NFPA1081 Standard Skills Objectives

Inc ipie nt Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r
NFPA 1081 contai ns no Inci pi ent Industrial j ob performance requi rements for thi s
chapter.
A dv a nc ed Ext e rior Indust ria l Fire B riga de Me mbe r
NFPA 1081 contai ns no Advanced Exteri or Industri al j ob performance require -
ments for thi s chapter.
After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to perform the foll owi ng skill s:
Break gl ass wi th a hand tool. Break a wi ndow with a l adder. Break
wi ndows on upper fl oors usi ng the Halli gan toss. Establi sh
negati ve-pressure ventil ati on. Establi sh positi ve-pressure ventil ati on.
Sound a roof. Operate a power saw. Perform a rectangular or square cut.
Perform a l ouver cut. Perform a tri angul ar cut. Perform a peak cut.
Perform a trench cut.

Inte rior St ruc tural Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r 7 .2.3 * Perform
ventil ati on on a structure operati ng as a member of a team, gi ven an
assignment, personal protecti ve equi pment, and tool s, so that a suffici ent opening
is created, all ventilati on barri ers are removed, structural i ntegri ty i s not
compromi sed, and products of combusti on are rel eased from the structure.
(A) Requi site Knowl edge. The princi pl es, advantages, li mitations, and effects of
hori zontal and verti cal ventil ati on; safety consi derati ons when venti ng a struc
ture; the methods of heat transfer; the pri nci pl es of thermal l ayeri ng withi n a
structure on fi re; fi re behavi or i n a structure; the products of combusti on found
in a structure fi re; the si gns, causes, effects, and preventi on of backdrafts; and
the rel ati onshi p of oxygen concentrati on to life safety and fi re growth.
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to transport and operate tool s and equi pment to
create an openi ng and i mplement ventil ati on techniques.

Additional NFPA Standard

NFPA 600 Standard on Industri al Fi re Bri gades

Knowledge Objectives
After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to:
• Defi ne ventil ati on as it rel ates to fi re suppressi on acti viti es.
• Li st the effects of properl y performed ventil ation on fi re and fi re
suppressi on acti viti es.
• Descri be how fi re behavi or pri nci pl es affect ventil ation.
• Descri be how buil di ng construction features withi n a structure affect
ventilati on.
• Li st the pri ncipl es, advantages, li mitati ons, and effects of hori zontal
ventilati on.
• Li st the pri ncipl es, advantages, li mitati ons, and effects of natural
ventilati on.
• Li st the pri ncipl es, advantages, li mitati ons, and effects of mechani cal
ventilati on.
• Li st the pri ncipl es, advantages, li mitati ons, and effects of negati ve -
pressure and positi ve -pressure ventil ati on.
• Li st the pri ncipl es, advantages, li mitati ons, and effects of hydrauli c
ventilati on.
• Li st the pri ncipl es, advantages, li mitati ons, and effects of verti cal
ventilati on.
• Li st safety precauti ons for ventil ati ng roofs.
• Li st the basi c indi cators of roof coll apse.
• Expl ai n the role of ventil ati on i n the preventi on of backdraft and fl ashover.
 You are a fire brigade member who is working the second shift at your industrial complex. Your
shift assignment, should an alarm occur, is building ventilation.

At 19:05 hours, the plant's coded alarm system activates for building 12. You respond directly to
the building, knowing the plant's fire apparatus will also be en route. After checking in and don-
ning your PPE, you and your partner enter the building's mechanical room, where you ensure that
the HVAC system is shut down and the building is compartmentalized. During your investigation,
you discover that smoke detectors in the HVAC system have shut it down. You report this fact to
the incident commander (IC), who assigns you and your partner to access the roof and open roof
vents in section 4 of the building. The IC notes that an extension ladder has been raised to side C
of the building, and that a hose team is preparing for fire suppression operations on the second
floor of the site.

As you and your partner make your way to the roof, you are contacted by your backup team,
which consists of two members at the extension ladder on the C side of the building. While
approaching the roof, you experience light smoke, so you and your partner don and activate your
SCBA. You access the roof through a roof door, closing the door behind you. You step over the fire
walls to what you know is section 4 of the building, open the roof vents, and report the comple -
tion of this task to the IC. As you exit the roof via the extension ladder and give the thumb's-up
sign to your stand-by crew, you can see the thermal column rise from the vents and you know the
hose team is applying water to the fire.
1. Why was it important to ensure that the building's HVAC system was in the off position?
2. Why was it important to shut the doors behind you on your way to the roof?
3. Was it necessary to use the buddy system, to have a backup team, and to identify a
second exit from the roof for this operation?

Introduction brigade members, reducing vis ibility, and increasing prop -

Fire service ventilation is the process of remov ing smoke,
heat, and toxic gases fro m a burning bu ild ing and replacing
them with cooler, cleaner, more o xygen-rich air. When ven-
tilation is coordinated with fire attack, it can save lives and
reduce property damage. Proper ventilation assists in the
lo cat ion and rescue o f v ict ims , enab les hose teams to
advance and locate the source of the fire, and p revents fire
spread. The lack of ventilation or improper ventilation tech -
niques can spread the fire, in jure both brigade members and
occupants, and increase property damage.
During its normal progression and growth, a fire gives off
smoke, heat, and to xic gases. As long as there is fuel and
o xygen, the fire will continue to burn and produce these
products of combusti on. When the fire is inside a building,
the structure acts as a container or bo x, trapp ing the p rod ucts
of co mbustion . As the fire g ro ws and develops, the s moke,
heat, and to xic gases spread throughout the struc ture,
present ing a d irect ris k to th e liv es o f occupants and
erty damage. In some cases, the trapped products of co m-
bustion create a potential for explosion. Ventilation removes
these products fro m the interior at mosphere or allows them
to escape in a controlled manner.
Th e p rimary p rincip le t hat cont ro ls t he sp read o f
smoke, heat, and to xic gases within a roo m o r a bu ilding is
convecti on. See Chapter 5, Fire Behavio r, for mo re info r-
mat ion. Heated gases exp and, beco ming less dense than
cooler gases. As a result , the hot gases produced by a fire in
a closed roo m will rise to the ceiling and sp read out ward,
displacing coo ler air and pushing it toward the floor (Figure
14-1). As the fire continues to burn, the hot layer of gas ban ks
(cu rves) do wn closer to the floor.
If the heated p roducts of co mbustion escape fro m the
room, the same princip les will apply as they spread through -
out the structure. Smoke, heat, and to xic gases will spread
horizontally, along the ceiling, until they find a path such as a
stairway, elevator shaft, or pipe chase (an open space within a
wall where wires and pipes can run) that allows them to reach
 Ve ntilati on 403

(Figure 14 -1) C onvection c urrents cause heated products of combustion

to rise within a room and spread along the ceiling.

( Figure 14-3^) Mushrooming occurs as the heated products of combustion

flow outward and downward.

(Figure 14 -2) T he heated products of com bustion spread horiz ont ally along
the ceiling until they find a path that allows them to f low upward.

a higher level. They will then flow upward through the vertical
opening until they reach another horizontal obstruction, such
as the ceiling of the highest floor or the underside of the roof
(Figure 14-2). At that point, they will again spread out
horizontally and bank down as they accumulate. This process
of spreading out and banking down is called mushrooming
(Figure 14-3).
As long as the products of combustion are trapped within
the structure, they present a series of risks and dangers to the
occupants and to brigade members. Most of the gases pro -
duced by a fire are to xic. The contaminated atmosphere they
create poses a life-threatening condition to occupants as well
as to anyone who enters without self-contained breath ing
apparatus (SCBA) (Figure 14-4). The gases may be so hot that
simp ly breathing them can cause fatal respiratory burns.
( Figure 14-4) Self-c ontained breathing apparatus is essential when
entering an area contaminated by products of combustion.
404 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

Benefits of Proper Ventilation

Ventilat ion is the process of controlling the flow of smo ke,
heat, and toxic gases so that they are released safely and effec-
tively from a building. Ventilation must be closely coordinated
with all other activit ies being carried out at a fire scene.
The life safety benefits of ventilation are of primary impor-
tance. Ventilat ion allows the smo ke to rise so that brigade
members can locate trapped occupants more rapidly. In addi-
tion, ventilation can provide clean air to occupants who may
be overcome by to xic products of co mbustion.
Ventilations role in removing heat is important for brigade
members advancing an initial attack hose line. As the brigade
members advance, ventilation can relieve the pressure and
intense heat of the fire and create a much safer environment. A
(Figure 14-5) Fire spreads where there is fuel and wherever the hot
vent downwind or above the attack hose line pulls away the
products of combustion flow or accumulate.
steam that is created when water cools the flames. It also cools
the atmosphere and prevents the steam fro m banking down on
As the fire cont inues to consume o xygen fro m the at mos - top of the attack line. The ventilation opening also causes the
phere, an addit ional respiratory hazard may be created. The smoke to lift and allo ws brigade members to aim the hose
particulate matter in s moke can severely obs cure visibility, stream directly at the seat of the fire (the main area of the fire).
making it impossible for occupants to find their way to an By reducing the potential for a backdraft or a flashover (the
exit or for rescuers to locate trapped occupants. Smoke is also sudden ignition of all combustible objects in a room), effective
irritating to the eyes and the mucous membranes of the res - ventilation also increases the safety of the attack team.
piratory system.
Convect ion , the flow o f heat ed g ases produced by the
fire, is one of the primary mechanis ms o f fire spread. The
gases may be hot enough to ignite co mbustible materials
along their path. The fire spreads along the paths taken by
the heated gases and in the areas where they accu mu late. If
the hot gases spread into additional areas, through vertical or
horizontal open ings, there is a h igh probab ility that those
areas will also beco me involved in the fire (A Figure 14-5).
In add it ion to ign it ing co mbustib le materials, the hot
gases, smoke, and other products of combustion can ignite or
exp lode. In many cases, they may include a rich supply of
partially burned fuels that are hot enough to ignite, but lack
sufficient oxygen to support combustion. If these products are
mixed with clean air, the atmosphere itself can ignite or, in an
extreme situation, exp lode in a backdraft (sudden exp losive
ign ition of fire gases when o xygen is introduced into a
superheated space). Even if they do not ign ite, the products
of co mbustion are o ften hot enough to cause thermal burns to
exposed skin.
Yet another concern is the property damage caused by
exposu re to s mo ke and heat. Soot and oth er res idues o f
smoke o ften cause as much property damage as flames.
Sign ificant heat damag e can occur in areas t hat were
exposed only to products of combustion, but not to the fire.
Ev en when a fire is contain ed and under cont ro l, p ro mpt
and effective ventilat ion of the accumu lated heat and smoke
can be an impo rtant factor in limit ing property losses.
(Figure 14-6) Proper ventilation enables brigade mem bers to control a fire
rapidly. A. Unvented structure. B. Vented structure.

