Rigveda is ‘Vayyaa’. Along with this there are terms
associated with the textile industry. ‘Tantum’ (warp), ‘Otum’ (weft),
Shuttle (tasar), are a few of them. Rigveda also mentions woollen cloth.
‘Urna’ is the word for wool. However, Rigveda does not mention cotton
or silk cloth.
The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use. ‘Ukha’ was
the term used for a cooking pot. The other terms like ‘patra’, ‘kumbha’,
‘kalash’ etc. also occur. A potter is mentioned as an artisan in the
Yajurveda for the first time as ‘Kulal’.
The artisan who worked on leather was known as ‘Charmnma’. • Hunting was another common occupation, with elephants, buffaloes,
antelopes and boars being the object of the hunt.
• However, the society was economically stratified and we do find
references to rich people possessing chariots, cattle etc. and making • A boy could choose whatever occupation he wished.
generous gifts of them.
Transport:
• Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in
• Bullock carts, horses and horse-drawn chariots were used for transport.
society.
• There are references to the sea (samudra) and boats (nau). The river
• Tribal conflicts led to the payment of tributes and prestations – bali – to
transport was known as ‘Navya’. Pushan was the lord of the land routes
the victorious chief by the defeated or subordinated groups. The term later
while Varuna and Ashwins were the lords of water routes. Boats driven by
came to mean an offering to the gods.
100 oars known as ‘Aritram’ are mentioned.
• There was no regular tax that the chief could claim, nor did he have any
POLITY
rights on the land as there was no concept of private property based on
land-ownership. • The tribal polity was not completely egalitarian. A division is found in
the Rigveda itself, which is seen in the references to two groups – the
• The chief was entitled to a part of the booty from successful cattle-raids
Rajanyas or those who fought the wars and are credited to be the senior
after bhaga (shares) had been distributed and he, obviously, claimed a
lineage, and the rest of the clansmen or the vish who formed the junior
larger one.
lineage.
• The chief also fed and gave gifts to his clansmen during ceremonial
• Though none of the groups occupied a distinct social hierarchy, constant
occasions to acquire prestige.
conflicts and inter-tribal wars helped to create a division in society. The
• There is also the mention of shulka meaning the value or worth of an growing needs for more pasture lands and cattle, for protection of people
item. The rest of the clansmen of the victorious tribe had a share in the and their settlement, all probably contributed to an increase in inter and
spoils and booty won in war. intra-tribal conflicts and warfare.
• Trade was another important economic activity and rivers served as • The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was
important means of transport. Evidence of trade and commerce in the hereditary.
Early Vedic society is meager.
Tribal assemblies:
• Trade was conducted on barter system. In the later times, gold coins
• Tribal assemblies e.g. the gana, vidatha, sabha and samiti are mentioned
called nishka were used as media of exchange in large transactions.
in the Rigveda.
• The sabha may have been the council of select clan members. As such, it
was exclusive.
• The samiti comprised the whole clan.
• The vidatha was the gathering at which, among other things, the booty
acquired in a raid was distributed.
• These assemblies performed the functions of the government and
administration and were also involved in the selection of raja from
amongst the clansmen. They, thus, kept the power of the warriors in
check. The king sought the support of the samiti and sabha for his
activities.
• However, as stated before, though we do not find well-defined political
hierarchy in the Early Vedic set-up the changes during the period gave
rise to a socio-political hierarchy which manifested itself in the origin of
the varna system during the Later Vedic phase.
• The Early Vedic society was governed by tribal values and norms and
was largely egalitarian.
RELIGION
• The religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the
Rigveda. They venerated the natural forces around them like wind, rain,
thunder, fire, water etc. which they could not control and invested nature
with divinity conceived in human forms which were mostly masculine.
Very few female deities were venerated. The religion, thus, reflected the
patriarchal society and was that of primitive animism.