Proper vent ilat ion also helps to limit fire spread with in
the structu re. Vent ilat ing n ear the source o f the fire can
limit the area of involvement and reduce the spread of heat
and toxic gases throughout the structure Figure 14-6).
Initially, this may allow mo re o xygen to reach the fire, caus ing
a flare-up. A hose line should be in p lace and ready to hit the
seat of the fire prior to ventilation. Carefu l coordina tion of
ventilat ion will enable brigade members to confine and
extinguish a fire mo re effectively.
Releas ing trapped heat and s mo ke fro m the upper level
of a building will often prevent the fire fro m spreadin g hor-
izontally into adjoin ing areas or neighboring buildings. A
well-placed opening will release heat and smo ke to the out-
side so that brigade members can operate effectively inside
the build ing.
After the fire is under contro l, ventilat ion should be
maintained until all of the heat, s mo ke, and to xic p roducts
of co mbust ion have been removed fro m the bu ild ing .
Co mp lete ventilat ion creates a clear at mosphere for over -
hauling the fire and limits property losses caused by smoke
damage.
Factors Affecting Ventilation
In order to ventilate a structure successfully, brigade mem-
bers must first consider ho w fire behav ior d ictates the
mov ement o f the p roducts o f co mbust ion . W ith th is
knowledge, b rigade members can develop a p lan o f where
and when to create openings to release these products and
limit s mo ke and fire sp read. Fire b ehav io r is d irect ly
related to the princip les of heat transfer, wh ich involve
convection, conduct ion, and rad iat ion. The movement o f
smo ke and heat within a structure is p rimarily related to
convection.
Convection
Convection refers to the transfer of heat through a circulat ing
mediu m o f liqu id or gas. Heated air natu rally expands and
rises, carry ing smo ke and gases as it flo ws up and out fro m a
fire. Th is heated mixtu re flo ws across the underside of
ceilings, through doorways, and up stairways, elevator
shafts, and vertical concealed spaces such as pipe chases.
Unless it is released to the exterior, the heat will accu mu late
in any accessib le space in the upper levels of a bu ilding.
As the heated air rises, it d isplaces cooler air, which is
drawn toward the seat o f the fire. The cooler air b rings
o xy gen to suppo rt co mb ust ion and caus es t he fire to
intensify . As the fire cont inues to burn , the p roducts of
co mbust ion sp read th roughout t he bu ild ing, eventu ally
banking do wn to lo wer levels. With in any roo m o r space,
the hottest gases are at the h ighest level and coo ler gases
are strat ified belo w.
Convection currents can carry s moke and superheated
g as es to u n invo lv ed areas with in th e s t ru ct u re o r into
Ve ntilati on
405
adjoining spaces, if there is an opening available. The flow of
heated gases will always follow the path of least resistance and
can be altered by making an opening that offers less resistance.
Brigade members use this basic princip le by making ven -
tilation openings that will cause the convective flow to draw
the heated p roducts out o f the build ing . Doo rways, win -
dows, or roof openings can be used for ventilat ion. To
accomp lish this, brigade members must identify the most
appropriate type of openings as well as the most feasible
locat ions fo r open ings in the structu re.
Mech anical Vent ila tion
In addition to making o r controlling openings to influence
convective flow, brigade members can also use mechanical
ventilation to direct the flow of combustion gases. Fans can be
used to draw or pull s mo ke through openings
(negati ve -pressure ventilation) or to introduce fresh air to
displace smoke and other products of combustion
(positive -pressure ventilati on). Hose streams can be used to
create air currents to ventilate an area. So me build ings have
ventilation systems designed to remove smoke or prevent
smoke from entering certain areas.
Wind and At mosph eric Force s
Wind and other at mospheric fo rces can p lay a sign ificant
role in ventilat ion. The wind should always be considered
when determin ing where and ho w to ventilate a structure.
Even a slight breeze can have an impact on the effectiveness
of a ventilation opening.
For examp le, a wind blowing against the upwind side of a
building will p revent smoke, heat, or other products of com-
bustion fro m escaping through an opening on that sid e. If a
door or window on that side o f the bu ild ing is opened, a
strong current of oxygen-rich air could enter the structure and
accelerate the fire. The wind would push the heat and other
products of co mbustion throughout the structure, creating
serious life safety risks for those inside the building.
Conversely, opening a ventilation outlet on the downwind
side of a build ing cou ld be especially effective on a windy
day. As the wind b lows around the build ing, it creates a
negative-pressure zone that literally removes smoke and heat
out of the bu ilding. A fter the fire has been ext inguished,
opening addit ional doors and windo ws on the upwind s ide
will rapidly clear residual smoke (Figure 14-7 ).
Temperature and humidity also can affect ventilation, par-
ticularly in tall buildings and large-area structures. On a cold
day there will probably be a strong updraft through a heated
mu lti floor build ing. A downdraft is mo re likely on a hot day
in an air-conditioned building. Because humid ity makes the
atmosphere denser, removing coo l s mo ke fro m a bu ilding
could be less efficient on a hu mid day.
Wind, temperature, and hu mid ity are po werful, pers istent
forces of nature. It is more efficient and more effective to work
with them than against them.
406 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
(Figure 14-7) On a windy day, proper ventilation will remove smoke and heat
from a structure.
Building Construction Considerations
The way a building is constructed will affect ventilation opera-
tions. Each construction type presents its own set of chal-
lenges. More informat ion on building construction can be
found in Chapter 6, Building Construction.
Fire-Resistive Construction
Fire-resisti ve construction (Type I) refers to a building in
wh ich all of th e structu ral co mponents are made o f
non-co mbustib le or limited -co mbustib le materials. This
type of const ruct ion g enerally h as spaces d iv ided into
co mpart ments , wh ich li mit potent ial fire sp read. A fire is
most likely to invo lve th e co mbust ib le cont ents of an
interio r space with in th e bu ild ing .
Although fire-resistive construction is intended to confine
a fire, there are potential avenues for fire spread. Openings
for mechanical systems, such as heating and cooling ducts,
plumbing and electrical chases, elevator shafts, and stairwells
all p rovide paths for fire spread. A fire can also spread from
one floor to another through exterior windows, a pheno me-
non called leap-frogging (o r auto-exposure).
Smoke can travel through a fire-resistive bu ild ing using
the same routes. Heat ing, ventilat ion, and air cond ition ing
(HVA C) systems, stairways, and elevator shafts are common
pathways. Because the windows in these buildings are often
sealed and are not broken easily, there may be limited oppor-
tunities for creating ventilation openings. In some cases, one
stairway can be used as an exhaust shaft, while other stair-
ways are cleared for rescue and access. Ventilation fans are
often requ ired to direct the flow of s moke.
The roof on a fire -resistive build ing is usually supported
by either a steel o r a concrete roo f deck. It may be difficult or
impossib le to make vert ica l ventilat ion ho les in such a roof.
Similar roofing materials are used in buildings with
noncombustib le construction.
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
Ordinary Construction
Ordinary construction (Type III) bu ild ings have exterior
walls made o f non co mb ustib le o r limit ed -co mbust ib le
materials, wh ich support the roof and floo r assemb lies. The
interior walls and floors are usually wood construction; the
roof usually has a wood deck and a wood structural support
system. Th e roo f can be cut with po wer saws o r a xes to
open vert ical ven t ilat ion ho les . Ord inary co nstru ct ion
build ings usually have windows and doors that can be used
for ho rizontal vent ilation.
Th is typ e o f construct io n o ften includes nu merous
openings with in the walls and floo rs for p lu mb ing and
electrical chases. If a fire breaks through the interio r finish
materials (p laster or d ry wall), it can spread und etected
within the void spaces to other po rt ions of the structu re.
Interio r stairwells generally allow a fire to extend vertically
with in the bu ild ing.
The v ert ical op enings in o rd inary construct ion oft en
provide a path fo r fire to extend into an att ic or cockloft
(open space bet ween the ceiling o f the top floor and the
underside of the roof). Heat and smo ke can accu mu late and
spread laterally with in these spaces bet ween sect ions of a
large build ing or into attached build ings. Vert ical vent ila-
tion is essential when fire is burning in an attic or cockloft (
Figure 14-8).
Wood-Frame Construction
Wood-frame construction (Type V) has many of the same fea-
tures as ordinary construction. The primary d ifference is that
the exterior walls in a wood-frame build ing are not required to
be constructed of masonry or noncombustible materials.
Wood-frame bu ild ings o ften have many vo id spaces
where fire can spread , includ ing att ics o r co cklo fts. Wood
(Figure 14-8) ) Vertical ventilation is essential when a fire is burning in an
attic or cockloft.

truss roofs and floors, which can fail qu ickly under fire con -
dit ions, are co mmon in these bu ild ings.
Older build ings of wood-frame construction were o ften
assembled with ball oon-frame construction. Th is type of
construction has direct vert ical channels within the exterior
walls, so a fire can spread very quickly fro m a lo wer level to
the attic or cockloft . Heated s moke and gases can accu mu late
under the roof, requiring rapid vertical roof ventilation.
Modern wood-frame construction uses platform-frame
techni ques. In these buildings, the structural frame is built
one floor at a time. Between each floor, there is a plate at the
floor and the ceiling that acts as a fire stop. This prevents the
fire fro m spread ing up and contains it on a sing le floo r.
Tactical Priorities
Ventilat ion is directly related to the three major priorit ies in
firefighting operat ions: life safety, fire contain ment , and
property conservation.
Venting for Life Safety
Life safety is our primary goal whether it is rescuing occu -
pants or protecting fire b rigade personnel. Ventilat ion helps
to clear s mo ke, heat, and to xic g ases fro m the structu re,
which gives occupants a better chance to survive. It provides
firefighting crews increased visibility and makes the structure
more tenable, enabling more rap id searches for victi ms.
Ventilat ion also limits fire spread and allows brigade
members to advance hose lines mo re safely and rap idly to
attack the fire. Co ntro lling th e fire redu ces the ris k to
brigade members as well as occupants.
A dedicated ventilation team can often have a significant
impact on life safety. Interio r search and fire attack teams
should be prepared to create ventilat ion openings as needed.
Venting for Fire Containment
A brigade members second priority is to contain the fire and
gain control of the situation. Fire spread can often be con -
trolled or limited th rough effect ive ventilat ion. Releasing
smoke and superheated gases to the exterio r p revents them
fro m spreading throughout the interior of a building o r into
adjoining spaces.
Attack teams can be mo re effect ive when there is less
smo ke and heat . Th is enables attack lines to be advanced
mo re easily to ext inguish the fire. A coordinated fire attack
and ventilat ion effort should consider the t iming and the
direct ion of the attack as well as the type and location o f
possible ventilat ion openings.
Venting for Property Conservation
The third p rio rity is property conservation, wh ich involves
reducing losses caused by means other than direct involve-
ment in the fire. Ventilation can play a significant role in
li mit in g p rop erty d amag e. If a st ru ct u re is v en t ilat ed
V e nti l a ti on 407
rap idly and co rrectly , the damage caused by s moke, heat,
water, and overhau l operat ions can all be reduced.
Location and Extent of Smoke
and Fire Conditions
A brigade member must be able to recognize when ventila-
tion is needed and where it should be provided, based on the
circu mstances of each fire situation. There are many factors
that must be considered, including the size of the fire, the
stage of co mbustion, the location of the fire with in a build ing,
and the available ventilat ion options. An experienced brigade
member learns to recognize these significant factors and
quickly interpret each situation.
When feasib le, vent ilat ion should be as close to the fire
as possible. The most desirable options are to p rovide a
ventilat ion opening d irect ly over the seat of the fire o r to
open a door o r windo w th at will release heat and s mo ke
fro m the fire direct ly to the exterior. If it is not possible to
create a vent ilat ion open ing in the immed iate area of the
fire, brigade members must be ab le to p redict how ventila-
tion fro m another location will affect the fire. Usually, fire
will t ravel toward a ventilation opening , fo llowing the flow
of heat and s moke. To make the fire t ravel in the opposite
direction , b rigade memb ers cou ld use the wind or a fan to
push fresh air th rough a v ent ilat ion open ing .
The color, location, movement, and amount of smoke can
provide valuable clues about the fire's size, intensity, and fuel
(Figure 14-9 ). Thin, light-colored smoke, mov ing lazily out
of the building, usually indicates a small fire involving
ordinary combustibles. Thick, dark gray smoke "pushing" out
of a structure suggests a larger, mo re intense fire. A fire
involving petroleum products will produce large quantities of
black, rolling smoke that rises in a vertical colu mn.
( Figure 14-9 ) The color, location, and amount of smoke can provide
valuable clues.
408 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

Smo ke movement is a good ind icator of the fire's tem-

perature. A very hot fire will produce smo ke that moves
quickly, ro lling and forcing its way out through an opening.
The hotter the fire is, the faster the smoke will move. Cooler
smoke moves more slowly and gently. On a cool, damp day
with very litt le wind, this type of s moke might hang low to
th e g rou nd (a ph eno menon kn o wn as s mo ke invers ion ).
An unusual phenomenon occu rs in build ings with auto -
mat ic sprin kler systems. The water d ischarged fro m the
sprin klers coo ls the s moke, so that it hard ly moves with in
the build ing. Th is type of s moke can f ill a large warehouse
space fro m floo r to ceiling with an opaque mi xtu re that
behaves like fog on a damp day. Mechanical ventilation is
needed to clear th is cold smo ke fro m the building. A similar
situation occu rs when s mo ke is trapped with in a bu ilding
long enough to coo l to ambient temperatu re.

Types of Ventilation
To remove the p roducts of combustion and other airborne
contaminants fro m a structu re, b rigade members use t wo
basic types of ventilation: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal
ventil ation utilizes the doors and windows on the same level
as the fire, as well as any other horizontal openings that are
available. In some cases, brigade members might make addi-
tional open ings in a wall to p rovide horizontal vent ilat ion.
Vertical ventil ati on involves openings in roofs or floors
so that heat, smoke, and to xic gases escape from the structure
in a vertical direction. Pathways for vertical ventilation can
includ e stairwells, exh aust vents, and roo f op en ings such
as skylights, scuttles, or monitors. Additional openings can
be created by cutt ing a ho le in the roof o r the floor.
Ventilation can be either natural or mechan ical. Natural
v ent ilat ion d epen ds on co nvect io n cu rrents an d oth er
natural fo rces, such as the wind , to mov e heat and s mo ke
out of a build ing and allo w clean air to enter. Mechanical
ventilation uses fans or other powered equ ip ment to exhaust
heat and s mo ke and/o r to int roduce clean air.
When referring to ventilat ion techniques, brigade mem-
bers use the term contaminated atmosphere to des cribe the
products of combustion that must be removed from a build ing
and the term clean air to refer to the outside air that replaces
them. The contaminated atmosphere can include any
combination of heat, s moke, and toxic gases produced by
combustion. A contaminated atmosphere also may be any
dangerous or undesirable atmosphere not caused by a fire. For
example, natural gas, carbon monoxide, ammonia, and many
other products can contaminate the at mosphere as a result of a
leak, spill, or similar event. The same basic techniques of
ventilation can be applied to many of these situations.
Horizontal Ventilation
Horizontal vent ilation uses horizontal openings in a struc-
ture, such as windo ws and doo rs, and can be emp loyed in
( Figure 14-10) W indows are frequently us ed in horizontal ventilation.
many situations, particularly in small fires (Figure 14-10 ).
Ho rizontal vent ilat ion is co mmon ly used in
roo m-and-contents fires, and fires that can be controlled
quickly by the in itial attack team.
Horizontal ventilation can be a rapid, generally easy way
to clear a contaminated at mosphere. Often, outlets for hori-
zontal ventilat ion can be made simply by opening a do or or
window. In other cases brigade members may need to break
a window or to use forcible entry techniques.
Search-and-attack teams operat ing inside a structure, as well
as brigade members operat ing outside the building, use
horizontal ven tilat ion to reduce heat and s mo ke condit ions.
Horizontal ventilat ion is most effective when the opening
goes directly into the room or space where the fire is located.
Opening an exterior door or window allows heat and smoke
to flow directly outside and eliminates the problems that can
occur when these products travel through the interio r spaces
of a build ing.
Horizontal ventilation is more difficult if there are no direct
openings to the outside or if the open ings are inaccessib le.
In these situations, it may be necessary to direct the air flow
through other interior spaces or to use vertical ventilat ion.
Ho rizontal v entilat ion may have to be used in situat ions
where an inaccessible or damaged roof makes vertical venti-
lat ion too dangerous or impossible.
 Ve ntilati on 409

Horizontal ventilat ion also can be used in less urgent

situations if the building can be ventilated without additional
Brigade Member Tips
structural damage. Lo w urgency situations might include
res idual s mo ke caused by a s mall fire o r a s mall natu ral gas Opening windows on the upwind side of a building bef ore opening
leak. dow nwind side windows m ay force the fire into uninv olved areas of the
Horizontal vent ilation tact ics include both natural and structure.
mechan ical methods. Mechanical vent ilat ion involves the
use of fans or other powered equ ip ment.

Natural Ventilation of sharp pieces falling out later. Before breaking glass, par-
Natural ventil ation depends on convection currents, wind, ticularly if the window is above the ground floor, brigade
and other natural air movements to allow a contaminated members must look out to ensure that no one will be struck
atmosphere to flow out of a structure. The heat of a fire creates by the falling glass. To break glass on the ground floors with a
convection currents that move smoke and gases up toward the hand tool, follow the steps in (►Skill Drill 14-1 ).
roof or ceiling and out away from the fire source. Opening or 1. The brigade member must wear fu ll personal protec
breaking a window or door will allow these products of com- tive equipment, including eye protection and gloves.
bustion to escape through natural ventilation. 2. Select a hand too l and posit ion yourself upwind and
Natural ventilat ion can be used only when the natural air to the side of the window. (Step 1)
currents are adequate to move the contaminated at mosphere 3. With back against the wall, swing backward forcefu lly
out of the building and replace it with fresh air. Mechanical with the t ip of the tool striking the top 1/3 of the g lass.
devices can be used if natural forces do not provide adequate (Step 2)
ventilation. 4. Clear remain ing glass fro m the opening with the hand
Natural vent ilat ion is often used when quick vent ilat ion tool. (Step 3)
is needed, such as when attacking a roo m-and-contents fire
or a first-floor office building fire with people trapped on the Breaking a Window from a Ladder
second floor. Fo r search-and-attack teams to enter and act A similar technique can be used to break a window on an
quickly , s mo ke and heat must be vent ilated immed iately. upper floo r, with the brigade member working fro m a lad der.
Wind speed and direct ion play an important role in nat - The ladder should be positioned upwind and to the side of the
ural ventilation. If possible, windows on the downwind side window. The b rigade member should climb to a position level
of a bu ild ing should be opened first so the contaminated with the windo w and lock in to th e ladder fo r safety. Using
at mosphere flo ws out . Open ings on th e up wind s ide can a hand tool, the brigade member strikes and breaks the
then be used for cross ventilation, bringing in clean air. window, then clears the opening completely . The brigade
Opening a window on the upwind side first could push the member must not be positioned below the window, wh ere
fire into un involved areas of the structure. g lass co u ld s lid e d o wn t h e h an d le o f t h e t oo l ( Figure
14-11).
Breaking Glass
Natural vent ilat ion uses pre -exist ing or created openings in
a building. The methods used to create horizontal openings
emp loy a variety of tools and techniques. For examp le, some
windows can simp ly be opened by hand. But if the window
:annot be opened and the need for vent ilat ion is urgent,
brigade members should not hesitate to break the g lass.
Breaking a window is a fast and simple way to create a ven -
tilat ion opening.
When breaking glass, the brigade member should always
use a hand tool (Halligan tool, axe, o r pike pole), work fro m
the upwind side and keep hands above or to the side of the
falling glass. This will prevent pieces of glass from sliding
down the tool and potentially in juring the brigade member.
Then the tool should be used to clear the entire opening of all
remaining pieces of glass. This creates the largest opening pos -
sible and provides a way for brigade members to enter or exit
through the window in the event of an emergency.
Clearing the bro ken glass also reduces the risk o f inju ry ( Figure 14-11 ) When breaking an upper-story window, the brigade
to anyone who may be in the area and eliminates the danger member should place the ladder to the side of the window.
410 I ND US T R I AL F I R E B R I GADE :
Breakin g a Wi n dow wi th a Ladde r
Brigade members on the ground can use the t ip of a ladder to
break and clear a window when immed iate ventilation is
needed on an upp er floo r. Dropp ing the t ip o f the ladder
into the upper half of the glass will break it. Mov ing the tip
of the ladder back and forth inside the opening will usually
clear the remain ing glass.
This technique requires proper ladder selection. Usually,
second-floo r windo ws can be reach ed by 16' o r 20' roof
ladders, as well as by bedded 24' o r 28' extension ladders.
Extension ladders are needed to break windows on the third or
higher floors.
Breaking Glass with a Hand Tool
Position yourself upwind and to the side of the window.
Clear rem aining glass from the opening with the hand tool.
P R I NC I PL ES AND P R A CT I CE
The ladder can be raised d irect ly into th e top half of th e
windo w o r it can be raised next to th e windo w to
d et ermin e t he p rop er heigh t fo r th e t ip . Th e ladd er is
then ro lled in to th e windo w, the t ip is d rawn b ack, and
fo rcib ly d ropp ed into the t op th ird of t he windo w. Th e
object ive is to push the b ro ken g lass int o th e windo w
opening , but th ere is always a risk that so me o f th e g lass
will fall outward . Brigade members wo rking belo w the
windo w must wear fu ll personal p rotect ive equ ip ment to
shield themselves fro m falling g lass. A wo rd o f caut ion —
the h igher the wind o w, the g reater th e dan ger o f falling
glass.
With back against the w all, swing backw ard forcefully with the tip of
1
the tool striking the top A of the glass.

When a ladder is used to b reak a windo w, th ere may be
shards of glass left hanging fro m the edges of the open ing. If
the opening will be used for access, it will need to be
comp letely cleared with a tool before anyone enters through
it. To break a window with a ladder, fo llow the steps in ( Sk ill
Drill 14- 2).
1. Wear fu ll personal p rotective equ ip ment, includ ing
eye protection.
2. Select the proper size ladder for the job.
3. Check fo r overhead power lines. Use standard proce
dures for performing a ladder raise utilizing one, t wo,
or three b rigade members, depending on the size o f
the ladder.
4. If a roof ladder is used, extend the hooks toward the
window.
Insulated Thermopane ™ Windows
Concerns for energy s avings hav e increas ed the use of insulated
thermal glass bot h in new construction and as a replacement for
conv entional glass in older windows. T hermopane w indows hav e
multiple layers of glass sealed together, with a small airspace
between the lay ers. These windows are much more difficult to break
than c onv ent ional glass windows. A brigade m em ber may hav e to
use m ultiple st rikes and additional forc e to break a therm opane
window.
Thermopane windows are used to increas e the energy efficiency of
a structure. The windows f it tightly so there is little air leakage, and
the glass resists heat transfer through it. The tight fitting of the window
is not a feat ure unique to thermopane windows, but rat her generally
to the age of the inst allation. Older window installations leak more
air. Thermopane windows may have a more subst antial
( Figure 14-12 ) A. Building structure and fire conditions should be evaluated for signs of backdraft before any type of ventil ation opening is made. B.
Improperly ventilating a fire in an oxygen deficient atmosphere can cause a backdraft.
Ve n t il a t i o n 411
5. Raise the ladder next to the windo w. Extend the tip so
it is even with the top th ird o f the windo w.
6. Position the ladder in front o f the window.
7. The ladder is fo rcibly dropped into the window.
8. Exercise caution; falling g lass can cause serious
in ju ry. Glass may slide do wn the beams of the
ladder.
9. Raise the ladder fro m the window and move it to the
next window to be ventilated. Either carry the ladder
vertically o r p ivot the ladder on its feet.
Opening Doors
Door openings also can be used for natural ventilation oper-
ations. Doorways have certain advantages when used for
ventilat ion. They are large openings, often twice the size o f
fram e, but if they do not fit properly, they will leak air as w ill any
window. This can caus e pot entially dangerous fire con ditions to
dev elop in som e situations. Any tight fitting window can cause
potentially dangerous fire conditions to dev elop.
Conv entional w indows often break from the heat of a fire, pro-
viding im mediate ventilation. T hermopane windows are more likely to
stay intact as the fire develops to an advanced stage because the fire
would hav e to break mult iple layers of glass. By this time, t he fire
may cons ume m ost of the av ailable oxygen. When the window is
finally broken, the sudden rush of fres h air can caus e inst ant aneous
burning of thes e gases with ex plosive forc es being created (T
Figure 14-12).
Brigade mem bers should evaluate the structure and fire condi -
tions for signs of backdraft before creating any type of ventilation
opening. Refer to Chapter 5, Fire Behavior, for a list of indic ations.
412
an average windo w. A locked door can be opened using
forcible entry techniques.
The prob lem with using doorways as ventilation openings
is that this co mpro mises entry and exit for interior fire attack
teams, as well as search-and-rescue teams. If heat and s moke
are pouring through a doorway, b rigade members cannot
enter or exit through that doorway. Becaus e protecting exit
paths is a priority, doorways are more suitable as ent ries for
clean air. The contaminated at mosphere should be
discharged through a d ifferent opening.
Brigade members will approach a fire through the inte rio r
of a building to attack fro m the unburned side. Open ing an
exterio r door that leads direct ly to the fire creates a vent and
pushes the heat and s mo ke ou t o f the bu ild ing . Th is p lan
also creates a natural clean air entrance, as clear, coo l air
flo ws toward the fire with the attack team.
Doorways are also good places to set-up mechan ical
devices when natu ral vent ilat ion needs to be aug mented.
Fans can be used to push clean air in (posit ive-p ressure
vent ilat ion ) o r to pu ll contamin ated air out
(neg at ive -p ressure ventilat ion ).
Mechanical Ventilation
Mechanical ventilation uses mechanical means to augment
natural ventilat ion. There are three d ifferent methods of
mechanical vent ilat ion. Negat ive-p ressure ventilat ion uses
fans called s mo ke ejecto rs to exhaust smo ke and heat fro m a
structure. Positive -pressure vent ilation uses fans to intro duce
clean air into a structure and push the contaminated
at mosphere out. Hydraulic ventil ati on moves air by us ing a
fog-pattern fire stream to create a pressure differential a
behind and in front o f the no zzle.
Most industrial structures have HVAC systems that can
provide at least some mechanical ventilation. To be used
effect ively, such a system must be configured so that zones
can be controlled correctly. Some HVA C systems are specifi-
cally designed to vent smoke or to supply fresh air if a fire
occurs; other HVA C systems must be shut down immed i-
ately if they interfere with emergency ventilation objectives.
Consideration should be given to using a building's or struc-
ture's HVA C system as the primary means of ventilat ion
wherever possible. The facility engineer or maintenance staff
may have the specific kno wledge required to assist in this
effort. Information about HVA C systems should be obtained
during prefire p lanning surveys.
Negative-Pressure Ventilation
The basic principles of air flow are used in negative-pressure
ventilation. Brigade members locate the source of the fire, and
with a fan or blower, exhaust the products of combustion out
through a window o r door. The fan d raws the heat, s mo ke,
and fire gases out by creating a slightly negative pressure inside
the building. In turn, fresh air is drawn into the structure,
replacing the contaminated air.
(Figure 14-13) A sm oke eject or pulls products of combustion out of a
structure.
Smo ke ejectors are generally 16" to 24" in diameter,
although larger models are available. Ejectors can be po w-
ered by electricity, gasoline, or water (A Figure 14-13).
Negative-pressure ventilation can be used to clear s moke
out of a structure after a fire, particularly if natural ventilation
wou ld be too s lo w o r if no natu ral cross ventilat ion exists.
In large build ings, negative-pressure ventilation may be
used to pull heat and s moke out wh ile brigade members are
working, although it is not generally used before or du ring
fire attack. Negative -pressure ventilation is usually associ-
ated with horizontal vent ilation , but an ejector can be used
in a roof-vent operat ion to pu ll heated gases out of.
Negat ive -p ressure vent ilat ion h as several limitat ions,
including posit ioning, power source, maintenance, and air
flo w control. Often, brigade members must enter the heated
and smoke-filled environment to set up the ejector, and they
may need to use braces and hangers to position it properly.
Because most ejectors run on electricity, a power source and a
cord are required.
Air flow control is also difficult. The fan must be com-
pletely sealed so that the exhausted air is not immed iately
drawn back into the building. Th is effect is called churni ng
and reduces the effect iveness of the ejector. Chu rn ing can
be eliminated by co mp letely blocking the opening around
the fan.
Smo ke ejecto rs usually have exp losion -proo f motors,
which makes them excellent cho ices for venting flammable
or co mbustible gases and other hazardous environments. To
perfo rm negat ive-p ressure vent ilation , fo llow the steps in
(►Skill Drill 14-3).
1. Determine the area to be ventilated and the outside
wind direct ion.
2. If possible, p lace the s moke ejector to exhaust on the
downwind s ide o f the build ing.
 Ven tilation 413

3. The fan should be hung as h igh in the selected open

ing as possible.
4. Remove any obstructions from the area used to ventilate
smoke, including curtains, screens, and other debris.
5. Use a salvage cover to prevent churning if window is
not intact. (Step 1)
6. Prov ide an open ing on the upwind s ide o f the struc
ture to provide cross ventilation. (Step 2)

Positive-Pressure Ventilation
Posit ive-p ressure ventilat ion uses large, powerful fans to
force fresh air into a structure. The fans create a positive
pressure ins ide the structu re, disp lace the cont aminated
atmosphere, and push the heat and p roducts of co mbustion
out. Positive-pressure ventilation can be used to reduce inte-
rior temperatures and smoke conditions in coordination with
an init ial attack, or to clear a contaminated atmosphere after a
fire.
Positive-pressure fans are usually set up at exterior
door-ways , often at th e same op en ing used by the attack
team (► Figure 14-14). If the fan is placed several feet away
from the entry point, it will produce a cone of air that
comp letely covers the opening. This pushes clean air in the
same d irec tion as the advancing hose line, so brigade
members move toward the fire in a stream of clean, cool air.
Heat and smoke are pushed back and out of the build ing
through an opening on the opposite side o f the bu ilding .
For this system to work effect ively, the integrity of the (Figure 14-14T) Positive-pressure fans are usually set up at exterior
build ing must be intact and ventilat ion openings kept to a doorways, often at the same opening used by the attack team.
min imu m. Positive-p ressure ventilation will not work prop-
erly if there are too many openings. There must be an opening
near the seat of the fire for the heat and smo ke to exhaust (►
Figure 14-15). The entry and exit openings should be
approximately the same size to create the desired positive
pressure with in the structure. If there is no exhaust opening,
or if it is too s mall, the heat and s mo ke will migrate into
other areas of the bu ilding o r back to ward the attack team. If
the exh aust open ing is too large, it will not creat e a
buildup o f p ressure ins ide the structu re that creates the
velocity to effectively remove the smoke.
To increase the efficiency of positive-pressure ventilation,
brigade members should close doors to unaffected areas o f
(Figure 14-15) There m ust be an opening near the s eat of the fire to allow the
heat and products of combustion to exhaust.

Brigade Member Tips

Doors used for ventilation must be kept open to ensure that
ventilation is sustained. Depending on the time available and the type
of door and lock, brigade mem bers m ay remov e the door, dis able the
closure device, or place a wedge in the hinge side or under the door.
Overhead doors must be blocked in the open position, so they cannot
accidentally roll dow n and clos e.
the structure. Because smaller areas can be ventilated rapidly,
venting one roo m at a t ime o r one section of the build ing at a
time can quickly clear trapped smoke out of a build ing after a
fire. In a mu ltistory bu ilding, posit ive-pressure fans can blow
fresh air up through a stair shaft. By opening the doors, one
floor at a t ime can be cleared. Very large structures can be
ventilated by p lacing mu ltip le fans side-by-side or one beh ind
the other.
414 I N D U S T R I A L FI R E B R I GA D E :
Negative-Pressure Ventilation
Hang the fan in the upper part of the
opening. Use salvage covers to prevent
churning.
Positive-pressure ventilation has several advantages over
negative-pressure ventilation. A single brigade member can
set up a fan very quickly. Because the fan is positioned outside
the structure, the brigade member does not have to enter a
hazardous environ ment, and the fan does not interfere with
interior operations. Positive pressure is both quick and effi-
cient, because the entire space within the structure is under
pressure. When used properly, positive-pressure ventilation
can help confine a fire to a smaller area and increase safety for
interior operat ing crews, as well as any build ing occupants,
by reducing interior temperatures. Positive-pressure fans do
not requ ire as mu ch clean ing and maintenance as negat ive-
P R I N C I P L E S . AN D P R A C T I C E
Provide openings on the upwind side for cross
ventilation.
pressu re fans, because th e p rodu cts o f co mbust ion n ever
move through the fan.
Positive-pressure ventilation does have its disadvantages,
however. The most impo rtant concern is that imp roper use
of positive p ressure can spread a fire. If the fire is bu rn ing in
a structural space such as in a pipe chase or above a ceiling ,
positive pressure can push it into unaffected areas of the
structure. If the fire is in structural vo id spaces,
positive-pressure ventilation should not be used until access
to these spaces is available and attack crews are in place.
Similar problems can occur if positive pressure is used
without an adequate exhaust open ing for the heat and s mo ke.

Positive-Pressure Ventilation
Place the fan in front of the opening to be us ed for attack.
Start fan and allow smoke to clear.
Positive-pressure fans operate at high velocity and can be
very n o isy. Most are po wered b y intern al co mbust ion
engin es and can increase carbon mono xide levels if they
are run fo r sign ificant periods of t ime after the fire is
extinguished. Natural ventilat ion should be used after the
structure is cleared to prevent carbon mono xide build -up.
Because positive-pressure fan motors can get hot, they are
u n s afe t o u s e i f co mb u s t ib l e v ap o rs a re p r es en t .
(Skill Drill 14-4) outlines the steps in performing
positive-pressure ventilat ion.
1. Determine the location o f the fire within the bu ilding
and the direction o f attack.
Ve ntilati on 415
Provide an exhaust opening at or near the fire.
2. Place the fan 4' to 10' in front o f the open ing to be
used for attack. (Step 1)
3. Prov ide an exhaust opening at o r near the fire. This
opening can be made befo re start ing the fan or when
the fan is started. (Step 2)
4. Check for interior open ings that cou ld allo w the
products of co mbustion to be pushed into un wanted
areas.
5. Start the fan and check the cone o f air produced. It
should co mp letely cover the opening . Th is can be
checked by running a hand around the doo r frame to
feel the d irect ion o f air currents.
41B I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
6. Allow s moke to clear—usually 30 seconds to 1 minute
depending on the size of the area to be vent ilated and
smoke conditions. (Step 3)
Hydraulic Ventilation
Hydrau lic vent ilat ion uses the water stream fro m the hose
line to exh aust smo ke and heated gases fro m a structu re.
The b rigade member working the hose line d irects a fog
stream out o f the build ing th rough an open ing, such as a
win do w o r d oo rway . The cont aminat ed at mosphere is
drawn int o a lo w-pressure area beh ind th e no zzle. An
induced draft created by the h igh-pressure stream of water
p u l ls t h e s mo ke an d g as o u t t h ro u g h t h e o p en in g (
Fig ure 14 -16). A well-placed fog stream can move a
tremendous volu me of air th rough an open ing .
Hydrau lic vent ilat ion is most useful in clearing s mo ke
and heat out of a roo m after the fire is under control. To per-
form hydraulic ventilation, a brigade member must enter the
roo m and remain close to the vent ilat ion open ing . The
brigade member places the nozzle 2' to 4' inside the open ing
and opens the nozzle to a narro w fog or bro ken spray pattern.
The brigade member keeps d irect ing the stream outside and
backs into the roo m until the fog pattern almost fills the
opening.
The b rigad e memb er o perat ing t he no zzle must stay
low, out of the heat and smoke, or to one side to keep fro m
p art ially obst ruct in g th e op en ing . Th is techn iqu e is
covered mo re fully in Chapter 16, Fire Hose, No zzles, and
Streams.
Hydraulic ventilation can move several thousand cubic feet
of air per minute and is effective in clearing heat and smoke
from a fire room. Because it does not require any specialized
equipment, it can be performed by the attack team, using the
same hose line that was used to control the fire.
There are some d isadvantages to using hydraulic ventila -
tion. Brigade members must enter the heated, toxic environ -
ment and remain in the path of the products of co mbustion
as they are being exhausted. If the water supply is limited,
us in g wat er fo r ven t ilat io n must be b alan ced with us ing
(Figure 14-16) Hydraulic ventilation can be used to draw smoke out of a
building after the fire is controlled.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
Brigade Member Safety Tips
If the f ire is in hidden spac es, do not use positive -pressure ventila tion
until access to these spaces is available and attack crews are in place.
water fo r fire attack. Th is techn ique can cause excessive
water damage if it is used improperly or for long periods of
time. Also, in co ld climates, ice build-up can occur on the
ground, creating a safety hazard.
Ideally, the ventilat ion opening should be created before
the hose line advances into the fire area. The hose stream
also can be used to break a window before it is directed on
the fire. The steam created when the water h its the fire will
push the heat and smo ke out th rough the vent. Hyd raulic
ventilation can then be used to clear the remain ing heat and
smoke fro m the roo m.
Vertical Ventilation
Vertical ventilation refers to the release of s moke, heat, and
other products of co mbustion into the at mosphere in a ver-
tical direction. Vertical ventilation will occur naturally, due
to convection currents, if there is an opening available above a
fire. Convection causes the products of combustion to rise
and flo w through the opening. In so me situat ions, vertical
ventilation can be assisted by mechanical means such as fans
or hose streams.
Although vert ical ventilat ion refers to any open ing that
allo ws the p roducts of co mbust ion to t ravel up and out, it is
most o ften applied to operat ions on the roo f of a struc ture.
The roof openings can be exist ing features, such as s ky lights
or bu lkh eads , o r created by b rigad e memb ers who cut
through the roo f covering. The cho ice o f roof o p en ings
d epends primarily on th e bu ild ing 's roo f construction.
A vertical-ventilation opening should be made as close as
possible to the seat of the fire (►Figure 14-17^). Smoke issu-
ing fro m the roof area, melted asphalt shingles, o r steam
coming fro m the roof surface are all signs that brigade mem-
bers can use to ident ify the hottest point.
Brigade Member Tips
Remember, ventilation openings allow products of combustion, as well
as steam from the attack lines, to escape from the fire site. If ventilation
is not coordinated with attack, the smoke, heat, steam, and embers will
be forced back at the attack team.

( Figure 14-17
The vertic al-ventilation opening should be as close as
possible to the seat of the fire.
Saf ety Co nsid eration s in Vertic al Ventila tion
Vertical ventilation should be perfo rmed only when it is nec-
essary and can be done safely. Rooftop operations involve
significant inherent risks. If horizontal ventilat ion can suffi-
ciently contro l the situation, vert ical ventilation is unneces -
sary . Before perfo rming v ert ical ven t ilat ion , b rigad e
members must evaluate all the pertinent safety issues and
avoid unnecessary risks.
The most obvious risk in a rooftop operation is the possi-
bility that the roof will collapse. Many municipal fire fighters
have died during vertical ventilation attempts because the fire
had compro mised the structural integrity of the roof support
system. If the structural system supporting the roof fails, the
roof and the personnel standing on it will fall into the fire.
Personnel also can fall through an area of the roof deck that
has been weakened by the fire.
Fallin g fro m a roo f—eith er o ff o f th e bu ild in g o r
through a vent ilation open ing, open shaft , o r s ky light into
the bu ilding —is another h azard. Smo ke can cause poo r
visib ility and d isorientat ion , increasing the risk o f falling
off the edge o f a roo f. Factors such as darkness, snow, ice, o r
rain can creat e hazardous s ituat ions. A s lop ing roo f
presents great er risks than a flat roof.
Effective vertical ventilation often results in rapid fire con-
trol and reduces the risks to brigade members operating inside
the build ing. In some situations, pro mpt vert ical ventilat ion
can save the lives of building occupants by relieving interior
conditions, opening exit paths, and allowing brigade mem-
bers to enter and perform search-and-rescue operations.
Vertical ventilation should always be performed as quickly
and efficiently as possible. If they provide an adequate open -
ing, sky lights, vent ilators, bu lkheads, and other exist ing
openings should be open ed first. If b rigade members must
Ve ntilati on 417
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Whenev er possible, brigade m embers conducting v ertical v entila tion
should operate from the safety of roof ladders or aerial appara tus (
Figure 14-18). T his reduc es the danger of falling from t he roof or int o
the building if the roof collapses.
( Figure 14-18) Brigade members operating from the safety of aerial
apparatus.
cut through the roof covering to create a hole, the location
should be identified and the operat ion should be perfo rmed
promptly and efficiently.
Brigade members working on the roof should always have
two safe exit routes. A second ground ladder or aerial device
should be positioned to provide a quick alternative exit, in case
conditions on the roof deteriorate. The t wo escape routes
should be separate from each other, preferably in opposite
directions fro m the operation site. The team working on the
roof should always know where these exit routes are located,
and plan ventilation operations to work toward these locations.
The ventilation opening should never be made between the
crew and their escape route. A ventilation opening will release
smoke and hot gases from the fire. If this colu mn of smo ke
(and possibly fire) gets between the crew and their exit fro m
the roof, they could be in serious danger. A charged hose line
should be ready for use on the roof to protect brigade members
and exposures, but a hose stream should never be directed into a
ventilation opening ( Figure 14-19).
Once the ventilat ion opening has been made, the b rigade
members should withdraw to a safe locat ion. There is no
good reason to stand around the vent hole and look at it; this
simp ly exposes the brigade members to an unnecessary risk.
Before brigade members climb o r walk onto any roof,
they should test the roof to ensure that it will support their
weight. If the roo f is spongy or soft, it may not support a
crew and their equip ment.
Soundi ng is a way to test the stab ility of a roof with a
tool such as an axe o r p ike pole. Simp ly strike the surface of
418 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
(Figure 14-19) Be prepared for smoke and flames that may be released when
the roof is opened.
the roof with the blunt end of the tool. If the roof is in good
condition, the impact should produce a firm rebound and a
reassuring sound. If the impact does not produce this sound or
if the tool penetrates the roof, the structure is not safe. Du ring
ventilat ion op erat ions, b rig ade members shou ld
continu ally sound the roo f, p rob ing ah ead and around
themselv es with the hand le o f an axe o r a p ike po le to
ensure that the area is solid.
Modern lightweight construction (not co mmon in indus -
trial structures) frequently uses thin plywood for roof deck -
ing, with a variety of waterproof and insulating coverings. A
relatively minor fire under this type of roof can cause the
plywood to delaminate, without any visib le ind ication o f
damage or weakness fro m above. The weight of a brigade
member on a damaged area could be enough to open a hole
and cause the brigade member to fall through the roo f.
Sounding is not a foolp roof method to test the condition
of a roof and may give brigade members a false sense of secu-
rity on so me typ es o f roo fs . Sound ing is most co mmonly
used on roofs with wood frame rafters and trusses. Sounding is
generally not reliab le when operating on roofs with a steel
support system. A lso, roofs finished with slate or tile can
appear solid even if the supporting structure is ready to fail,
due to the rigid surface of the tiles. Always look fo r other
visible indicators of possible collapse and take the roof con -
struction into account. To sound a roof for safety, follow the
steps in (►Skill Drill 14-5).
1. Before stepping onto a roof, use a hand too l (such as
an axe, p ike po le, sledge, etc.), to strike the roof deck
ing with considerable force. Listen and feel fo r
rebound. (Step 1)
2. Sound the area ahead and to each side of your path .
The material should sound solid and remain intact. If
the tool penetrates, the roof is not safe.
3. Locate support members by listening to the sound
and watch ing the bounce o f the tool. Support mem
bers create a solid sound and make the tool bounce
fro m the roof. The spaces between supports will
sound hollo w, and the tool will not bounce.
P R I N C I P L E S AN D P R A C T I C E
4. Continue to sound the area around you period ically to
monitor conditions. (Step 2)
5. Remember to sound the roof as you leave the area as
well. You are not co mp letely safe until your feet are
back on solid ground. (Step 3)
A brigade member's path to a p roposed vent hole site
should fo llo w the areas of g reatest support and strength.
These include the roof edges, which are supported by bearing
walls, and the hips and valleys where structural materials are
doubled for strength. These areas should be stronger than
interior sections of the roof.
Brigade members should always be aware o f their
surroundings when working on a roof. Kno wing where the
roof's edge is located, for example, can help avoid acciden -
tally walking or falling off the roof. This is especially impor-
tant, although d ifficu lt, in darkness, adv erse weather, o r
heavy s mo ke cond it ions. It is equ ally impo rtant to watch
for open ings in the roo f, such as s kylights and ventilat ion
shafts.
The order o f the cuts in making a vent ilation opening
should be carefully p lanned. Brigade members should be
upwind, have a clear exit path, and be standing on a firm sec-
tion of the roof or using a roof ladder. If brigade members are
upwind fro m the open hole, the wind will push the heat and
smo ke away fro m th em. The escap ing heat and s mo ke
should not block their exit path. To prevent an accidental fall
into the build ing, b rigade members should stand on a portion
of the roof that is firmly supported, particularly when making
the final cuts.
Basic Indicators of Roof Collapse
Roof co llapse is the greatest risk to brigade members per-
forming vert ical ventilat ion. So me roofs, part icularly truss
roofs, g ive little warn ing that they are about to co llapse.
Brigade members assigned to vertical ventilation tasks
should always be aware o f the condition of the roof. They
should immed iately retreat fro m the roof if they notice any of
the following signs:
• Any spongy feeling or indicat ion that the roof is not as
solid as when the vent ing operat ion began
• Any visible indicat ion of sagging roof supports
• Any indication that the roof assemb ly is separating
fro m the walls, such as the appearance of fire o r
smoke near the roof edges
• Any structural failure of any portion of the building,
even if it is some distance from the ventilation operation
• Any sudden increase in the intensity of the fire fro m
the roof open ing
Roof Construction
As we learned in Chapter 6, Building Construction, roofs can
be constructed of many different types of materials in several
configurations. A ll roofs have two major co mponents —a
support structure and a roof covering. The roof support sys -
tem provides the structural strength to hold the roof in place.

It must also be ab le to bear the weight of any rain or snow
accumu lation, any rooftop machinery or equip ment, and any
other loads placed on the roof, such as brigade members or
other people walking on the roof.
The support system can be constructed of solid beams of
wood, steel, or concrete, or a system of trusses. Trusses are
produced in several configurations and are made of wood,
steel, or a co mbinat ion of wood and steel.
The roof covering is the weather-resistant surface of the
roof and may have several layers. Roof covering materials
include shingles and composite materials, tar and gravel,
rubber, foam p lastics, and metal panels. The roof decking is
a rig id lay er made o f woo den boards, p ly woo d sheets, o r
Sounding a Roof
Use a hand tool to check the roof before stepping
onto it.
Ve ntilati on 419
metal panels. In addition to the decking, the roof covering
generally includes a waterproof membrane and insulation to
retain heat in winter and limit solar heating in the su mmer.
Fire will very quickly bu rn through so me roofs, but others
will retain their integrity fo r long periods.
Vert ical v entilat ion operat ions often invo lve cutting a
hole through the roof covering. The selection of tools, the
technique used, the t ime requ ired to make an open ing, and
the personnel requirements all depend on the roofing mate-
rials and the layering configurations.
Each type of material used in roof construction is affected
differently by fire. These reactions will either increase or
decrease the t ime available to perform roof operat ions. Fo r
Use the tool to sound ahead and to both sides as you walk. Locate
support members by sound and rebound. Check conditions around
your work area periodically.
Sound the roof along your exit path.
420 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
examp le, solid beams are generally mo re fire resistant than
truss systems, because they are larger and heavier. Wooden
beams are affected by fire more quickly than concrete beams.
Steel elongates and loses strength when heated.
Most roofs will eventually fail as a result of fire exposure,
some very quickly and others more gradually. In some situa-
tions, the fire will weaken or burn through the supporting
structure so that it collapses while the roof covering remains
intact. Structural failu re usually results in sudden and total
collapse of the roof. A structural failure involving other building
components could also cause the roof to collapse.
In other cases, the fire may burn through the roof cov -
ering, wh ile the structu re is still sound. Th is type of roof
failu re usually beg ins with a "bu rn th rough" close to the
seat of the fire o r at a h igh point above the fire. As co m-
bustible p roducts in the roo f covering beco me involved in
the fire, the opening spreads, eventually causing the roof to
collapse.
The inherent strength and fire resistance of a roof is often
determined by local climate conditions. In areas that receive
winter snow loads, roof structures can usually support a
substantial weight and may include mu lt iple layers of insu -
lating material. A serious fire could burn under th is type of
roof with very little visible evidence fro m above. Heavily
constructed roofs, supported by solid structural elements,
can burn fo r hours without co llapsing.
In warmer climates , roo f co nstruct ion is o ften v ery
light. These roofs may simp ly function as u mb rellas. The
supporting st ructu re may b e just strong enough to support a
thin deck wit h a wat erp roo f, weather-res istant membrane.
Th is type o f roo f may bu rn through very qu ickly , and the
supporting structure may co llapse after a short fire exposure.
Solid-Beam Versus Truss Construction
The two major structural support systems for roofs use either
solid-beam or truss construction. It may be impossible to
determine which system is used simply by looking at the roof
fro m the exterior of the building, particularly when the build -
ing is on fire. Th is in format ion should be obtained during
preincident planning surveys.
The basic d ifference between solid-beam and truss con-
struction is in the way ind ividual load -bearing co mponents
are made. So lid -beam construction uses solid co mponents,
such as girders, beams, and rafters. Trusses are assemb led
fro m s maller, ind iv idu al co mpon ents. In most cases, it
makes no difference whether solid-beam o r t russ construc-
tion is used. For brigade members, however, there is an
impo rtant difference: A t russ system can co llapse qu ickly
and suddenly when it is exposed to a fire.
Trusses are constructed by assembling relatively small and
lightweight components in a series of triangles. The resulting
system can efficiently span long distances while supporting a
lo ad . In most cases , a so lid b eam t hat spanned an equal
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
(Figure 14-20) A lightw eight truss can c arry as m uch weight as a muc h
heavier solid beam.
distance and carried an equivalent load would be much larger
and heavier than a truss (A Figure 14-20). The disadvantage of
truss construction is that some trusses can fail co mp letely
when only one o f the s maller co mponents is weakened o r
when one of the connections between components fails.
A truss is not necessarily bad or inherent ly weak con -
struction. So me trusses are very strong and are assembled
with substantial co mponents that can resist fire as well as
solid beams. However, many trusses are made of lightweight
materials and are designed to carry as much load as possible
with as little mass as possible. These trusses can be expected
to fail much more quickly when exposed to fire.
Truss construction can be used with almost any type of
roof or floor. Trusses can support flat roofs, pitched roofs,
arched ro o fs, o r ov erhan g ing roo fs . Brig ade memb ers
should assu me that any modern construct ion uses t russ
construct ion fo r the roo f support system unt il p roven
otherwise.
The ind iv idual co mponents o f a light weight t russ used
for roof support are often wood 2' X 4' sections or a combi -
nation of wood and lightweight steel bars or tubes. Because
these components are small, they can be weakened quickly
by a fire. Even mo re crit ical, however, are the points where
the ind ividual co mponents jo in together. These connection
points are o ften th e weakest po rt ion o f the t russ and the
most co mmon point o f failure.
For example, the co mponents of a truss constructed with
2" X 4" wood pieces can be connected by heavy-duty staples
or by gusset plates (connecting p lates made of wood o r
lightweight metal) (►Figure 14-21 ). These connections can
fail qu ickly in a fire. When one connection fails, the truss
loses its ability to support a load.
If only one truss fails, other trusses in the system may be
ab le t o abso rb t he add it ional load. Ho wever, th e overall

(Figure 14-21) Guss et plates can fail in a fire, weak ening the truss.
strength o f the system will be co mpro mised. A fire that
causes one t russ to fail will probab ly weaken add it ional
trusses in the same area. These trusses also can fail, so me-
times as soon as the additional load is transferred. In most
cases, a series o f t russes will fail in rap id succession ,
resulting in a total collapse of the roof. So metimes the weight
of a brigade member walking on the roof will be enough to
trigger a collapse.
Trusses also can be made o f metal, usually ind ividual
steel bars o r ang le sect ions that are welded togeth er.
Light weight steel t russes, kno wn as bar jo ists, often sup -
po rt flat roo fs on co mmercial o r indust rial bu ild ings.
When exposed to the heat of a fire, these metal trusses will
exp and and lose strength . A roof suppo rted by bar jo ists
will p ro bab ly sag b efo re it co llapses , a warn ing t hat
brigade members should heed . The expans ion can st retch
the t russes, wh ich may cause the support ing walls to co l-
lapse sudd en ly . Ho rizont al cracks in the upp er part o f a
wall ind icat e that the st eel roo f suppo rts are push ing
outward.
Roof Designs
Brigade members must be able to identify the types of roofs
and the materials used in their construction. Creating venti -
lation openings may require the use of assorted tools and
techniques, depend ing on the type o f roof decking.
Flat Roof
Fl at roofs can be constructed with many d ifferent support
systems, roof decking systems, and materials. Although they
are classified as flat, most roofs have some slope so water can
flo w to roof drains or scuppers.
Flat roof construction is generally very similar to floor
construction . The roo f st ructure can be supported by solid
Ve ntila tion 421
components, such as beams and rafters (the elements that
support the roof), o r by trusses. The ho rizontal beams or
trusses often run fro m one exterior bearing wall (wall that
supports the weight of a floo r o r roof) to another bearing
wall. In some build ings, the roof is supported by a system of
vertical colu mns and/or interio r bearing walls.
The roof deck is usually constructed of mult iple layers,
beginning with wooden boards, p lywood sheets, or metal
decking. Then co me one or mo re layers o f roofing paper,
insulation, tar and gravel, rubber, gypsum, lightweight con -
crete, or foam plastic. So me roof decks have only a single
layer, such as metal sheets or precast concrete sections.
Flat roofs often have vents, sky lights, scuttles (s mall
openings o r hatches with mov ab le lids ), o r other featu res
that penetrate the roof deck. Removing the covers from these
openings will p rov ide vert ical v ent ilat ion without cuts
through the roof deck.
Flat roo fs also may have parapet walls, freestanding
walls that extend above the normal roofline. A parapet can
be an extension of a firewall, a division wall between two
buildings, or a deco rat ive add it ion to the exterio r wall.
Pitched Roofs
Pitched roofs have a visib le slope fo r rain, ice, and snow
runoff. The p itch o r ang le of the roof usually depends on
both local weather condit ions and the aesthetics of con-
struction. A pitched roo f can be supported either by trusses
or by a system of rafters and beams. The rafters usually run
fro m one bearing wall up to a center ridge pole and back to
another bearing wall.
M ost p itched roo fs h av e a layer o f so lid sh eet ing ,
wh ich can be met al, p ly wo od , o r woo den bo ards. Th is
lay er is often covered by a weather -resist ant memb ran e
and an outer covering such as shing les, slate, o r tiles. So me
pitched roofs have a system of l aths (thin, parallel strips of
wo od ) instead o f so lid sh eet in g to sup po rt the out er
covering.
As with flat roofs, the type of roof construction material
will dictate how to ventilate a p itched roof. Fo r examp le, a
slate o r t ile p itch ed roo f may be open ed by b reaking the
tiles and pushing them through the supporting laths. A t in
roof can be cut and "peeled" back like the lid on a can.
Opening a wooden roof usually requ ires cutting, chopping,
or sawing.
Pitched roofs may have steep or gradual slopes. Roof
ladders should be used to p rovid e a stab le support wh ile
wo rking on a p itch ed roo f. A g round or aerial lad der is
used to access the lower part of the roof; the roof ladder is
placed on the s loping surface and hoo ked over the center
ridge o r roo f p eak.
Arched Roofs
Arched roofs are generally found in co mmercial structures
b ecause th ey creat e larg e o p en sp ans wit ho ut co lu mn s
 VOICES OF
EXPERIENCE
"We noticed that this was "cold smoke" and that there
was no heat whatsoever."

During a very violent thunderstorm, several of us were in the engine room watching a spectacular lightning show
when we observed a brilliant flash and heard a very loud clap of thunder. With that, our tones dropped for a
reported building fire at a recently vacated meat-packing plant.
The address was well known to all of us because we had used the large industrial building as a preplan and drill site
many times in the past. The building was the largest in the district—a one-story 15,000-square-foot structure with
16-foot ceilings that could accommodate many pieces of heavy industrial machinery. We also knew that the company
occupying it had ceased operations as recently as last week.
As we dressed, we heard the report from the first-due police officer. He had observed "a huge volume of smoke" in
the front parking lot of the building and noted that this incident was a "working fire." We responded with two
engines, a rescue unit, and an ambulance; we also sought mutual aid units from two other stations.
Upon our arrival on the A side of the building, I observed a large amount of thick black s moke pouring fro m the
building. At this point, however, we saw no fire. The chief ordered the first engine in through the A side of the
building. My engine was sent to the C side of the building to make entry via the tractor-trailer-sized overhead door
on the loading dock. We positioned the apparatus accordingly and gathered our forcible entry tools. W hen we
opened the overhead door, a huge volume of s moke rushed out from the door. We noticed that this was "cold
smoke" and that there was no heat whatsoever. I reported this fact to the incident commander, and he confirmed that
the interior crews were reporting the same conditions on the A side of the building.
We knew that the only ladder truck on the assignment was coming from another run that had taken place on the
opposite side of the response district. Given that fact, we would have limited ability to vertically ventilate this fire.
Furthermore, owing to the cold smoke conditions, we had no idea where the fire was or what was on fire.
Our engine had a line ready to find the seat of the fire. The IC told us to vent any windows and to open all interior
doors to lighten the smoke. He reported that the first engine was doing the same from the A side. Both crews worked
with limited visibility.
Once the crews had opened the interior and horizontally vented the building, we could see across the rooms inside
the building. Our first-due engine was then able to find the seat of the fire, which was located in an electrical room.
Once the utility company had secured the power supply to the building, we were ab le to control the fire quickly.
If we had not used horizontal ventilation, this fire would have spread and likely destroyed the building. The use of
horizontal ventilation allowed us to locate the seat of the fire and control it rapidly.
The cause of the fire was determined to be a direct lightning strike to a gang of transformers that had formerly
supplied the building. The strike caused the power room to explode owing to the massive overload caused by the
bolt of lightening. In the end, the damage to the building was minor.

Louis N. Molino, Sr.

LNM Emergency Consulting Services (LNMECS)
Bryan, Texas
424 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
(Figure 14-22) An arched roof is commonly used for warehouses, super-
markets, and bowling alleys.
(Figure 14-22), Arched roofs are common in warehouses,
supermarkets, bowling alleys, and similar build ings. Arched
roofs can be supported by trusses or by other types of con -
struction, including large wood, steel, or concrete arches.
Arched roofs are often supported by bo wstring trusses,
which give the roof its d istinctive cu rved shape. Bowstring
trusses are usually const ructed o f wood and spaced 6' to
20' apart . They support a roof deck o f wooden boards or
plywood sheeting and a covering of waterproof memb rane.
Although these roo fs are qu ite dist inct ive when seen fro m
above or outside, they may not be ev ident fro m inside the
build ing b ecause a flat ceiling is attached to the botto m
chords of the trusses. This creates a huge attic space that is
often used fo r storage. A hidden fire within this space can
severely and qu ickly weaken the bo wstring t russes.
The collapse of a bowstring truss roof is usually very sud-
den. A large area may collapse due to the long spans and wide
spaces between trasses. Brigade members should be wary of
any fire involving the truss space in these buildings. Many
mun icipal fire fighters have been killed when a bowstring
trass roof collapsed.
Build ings with th is type of roof construction should be
identified and documented during preincident plann ing sur-
veys. Parap et walls, s mo ke, and other obstruct ions may
make it d ifficu lt to recognize the d istinctive arched shape of
a bowstring t russ roof during an incident.
Vertical Ventilation Techniques
Roof Ventilation
Among the different roof openings that can provide vertical
ventilation are built -in roof openings, inspection openings to
lo cate t he op t imal p lace to vent , p rimary
exp andab le
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
Table 14-1 Types of Vertical-Ventilation
Openings
• Built -in roof openings •
Ins pect ion openings • Primary
(ex pandable) openings • Sec ondary
(def ens ive) openings
openings direct ly over the fire, and defensive secondary
openings to prevent fire spread ( Table 14-1 ).
The objective of any roof ventilation operation is simp le:
to provide the largest opening in the approp riate locat ion,
using the least amount of time and the safest technique.
Before starting any vertical ventilat ion operation, brigade
members must make an in it ial assessment. Construct ion
features and indicat ions of possible fire damage should be
noted, safety zones and exit paths established, and bu ilt -in
roof openings that can be used immediately should be iden -
tified. The brigade member should ensure appropriate auto-
mat ic fire vents are opened, and fire dampers are closed. The
sooner a building is ventilated, the safer it will beco me for
hose teams wo rking inside.
Ventilat ion operations must not be conducted in unsafe
locations. A less efficient opening in a safe location is better
than an opt imal open ing in a locat ion that jeopard izes the
lives of the vent ilat ion team. In so me cases, it may not be
safe to conduct any rooftop operations and brigade members
will have to rely on horizontal ventilat ion techniques.
Vertical ventilat ion is most effective when the opening is
at the h ighest po int, d irect ly over the fire. Info rmat ion on
the fire's locat ion, as well as visib le clues fro m the roof, can
be used to p inpoint the best location to vent. The Incident
Co mmander or the interio r crews may be able to prov ide
some d irect ion, and the vent ilat ion team shou ld loo k fo r
signs such as smo ke issuing through the roof, tar bubbling
up, or other ind icat ions of h eat. If the roof is wet , rising
steam cou ld indicate the hottest area.
Examinat ion ho les can be made to evaluate condit ions
under the roof and to verify the proper location for a venti-
lat ion open ing. A triangu lar examinat ion hole can be cre ated
very quickly by making three small cuts in the roof. A po wer
saw can also be used to make a kerf cut , wh ich is only as
wide as the saw blade. Examinat ion ho les also are used to
determine ho w large an area is involved, whether a fire is
spread ing , and wh ich d irect ion it is mo v ing ( Figure 14-23).
Once the spot directly over the fire is located, the ventilation
team should determine the most appropriate type of opening to
make. Built-in rooftop openings provide readily available
ventilation openings (Figure 14-24). Skylights, rooftop stairway
exit doors, louvers, and ventilators can quickly beco me

( Figure 14-2T) A triangular cut can be used as an examination hole.
(Figure 14-24) Built-in rooft op openings c an often provide vertical vent i-
lation very quickly.
ventilation openings simply by removing a cover or an obstruc-
tion. This also results in less property damage to the building.
If the roof must be cut to provide a ventilat ion opening,
cutting one large ho le is better than making several small
ones. The o rig inal ho le shou ld be rect angu lar and at least 4'
long by 4' wide. If necessary, th is ho le can be expanded b y
co n t in u i n g t h e cu t s t o ma k e a la rg e r o p en in g (►
Figure 14-25). If the crews inside the building report that
smo ke cond it ions are lift ing and temp eratu re levels are
dropping, the vent is effective and probably large enough. If
interior crews do not see a difference, the opening might be
obstructed or need to b e expanded .
Once the roof opening is made, a hole of the same size
should be made in the ceiling material belo w to allo w heat
and smoke to escape from the interior of the building. If the
ceiling is not opened , on ly the h eat and s mo ke fro m the
space between the ceiling and the roof will escape through
V e nti l a ti on
425
Total 16 sq.ft.
Total 32 sq. ft.
(Figure 14-25) A ventilation hole can be quickly expanded by extending
the cuts.
the roof open ing. The b lunt end o f a p ike pole o r hook can
be used to push down as much of the ceiling material as pos -
sible. A roof opening will be much less effective if there is no
ceiling hole or if the ceiling hole is too small.
Tools Us ed in Vertic al Ve ntilat ion
Several tools can be used in roof ventilation. Power saws are
co mmon ly used to cut the vent open ings, but many hand
tools are also used. Axes, Halligan tools, pry bars, tin cutters,
pike poles, and other hooks can be used to remove coverings
fro m existing openings, cut through the roof decking, remove
sections of the roof, and punch holes in the interior ceiling.
The specific tools that will be needed can usually be deter-
mined by looking at the build ing and the roof construction
features.
Vent ilation team memb ers should always carry a stan -
dard set of tools, as well as a utility rope fo r hau ling addi-
tional equip ment if needed. All personnel involved in roof
o perat ions mus t us e b reath ing app aratus and wear fu ll
428 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
protective cloth ing. Ground ladders or an aerial apparatus
can provide access to the roof.
Power saws will effectively cut through most roof cover-
ings. A rotary saw with a wood- o r metal-cutting blade o r a
chain saw can be used. Special carb ide -t ipped saw b lades
can cut through typical roof construction materials. To operate
a power saw, follow the steps in (Skill Drill 14-6 ).
1. The saw should be checked du ring apparatus
inspections.
2. Be sure the cutting device or b lade is appropriate for
the material ant icipated . If it is not, put the correct
blade on before go ing to the roof.
3. Briefly inspect the blade or chain for obvious damage.
4. Ensure that your proper protect ive gear is in place,
includ ing eye protection, SCBA , and fu ll personal
protective equ ip ment.
5. The saw should be started to ensure that it runs prop
erly before go ing to the roof.
6. Stay clear of any moving parts of the saw, use a foot or
knee to anchor the saw to the g round, and pu ll the
starter cord as reco mmended to start the saw.
7. Run the saw briefly at fu ll throttle to verify proper
operation.
8. Shut the saw do wn, wait for the b lade to stop co m
pletely , then carry the saw to the roof.
9. If possible, always work off of a roof ladder or aerial
platform for added safety.
10. Start the saw in an area slightly away fro m where you
intend to cut .
11. Always run a saw at maxi mu m th rott le when cutting.
The saw should be runn ing at fu ll speed before the
blade touches the roof decking. Keep the thrott le fully
open wh ile cutting and remov ing the blade fro m the
cut to reduce the tendency fo r th e b lade to bind .
Types of Roof Cuts
Roof construction is a major consideration in determining the
type of cut to use. So me roofs are thin and easy to cut with an
axe or power saw; others have multiple layers that are difficult
to cut. Familiarity with roof types and the best methods for
opening them will increase your efficiency and effectiveness
in ventilation operat ions.
Rectangular or Square Cut
A 4' X 4' rectangular or square cut is the most common ver-
tical ventilation opening. It requires four cuts comp letely
through the roof decking, using an axe or power saw. When
using a power saw, the brigade member must carefully avoid
cutting through the structural supports. After the four cuts
are co mpleted, a section of the roof deck can be removed.
The brigade member should stand upwind of the opening,
with an unobstructed exit path. The first and last cuts should
be made parallel to and just inside the roof supports. The
brigade member making the cuts must always stand on
P R I N C I P L E S A ND P R A C T I C E
Brigade Member Safely Tips
Always carry and handle tools and equipment in a safe manner. When
carrying tools up a ladder, hold the beam of the ladder instead of the
rungs and run the hand tool up the beam. This tech nique will work for
most hand tools, including ax es, pike poles and hooks, and tin roof
cutters. Hoist tools us ing a rope with an addi tional tagline to keep them
away from the building. Carry pow er saws and equipm ent in a sling
across your back. Always TURN OFF power equipm ent bef ore you carry
it.
a solid portion of the roof. A triangular cut in one corner o f
the planned opening can be used as a starting point for prying
the deck up with a hand too l.
Depending on the roof construction, it may be possible to
lift out the entire section at once. If there are several layers of
roofing material, brigade members may have to peel them off
in layers. The decking could be plywood sheets or individual
boards that have to be removed one at a time. To perform the
rectangular cut, follo w the steps in (►Skill Drill 14-7).
1. Sound the roof with a tool to locate the roof supports.
2. Make the first cut parallel to a roof support. The cut
should be made so that the support will be outside
the area that will be opened. (Step 1)
3. Make a s mall triangular cut at the first corner of the
opening. (Step 2)
4. Follo w with two cuts perpend icu lar to the roo f sup
ports. Do not cut through roof supports. Rock the saw
over them to avo id damag ing the integrity o f the roo f
structure. Then make the final cut parallel to another
roof support. (Step 3)
5. Make the final cut parallel to and slightly inside a roof
support. Be sure to stand on the solid port ion of the
roof when making th is cut.
6. Use a hand tool to pu ll out the co rner t riang le or
push it through to create a small starter hole. (Step 4)
7. If possible, use the hand tool to pu ll the ent ire roo f
section free and flip it over onto the solid roof. It
may be necessary to pull the decking out, one board
at a time.
8. After open ing the roo f deck, use a p ike pole to punch
out ceiling belo w. Th is hole should be the same size
as the opening in the roof decking . Be carefu l for a
sudden updraft of hot gases or flames. (Step 5)
Lo u v er Cu t
Another common cut is the louver cut, wh ich is particu larly
suitable for flat o r slop ing roo fs with p lywood decking.
Using power saws or axes, b rigade members make two
parallel cuts, app ro ximately 4' apart, perpend icu lar to the
roof supports. Then the brigade members make cuts parallel
 Ve ntila ti on
427

Rectangular or Square Cut

Locate the roof supports by sounding, the first cut parallel to Make a triangle cut at the first corner.
the roof support.

Make two cuts perpendicular to the roof supports (3 and 4). Then Pull out or pus h in the triangle cut.
make the final c ut parallel to anot her roof support (5).

Punc h out the ceiling below. Be careful for a sudden updraft of hot gases
or flames.
428 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Louver Cut
Locat e the roof supports by sounding.
Cut parallel to the supports and between pairs of supports in a
rectangular pattern.
to the roof supports, appro ximately half way between each
pair of supports. Using each roof support as a fulcru m, the
cut sections are tilted to create a series of louvered openings.
Louver cuts can quickly create a large opening. Con tinuing
the same cutting pattern in any d irect ion creates addit ional
louver sections. To make a louver cut, follow the steps in (A
Skill Drill 14T).
1. Sound the roof with a tool to locate the roof supports.
(Step 1)
2. Make two parallel cuts, perpend icu lar to the roo f
supports. Do not cut through the roo f supports. Rock
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
Make two parallel cuts perpendicular to the roof supports.
Tilt the panel to a vertical position.
the saw over them to avoid damag ing the integrity o f
the roof structure. (Step 2)
3. Make cuts parallel to the supports and between pairs
of supports in a rectangular pattern. (Step 3)
4. Strike the nearest side of each section of the roofing
material with an axe o r mau l, pushing it down on one
side; use the support at the center of each panel as a
fulcru m. Tilt the panel over the midd le support.
(Step 4)
5. Moving horizontally along the roof, make addit ional
louver openings.

Triangular Cut
Locate the roof supports.
The second cut begins at the same location as the first, and is made in
the opposit e diagonal direction, forming a "V" shape.
6. Open the interior ceiling area belo w the open ing by
using the butt end of a p ike po le. Th is hole should be the
same size as the opening made in the roof decking.
Triangular Cut
The triangular cut works well on metal roof decking because
it prevents the decking fro m rolling away as it is cut. Using
saws or axes, the brigade member removes a triangle-shaped
section of decking. Smaller t riangular cuts can be made
between supports, so that the decking falls into the opening,
or over supports to create a louver effect. Because triangular
Ve ntilati on
429
The first cut is made from just inside a s upport member in a
diagonal direction toward the next support member.
The final cut is made along the support member and connects the
first two cuts. Cutting from this location allows brigade members the
full support of the mem ber directly below them while perform ing
ventilation.
cuts are generally smaller than other types of roof ventilation
openings, several may be needed to create an adequately sized
vent. To make a triangular cut, fo llo w the steps in ( A Skill
Drill 14 -9 ).
1. Locate the roof supports. (Step 1)
2. The first cut is made fro m just inside a support mem
ber in a d iagonal d irect ion to ward the next support
member. (Step 2)
3. The second cut beg ins at the same locat ion as the
first, and is made in the opposite diagonal d irection,
forming a "V" shape. (Step 3)
430 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E

Trench Cut
Make two parallel cuts, 2' to 4' apart, across the entire roof, starting
at the ridge pole (for peaked roofs) or a bearing w all (for flat roofs).
Cut between the two long cuts to make a row of rectangular sections.
Remov e the rectangular panels to open the trench.

fire has not already passed the chosen site before the trench cut is
completed. Crew lives will be in danger and the tactic is useless
if the fire advances beyond the trench before it is opened.
Although trench cuts are effective, they require both time and
personnel. As with all types of vertical ventilation, care ful
4. The final cut is made along the support member and
coordination bet ween the ventilat ion crew and the inte rio r
connects the first two cuts. Cutting fro m this location
attack crew is essential. While the t rench cut is being made,
allo ws brigade members the full support of the structural
hose teams should be dep loyed inside the bu ild ing to defend
member directly below them while performing
the area in front of the cut (T Figure 14-26}. To make a trench
ventilation. (Step 4)
cut, follo w the steps in (A Skill Drill 14-10).
Trench Cut
Trench cut ventilat ion is used to stop fire spread in long
narro w build ings. The trench cut creates a large open ing
ahead of the fire, by removing a section of roof and letting
heated smoke and gases flow out of the building. Essentially,
it is a fireb reak in the roof.
Trench cuts are a defensive ventilat ion tactic to stop the
progress of a large fire, part icu larly one that is advancing
through an attic or cockloft . The Incident Co mmander who
chooses this tact ic is " writ ing o ff part o f the bu ild ing and
identify ing a point where crews will be able to stop the fire.
A trench cut is made fro m one exterior wall across to the
other. It beg ins with two parallel cuts, spaced 2' to 4' apart.
About every 4', b rigade members make short perpendicular
cuts between the two parallel cuts. They can then lift the
roof covering out in sections, co mpletely open ing a section
of the roo f. On a p it ched roof, the trench should run fro m
the peak do wn . On a s lop ing roo f, it shou ld start at the
higher end and work to ward the lower end .
A trench cut is a secondary cut, used to limit the fire
spread, rather than a pri mary cut located over the seat o f
(Figure 14-26) Ventilation and attack teams work together to use a trench
the fire. A p rimary vent should still be made before crews
cut effectiv ely.
start wo rking on the trench cut.
A trench cut must be made far in advance of the fire. The
ventilation crew must be able to complete the cut, and the inte-
rior crew needs time to get into position before the fire passes
the trench. Inspection holes should be made to ensure that the

1. After a p rimary cut has b een made over the seat o f
the fire, the crew cuts a nu mber o f small inspection
holes to ident ify a point sufficiently ahead of the fire
travel.
2. Make t wo parallel cuts, 2' to 4' apart, across the entire
roof, starting at the ridge po le (fo r peaked roofs) o r a
bearing wall (for flat roofs).
3. Cut bet ween the t wo long cuts to make a ro w o f rec
tangular sections.
4. Remove the rectangular panels to open the t rench.
(S tep 1)
Special Considerations
Many obstacles can be encountered during ventilation oper-
ations. Brigade members must be creative and remember the
basic objectives of ventilation—to create high openings as
rap idly as possible so that hose lines can be advanced into
the build ing.
Poor access or obstructions such as fences, or tight expo-
sures can p revent brigade members fro m g ett ing close
enough to place ladders. Many industrial roofs have mult iple
layers; some may even have a new roof built on top of an older
one. W indo w open ings in abandoned bu ildings may be
boarded or sealed.
Steel bars, shutters, and other security features can ham-
per ventilation efforts. A building that requires forcible entry
is also likely to present ventilation challenges.
Ventilating a Co ncrete Roof
So me industrial structures have concrete roofs. Concrete
roofs can be constructed with "poured-in-p lace" concrete,
with precast concrete sections of roof decking p laced on a
steel o r concrete supporting structu re, o r with T-beams.
Concrete roofs are generally flat and difficult to breach. The
roof decking is usually very stable, but fire conditions under-
neath cou ld weaken the support ing structu ral co mponents
or bearing walls, lead ing to failure and co llapse.
There are few options for ventilating concrete roofs. Even
special concrete-cutting saws are generally ineffective. Brigade
members should use alternative ventilation openings such as
vents, skylights, and other roof penetrations or horizontal
ventilation.
Ventilat ing a Me tal Roof
Metal roofs and metal roof decks also present many challenges.
Because metal conducts heat more quickly than other roofing
materials, discoloration and warping may indicate the seat of
the fire. Tin-cutter hand tools can be used to slice through thin
metal coverings; special saw blades may be needed to cut
through metal roof decking. In many cases, the metal is on the
bottom and supports a built-up or co mposite roof covering.
Metal roof decking is often supported by lightweight steel bar
joists, wh ich can sag or collapse when exposed to a fire.
Ve ntila ti on 431
Because the metal decking is lightweight, the supporting
structure may be relat ively weak, with widely spaced bar
joists. The resulting assembly may fail quickly with only lim-
ited fire exposure.
As the fire heats the metal deck, the tar roof covering can
melt and leak through the jo ints into the bu ild ing, where it
can release flammab le vapors. This can quickly spread the fire
over a wide area under the roof decking. Brigade members
should look for ind ications of dripping or melt ing tar, and
begin rap id ventilation to dissipate the flammab le vapors
before they can ignite. Hose streams should be used to cool
the roof decking fro m below to stop the tar from melting and
producing vapors.
When a metal roof deck is cut, the metal can ro ll do wn
and create a dangerous slide direct ly into the opening . The
triangular cut prevents the decking from rolling away as eas -
ily, so it is the preferred option, even though several cuts may
be needed to create an adequately sized vent.
Vent ilat ing a B ase ment
Basement fires are especially difficult to ventilate. Basements
generally have just a few small windows, if they have any at
all. Basement stairways may lead only to the ground floor
interior, with no exterio r exit.
If a basement fire occurs, windows or exterior doorways
into the basement should be opened or broken to provide as
much ventilat ion as possible. If the basement has few o r no
exterio r windows or doors, the interio r stairways and other
vertical open ings will act as ch imneys. Heat, s moke, and
gases will rise up them into the rest o f the structure. In
build ings with balloon-frame construction, a basement fire
can travel through unprotected wall spaces direct ly up to the
underside of the roof.
A comb ination of vert ical and horizontal ventilat ion can
somet imes b e used in attacking a basement fire. A d irect
path is created fro m the basement to the first floor, where the
heat and s mo ke are pushed out through a door o r windo w. A
stairway o r so me other opening can be used for vertical
ventilation, or a hole can be cut in the floor directly over the
fire. The ventilat ion cut in the floor must be large enough to
effectively move the smoke fro m the basement area to the
ground floor.
The open ing fro m th e basement to th e g round floo r
should be near a window or door that can be used for hori-
zontal vent ilat ion. Th is double ventilation must be coord i-
nated to ensure that the smoke and heat ventilated fro m the
basement is exhausted out of the building to avoid excessive
smoke or heat on the floor level above. The heat and smoke
can be exhausted using a hose line (hydraulic ventilation) or a
negative-pressure smoke ejector. A hose line must be ready in
case the fire spreads into the ground floo r.
A basement fire presents problems to brigade members
working in the basement and above it. To attack the fire,
brigade members must enter the basement . Smo ke and hot
432 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

gases mov ing up t he stairway as th e b rig ade memb ers

descend can make entry d ifficu lt o r impossible. Brigade
members operat ing above the fire are in danger if the floor
or stairway collapses.
The preferred method of attacking a basement fire is to
create as many ventilat ion openings as possible on one side
of the basement. This draws the heat and smoke in that direc-
tion. Brigade members can then enter the basement fro m the
opposite side, along with clean air. The direction of the attack
must be d etermin ed and the ent ry and vent ilat ion po ints
must be clearly identified befo re this operation beg ins.
Vent ilat ion open ings in basement fires help push heat
and smoke away fro m the attacking brigade members. As the
products of co mbustion rise, brigade members can so me-
times crawl ben eath them to reach the b asement . Because
the basement floor is usually much cooler than the stairway,
(Figure 14-27) Structures wit hout windows pose significant problems in
brigad e memb ers can att ack the fire wh ile the heat and
ventilation.
smoke exit over their heads. Ho wever, if the entrance stair-
way is the only ventilat ion opening, when the water h its the
fire, the steam that is produced will push the heat and smoke
back toward the attack team. A ventilat ion opening through probab ly requ ire mechan ical assistance. Us ing exist ing
the floor into the basement prov ides a second exit for the rooftop open ings, cutt ing openings in the roo f, reopen ing
products of co mbustion. boarded -up windo ws o r doo rs, and making new open ings
in exterior walls are all possible ways to ventilate window -
Ventilating Windowless Buildings less structures.
M an y in d u s t r ia l s t ru ct u res d o n o t h av e w in d o ws
(► Figure 14-27). Some buildings are designed without win- Ventilating Large Buildings
dows; others have bricked -up or covered windows. These Prov id ing adequate vent ilat ion is mo re difficu lt in large
build ings pose two s ign ificant risks to b rigade members: build ings than in s maller ones. A vent ilat ion ho le in the
Heat and products of combustion are trapped, and brigade wrong locat ion can d raw the fire to ward th e open ing ,
members have no secondary exit route. spreading the fire to an area that had not been involved. Th is
Windowless build ings are similar to basements. Any undersco res the impo rtan ce o f coo rd inat ing v ent ilat ion
v en t ilat ion will n eed to be as h igh as poss ib le and will operations with the overall fire attack strategy.

Smoke will cool as it travels into unaffected portions of a
large build ing. A sprinkler suppression system will also cool
the smoke, causing it to stratify. As the cold smoke fills the
area, it beco mes more difficu lt to clear.
If possib le, b rigade members should use interio r walls
and doors to create several s maller co mpart ments in the
build ing. This can limit the spread of heat and s mo ke. The
smaller areas can be cleared one at a t ime with
positive-p ressure fans. Several fans can be used in a series
or in parallel to clear s moke fro m a large area.
Backdraft and Flashover Considerations
Ventilation is a major consideration in two significant
fire-ground phenomena: backdraft and flashover. Both can be
deadly situations, and brigade members should exercise great
caution when condit ions indicate that either is possible.
Backdraft
A backdraft can occur when a building is charged with hot
gases, and most of the available o xygen has been consumed.
There may be few flames, but the hot gases contain rich
amounts of unburned or partially burned fuel. If clean air is
introduced to the mi xtu re, the fuel can ign ite and exp lode.
To reduce th e d anger, b rigade members must release as
mu ch heat and unburned products of co mbustion as possi-
ble, without allowing clean air to enter.
Ve ntilati on 433
A ventilat ion open ing as h igh as possible with in the
build ing o r area can help to eliminate potential backd raft
condit ions . A roo f open ing will d raw the hot mi xtu re up
and relieve the interior p ressure. As the mixtu re rises into
the open atmosphere, it may ign ite. The ventilat ion crew
should have a charged line ready to protect themselves and
nearby exposures.
The attack crews should charge their hose lines outside
the build ing. They should not force ent ry or begin to app ly
water until the structure is ventilated. Once they see flaming
co mbustion inside the structu re, they can open their hose
streams to coo l the interio r at mosphere as qu ickly as
possible.
Flashover
Both vent ilat ion and coo ling are needed to reliev e poten tial
flashover cond it ions. Flashover can occu r when the air in a
roo m is very hot , and exposed co mbust ib les in th e space
are n ear their ign it ion p o int . Ap p ly ing wat er will coo l th e
upper at mosphere, wh ile v ent ilat ion d raws the heat ed
smo ke and gases out o f th e space. Vent ilat ion op en ings
should be p laced to draw the heat and flames away fro m
the hose crew. Simu ltaneously, the water stream s h ou ld b e
us ed t o push t he p rod ucts o f co mb us t ion to ward th e
op en ing . A lthoug h flame cond it io ns may intensify
briefly , the heat will be d irect ed away fro m th e hose crew.
Ventilation is a proc ess that helps rem ove heat, s mok e, and
tox ic gas es f rom a burning building.
Ventilation is a c ritic al c om ponent of fire attac k and m ust
be c oordinated wit h the adv anc em ent of att ack hos e lines.
Ventilation saves lives and enhanc es brigade m em ber
safety.
Horiz ontal ventilat ion utiliz es t he doors and w indows on
the s ame lev el as the fire.
Vertic al v entilation involv es openings in roof s or f loors.
Brigade m em bers should know and rec ogniz e the w arning
signs of flas hover and back draft.
Brigade mem bers should be able to rec ognize differenc es
in building c onst ruction t hat will enhanc e or inhibit venti -
lation eff orts.
Brigade m embers should be able to identify the haz ards
ass ociat ed wit h v entilat ion operat ions.
Brigade m em bers should be able to identify w hen v ent ila tion
is necessary and w hen it may be an unacc eptable ris k.
Brigade mem bers s hould underst and nat ural and m ec hani-
cal v entilation techniques and when each should be us ed.
Arc he d r o of A rounded roof us ually as s oc iat ed w it h a
bow -truss.
Back draft T he s udden ex plos iv e ignition of fire gas es w hen
oxy gen is introduc ed int o a superheated s pac e previously
depriv ed of oxy gen.
Balloon-frame construction An older type of wood
fram e c onstruction in w hich t he w all st uds extend v ertically
from the basem ent of a structure to the roof wit hout any fire
stops.
Bear in g wa ll A w all t hat is designed t o s upport t he w eight of
a floor or roof.
Chase Open s pac e w it hin w alls f or wires and pipes .
Ch ur ni ng R ecirc ulat ion of ex haust ed air t hat is draw n back
int o a negativ e-press ure f an in a circ ular m otion.
Cockl oft T he c onc ealed s pac e bet w een t he t op f loor c eiling
and t he roof of a building.
C onv ectio n H eat t ransf er by c irc ulat ion w it hin a m edium
suc h as a gas or a liquid.
Ejectors Electric al f ans us ed in negat iv e-press ure v entilation.
Fire-resistive construction Buildings that have struc-
tural c om ponent s of nonc om bust ible m at erials w it h a s peci fied
fire res ist anc e. M at erials c an inc lude concret e, st eel beams,
and m as onry block w alls. Ty pe I building c onst ruc tion, as
defined in N F PA 220, Ty pes of Building C onstructi on.
Flas hove r T he c ondit ion w here all c om bustibles in a room or
confined spac e hav e been heated to t he point at w hic h they
releas e v apors t hat will s upport c om bustion, c aus ing all
com bustibles t o ignite simult aneous ly.
Flat r oofs H oriz ont al roofs oft en f ound on c om m erc ial or
industrial oc cupancies.
Guss et pl ates T he c onnec ting plat e m ade of w ood or
light w eight m et al used in t russ es.
H o ri z o n ta l v e nt il ati o n T h e proc es s of m ak ing op en ings
so that sm ok e, heat, and gases c an es cape hor izont ally f rom a
building t hrough openings s uc h as doors and window s.
H y dr a uli c ve nti lat i o n Vent ilat ion t hat relies upon t he
m ov em ent of air caus ed by a f og stream.
Kerf c ut A c ut t hat is only t he w idt h and dept h of t he s aw Pro du ct s of co m b ustio n Heat , s m o k e, an d t o xic
blade. It is us ed to m ak e ins pect ion holes. gases.
Laths T hin st rips of w ood us ed t o m ak e t he s upporting Rafters Solid st ruct ural c om ponents t hat s upport a roof.
struct ure f or roof tiles. Ro of c overi ng T he m at erial or ass em bly t hat m ak es up t he
Lea p-fro g gi ng A f ire s pread f rom one floor t o t he ot her weat her-resist ant surface of a roof.
through ext erior windows (aut o-ex pos ure). R oof decki n g T he rigid c om ponent of a roof c ov ering.
Lo uver c ut A c ut t hat is m ade us ing pow er s aws and ax es t o Seat of t he f ir e T he m ai n area of t he f ire.
cut along and betw een roof s upports s o t hat the s ections
Sec ondary cut An addit ional v ent ilation opening t o c reat e a
creat ed can be tilted int o the opening.
larger opening, or to limit f ire s pread.
M ec h a nic al ve nt il ati o n V ent ilat ion t hat us es m ec ha ni -
S mok e i nve rsi o n Sm ok e hanging low t o t he ground d ue t o
cal dev ices to m ov e air.
the c old air.
M us h r oo mi n g T he proc es s t hat occ urs w hen rising
So un di n g T he proc es s of st rik ing a roof wit h a t ool t o
sm oke, heat, and gas es enc ount er a horiz ont al barrier suc h as a
determine if t he roof is s olid enough to s upport t he w eight of a
ceiling and begin t o m ov e out and bac k dow n.
brigade m em ber.
N at ur al ve nt il ati o n Ve nt ilat ion t hat relies upon t he
Tre nch cut A c ut t hat is m ade f rom bearing w all t o bearing
natural m ov em ent of heat ed s m ok e and wind c urrents.
w all t o prev ent horiz ont al fire s pread in a building.
Negative-pressure ventilation Ventilation that relies
Tri an g ula r c ut A t riangle -s haped v entilat ion c ut in t he
upon elect ric f ans to pull or draw the air f rom a struct ure or
roof dec king that is m ade using saws or ax es.
area.
Or d i n ar y c o nst r u cti o n B uildi ngs w h ere t he ex t erior Tr uss A c ollect ion of lightw eight st ruct ural c om ponents
joined in a triangular c onfiguration that c an be us ed t o s upport
w alls are nonc om bust ible or limit ed -c om bustible, but t he
eit her floors or roofs.
int erior floors and w alls are m ade of com bustible mat erials. Als o
know n as Ty pe III building c onstruct ion, as defined in N F PA Ventilati o n T he proc ess of rem oving s m ok e, heat , and toxic
220, T ypes of Building C onstruction. gas es from a burning struct ure and replacing them wit h clean air.
Para pet wa lls W alls on a f lat roof t hat ext end abov e t he Vert ica l v e ntil ati o n T he proc es s of m ak ing openin gs s o
roof line. that t he sm ok e, heat, and gases c an esc ape v ertic ally from a
Pitc he d r oof A roof w it h sloping or inc lined s urf ac es. struct ure.
Wood-frame construction Buildings with exterior
Platform-frame techniques Subflooring is laid on the
w alls, int erior walls, floors, and roof m ade of com bustible
joists, and t he fram e f or t he f irst f loor w alls is erect ed on t he
wood m at erial. Ty pe V building construction, as defined in
first floor.
NF PA 220, Ty pes of Building C onstruction.
Positive-pressure ventilation Ventilation that relies
upon f ans t o pus h or f orc e c lean air int o a struct ure.
Pri mary c ut T he m ain v entilat ion opening m ade in a roof to
allow s m ok e, heat, and gas es to esc ape.
 The plant fire brigade arrives at the scene of a working fire in the second story of a very
large, mixed-use building that includes both warehouse and office areas. The first-due
responders discover very heavy smoke in an office being used to store large quantities of
documents and files. The brigade members quickly extend an attack line to the second floor
and are ready to begin operations to control the fire. The officer in charge immediately
orders ventilation operations to be initiated to facilitate fire attack operations.

1. The pref ire plan indic ates t hat the room of fire origin has tw o
large windows. T he roof of t he building above t he room of
fire origin is a m et al trus s c onstruction wit h tw o t o three
lay ers of roofing mat erials. W hat would be the quick est
met hod to initiate effectiv e v entilation operations ?
A. Send a crew to t he roof to init iat e vertic al v ent ilat ion
on the opposit e end of t he roof from the room of fire
origin.
B. Initiate negativ e-press ure v entilation operations on the
first f loor of t he building.
C. Initiat e hydraulic v entilation at the doorw ay of the first-
floor entranc e door.
D. Plac e a ladder on the side of the building and break
the w indows of t he room of fire origin.
2. The attack t eam m ak es a very quic k knock of the fire, but
heavy s m ok e low ers t he v isibilit y wit hin t he room of fire
origin to near zero. W hat c an the att ack team do to initiat e
additional ventilat ion operations ?
A. Conduct hydraulic v entilation operations by plac ing a
narrow fog st ream through t he window and allowing it
to c arry the s m ok e and heat out of the room of fire
origin.
B. Conduct hydraulic v entilation operations by plac ing a
straight stream t hrough the door of t he room of f ire
origin, t hereby allowing f resh air from the w indows to
m ov e int o the room of fire origin.
C. Use a pike pole to pull the c eiling and vent s mok e and
heat int o the attic area.
D. Request a ladder truck t o plac e fans outs ide the w in
dow s of t he room of fire origin.