• Indra was the god of strength who was frequently invoked to destroy the
enemies. He was venerated as the ideal hero, foremost in war, always
ready to strike down the demons, to destroy the settlements of the dasas
and to aid those who propitiated and worshipped him. He was the god of
storms and thunder and was the rainmaker who was requested
periodically to release the rains. He could not be vanquished. Therefore,
thunder and rain (natural phenomena) were related with strength which
was personified in a masculine form, represented in the god Indra. The
concept of a tribal chief, who was a war-lord, is also found represented in
the character of Indra. The god Indra is called Purandara, which means
destroyer of settlements, which were perhaps fenced or planned
townships.
• Agni, next in importance to Indra, was the god of fire. Some beautifully
evocative hymns in the Rigveda are dedicated to him. He was the
epicenter of many domestic rituals such as marriage. Deemed as the
purest of the five elements, he was considered to be an intermediary
between heaven and earth i.e. between gods and men. He dominated the
domestic hearth and marriages were solemnized in his presence. The
worship of Agni ascribed symbolic significance to the hearth as the most
venerated part of the homestead and the nucleus of the household. Fire
destroyed dirt and germs and hence, Agni was considered to be pure. The
importance of Agni can be related to that of the yajna in the Early Vedic
society. The Vedic people put offerings into the yajna fire to please them.
These offerings were called havi. Yajna is the act of offering havi into
fire. It was believed that the oblations offered to Agni were carried to the
gods in the form of smoke.
• Varuna personified water and he was the upholder of the natural order of
the universe. Yama was the god of death and had an important place in the
Early Vedic religious belief.
• There were many other gods e.g. Surya (Sun) was a god who removed
darkness, Soma (a drink), Savitri (a solar deity to whom the most popular
Gayatri Mantra is dedicated), Rudra etc. There were also female gods like
Ushas was the goddess of dawn, Aditi, Prithvi and Sinivali are other
goddesses and and hosts of celestial beings like Gandharvas, Apsaras,
Vishvadevas to whom prayers are addressed in the Rigveda Maruts was
the god of strength.
• The soma sacrifice was a key ritual which has been believed to be
specific only to Iran and India. The soma plant was stated to grow in the
north-western mountains. The juice of soma plant was drunk on solemn
occasions and it served as a hallucinogen. An entire book of the Rigveda
is dedicated to soma and entails a complicated symbolism.
• Religion was not based on magico-ritual formulae, rather it stressed
direct communication with gods through sacrifices, hymns etc. Gods were
worshipped neither for the spiritual upliftment of the people nor for any
other abstract philosophical concept, but were invoked to grant material
gains. Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards.
Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were
followed during the worship.
• There is no mention of the worship of images at this time. There were no
temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period.
• Rituals were adopted as a solution to many issues and the problems of
day-to-day life. Hymns were recited in these sacrifices and generally the
priests performed these yajnas. The growing importance of sacrifices and
rituals in the Vedic society resulted in the growing importance of priests
as well.
• They buried and also cremated the dead.
Sacrifices:
• The Vedic religion was sacrificial. Sacrifices (yajnas) were performed
to: invoke the gods, and ask for boons like victory in battles; acquisition
of cattle, sons etc.
• Small oblations were confined to the domestic sacrifice but from time to
time large sacrifices were conducted for which the clan brought
substantial prestations. Public sacrifice was regarded a solemn occasion.
• Fire altars varied from small domestic structures to impressively large
structures especially constructed for more elaborate sacrifices. Yajnas
took place on specific days and at specific times believed to be
auspicious.
• The patron (yajamana) was consecrated for the period of the sacrifice.
The sacrificial ground was also first consecrated and then de-sanctified at
the close of the sacrifice, leaving no permanent location for conducing
rituals.
• The wealth procured and collected by the raja by means of voluntary
tribute and prestations from the vish was invested and consumed in the
yajna. Gifts were also given on such occasions to other rajas and to the
purohita.
Pros of Sacrifices:
• The ritual of sacrifice also led to the growth and development in the
knowledge of mathematics.
• Elementary mathematics was necessary to make the calculations which
were required to establish the positions of various objects in the sacrificial
area.
• Basic geometry was needed to sort out the number and size of mud
bricks required for building the sacrificial altars.
• It has been suggested that the use of bricks and mathematical
calculations may have been derived from a Harappan tradition harking
back to the construction of platforms. However, the rituals described in
the Rigveda did not need large-scale brick made altars and these find
mention in the later corpus of the Vedic literature.
• Also, the frequent sacrifices of animals led to a knowledge of their
anatomy.
• For the Vedic people the world grew out of a vast cosmic sacrifice and
was maintained by the proper performance of sacrifices.
Sacrificial religion is a religion of the pastoral people.
Animal sacrifice is rampant in pastoral society where older animals who
can no longer produce milk or meat, or used for breeding purposes, i.e.
those who are no longer economically viable, are killed in order to lessen
the burden on their owner. Hence, animal sacrifice was one way of getting
rid of old animals and, thus, had an important role in society.
In agrarian society, however, older animals are employed in fields, used
for traction purposes and, hence, the destruction of animals is frowned
upon by a society which primarily depends on agricultural activities.
Thus, the Vedic religion reflected the patriarchal pastoral society and was
materialistic in perspective.
Rita and Dharma:
• People in the Vedic period had thought about how the natural
phenomena occur. Summer is followed by the rainy season and the rainy
season by winter. This is a regular cycle in nature. The cycle in nature and
the life cycle that moved with it were termed by the Vedic people as rita.
• The life of all living beings is a part of the cycle in nature. Disturbance
in the cycle of nature leads to calamities. Everyone should be careful not
to let it happen. Nobody should break the laws of nature. It was believed
that following these rules was to follow dharma.
Battle of 10 Kings:
• Battle was fought on the river Parushni(i.e. Ravi).
• It was fought between the Bharatas on the one hand and the host of ten
kings on the other .
• Sudas of Bharatas clan won the war.
• Of the defeated tribes the most important was that of the Purus,
Subsequently the Bharatas joined the hands with Purus and formed a new
ruling tribe called the Kurus.
• The Kurus combined with the Panchalas, and they together established
their rule in the upper Gangetic basin where they played an important part
in later Vedic times.
This society was not static but dynamic.
Philologists study language in oral and written forms of languages based
on historical evidence. They use etymology, comparative linguistics,
literary criticism, history, and linguistics in their studies.
M17 a genetic marker (DNA) is said to have been found among the
speakers of Indo-Europeans.
Fillippo Sassetti:
In the year 1583, an Italian merchant by the name Fillippo Sassetti came
to Kochi (Cochin) the port city in Kerala. He never returned to his
motherland. He stayed in Kerala and Goa. During his stay he wrote
detailed letters to his family members about Indian life, language and
culture. He happens to be the first European who wrote about his
observations of the Indian society. He also studied Sanskrit. He was the
first one who observed the similarities between Sanskrit and Latin. His
observations could be said to be the first, to give impetus to the notion of a) Bhakti; b)image worship and yajnas; c)worship of nature and Yajnas;
a family of Indo-European languages. d)worship of nature and Bhakti;
‘Asiatic Society of Bengal’ was established by Sir William Jones in 1784. religion of civilization (vedic aryan)
This period saw the beginning of compiling and translating Sanskrit texts
in European languages. Also, systematic research in the field of Vedic
literature and archaeological cultures had gained academic importance.

Previous Year Question Analysis

PRELIMS
Year-2011
100) The ‘dharma’ and ‘rita’ depict a central idea of ancient Vedic
civilization of India. In this context, consider the
following statement:
1. Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of one's
duties to oneself and to others.
2. Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the
universe and all it contained.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? a) 1 only; b)2 only;
c)Both 1 and 2; d)Neither 1 nor 2
Philosophy/central idea of civilization (Vedic).

Year-2012
73. The religion of the early vedic aryans was primarily of: