CONDUCTING

CLASSROOM-BASED
ACTION RESEARCH

NAOMIE BAGUINAT-DAGUINOTAS
Lecturer
Action Research
is a method for
addressing school
problems
Action Research has main
purposes

1. to seek solutions to ongoing

problems;
2. to improve the teaching and
learning processes
Characteristics of Action
Research
 It is all about the teacher’s own practice
 It can solve a problem or institute a
change.
 It can be used to document teacher
professional growth.
Social Science vs Action Research
What is the How do I influence the
relationship between quality of teachers’
teacher motivation experience in school
and teacher retention? so that they decide to
stay?
Does management How do I improve my
style influence worker management style to
productivity? encourage
productivity?
Will a different seating How do I encourage
arrangement increase greater audience
audience participation through
participation? trying out different
seating arrangements?
Approaches to Action
Research
1. individual teacher research
2. Collaborative action
research
3. School-wide action research
Examples of school problems affecting
teaching–learning process

Low students participation in class

activities
Irregular attendance/tardiness in classes
Negative attitude towards math & science
Low motivation to perform their best in
tests
Non- accomplishment of
assignment/projects
Reliability and Validity of Data
A. Several methods of data collection
should be employed for the same
purpose.

- refers to the use of multiple

approaches called triangulation
TRIANGULATION
getting perspectives from
•Multiple methods (observation,
interview and survey)
•Multiple instruments (structured
questionnaire, interview questions,
test)
WE WILL BE USING THIS

MODEL SO BE
ATTENTIVE AND LEARN
THE PROCESSES
UNDER IT
AR MODEL (Susman, 1983)

1. Diagnosing
2. Action planning
3. Taking action
4. Evaluating
5. Specifying learning
Conceptual framework of action research
in education (Tamayo et al., 2014)
• Diagnosing (identifying/defining a problem)
• Action planning (considering alternative
courses of action)
• Taking action (selecting a course of action)
• Evaluating (studying the consequences of an
action)
• Specifying learning (identifying general
findings
 Identifying or
defining a problem

Identifying general
findings
STEP 1 - Diagnosing

1. Gap Analysis
2. Critical Thinking Tool
3. Problem Tree
4. Opportunity Tree
Gap Analysis

1. What should be
2. What is the actual
3. What is the gap
 INTRODUCTION: Diagnosing…
Gap Analysis
What should be? What is actual? What is the gap?
All 35 students must be Only 25 students are 10 students are non-
readers readers readers
All 35 students must be Only 30 students are 5 students are irregular in
present regularly regular in attendance attendance
All 35 students must All 29 students submit 6 students do not submit
submit assignments assignments assignments
 Introduction
Diagnosing … writing process

• Gap analysis: Narrate how the gap analysis

(assessment of current practices,
performance, behavior or situation based on
standards) was conducted
• What should be? What is actual? What is the
gap?
• Cite pieces of evidence
 As an Education Program Supervisor I in-charge of English for seven years, the
researcher has encountered a number of recurring problems that need utmost attention. Based
on gathered data, eight out of nine secondary schools have below 75% proficiency in English in
the National Achievement Test (NAT). The goal of the Every Child a Reader Program (ECARP) by
the Department of Education has not been fully accomplished in the Division of Angeles City as
shown by the 679 pupils from Grades Ill to VI who are still classified as non-readers based on the
2013 Philippine Informal Reading Inventory (Phil-IRI) Pre-Test Results. The fact that 23 out of 53
schools do not borrow books from the Division Library Hub based on schedule seems to be the
reason for the need to inculcate a culture of reading among our elementary pupils. Meanwhile,
about 44% of Grade 7 learners do not yet exhibit oral and written proficiency in English.
As far as teachers are concerned, the researcher has found out during her school visits
and classroom observations that about 50% of English teachers observed are not adept in using
multimedia instruction and interactive learning in their classrooms. Moreover, five out of seven
Master Teachers in English do not conduct action research at least once a year which is part of
their performance rating. On the part of Kinder teachers, 50 out of 95 use textbooks per subject
area instead of following the National Kindergarten Curriculum Guide.
In terms of learners' materials, problems have cropped up with the implementation of
the K to 12 Enhanced Basic Education Curriculum in 2012. All Grade 7 teachers and students do
not have copies of Teaching Guides and Learners' Materials in English for the second semester
while all Grade Il pupils do not have copies of Learners' Materials in all subject areas. In
connection with the implementation of the K to 12 curriculum, 11 out of 43 schools do not follow
DepEd guidelines in organizing their Mother Tongue classes.
Critical Thinking Tool
Which among the gaps is the
most

1. relevant
2. important
3. urgent
4. doable
 INTRODUCTION: Diagnosing…
Critical thinking tool
Gaps I U R D T R
10 students are non-readers 5 5 5 3 18 2
5 students are irregular in attendance 5 5 5 4 19 1
6 students do not submit assignments 5 5 5 2 17 3
 Introduction
Diagnosing … writing process
• Critical thinking tool …
• Rank: What is relevant? What is important?
What is urgent? What is doable?
• Narrate how the most RIUD among the gaps
was determined
• Cite pieces of evidence/reasons to support the
decision
 Among the ten problems specified via the gap analysis,
the researcher considers the 679 pupils from Grades Ill to VI who
are still non-readers as the gap that is the most important, the
most urgent, the most relevant and the most doable. Reading,
which involves comprehension, is a very essential tool and skill
that is crucial to a learners' academic achievement. As such, for a
learner to understand key concepts in different subjects, he/she
must be a good reader. It will be very easy for him/her to follow
directions, draw conclusions, note details, make inferences,
predict outcomes and sequence events. Therefore, if 679 pupils
from Grades Ill to VI are still non-readers, they will not be able to
perform all aforementioned skills, and this will automatically
result to poor academic achievement and performance.
Immediate actions must be taken to help these non-readers
before the end of the school year.
Problem Tree

1. immediate causes
2. underlying causes
3. root causes
C 5 students are irregular in attendance

Financial Health Mental

IC instabilit condition
y
issues

tiredness Lack of Low

Unemplo Abrupt
leading to stress attention
UC yed Economic
fatigue
motivation
span
inflation
parents

incomp job poor family no poor

issues,
etence disparit nutritio dysfunctio parenta teachin
RC y, price l g
n nal family
hike support method
s
 Introduction
Diagnosing … writing process
• Problem Tree: identification of the causes of
the problem; evidence-based
• Identify the immediate, underlying and root
cause/s of the most relevant, important,
urgent, doable gap
• Narrate the process on how IUR causes were
identified
• Cite pieces of evidence
 In order to generate effective solutions for the problem associated with 679 non-
readers in English, the immediate causes, underlying causes and root causes of the said gap
were analyzed using the problem tree. The immediate causes of the existence of 679 non-
readers among Grades Ill to VI pupils are pupils' poor comprehension, pupils' weak home
background and "traditional" Reading teachers. Attributed to poor comprehension are the
pupils' lack of focus/ concentration and poor word recognition/vocabulary. The root cause
for the inability to sustain focus/concentration on the part of the pupils is poor nutrition.
According to a study by the American School Health Association (ASHA, 2021), "giving kids a
healthy breakfast plays an especially important role for their nutritional well-being. Without
a boost at the start of their day, young brains cannot function well“ (DOH, 2021). Moreover,
chronically malnourished children struggle to read and write simple sentences regardless of
their level of schooling, according to research by Save the Children.
Meanwhile, the root cause for poor word recognition/vocabulary is the pupils'
lack of word attack skills. Word attack skills are important so that pupils can "make sense of
an unknown word in the context of reading. Word attack skills rely on the ability to
recognize the sounds that make up words and to put those sounds together. More
advanced word attack skills involve using context, prefixes or suffixes or a dictionary to
determine what a word means (Baguio, 2020).
Another immediate cause of the existence of non-readers is the weak home
background of the pupils. This is brought about by the absence of a culture of reading at
home because of illiterate or busy parents, as well as the dearth of reading materials at
home due to the family's poverty. Akindele (2011) asserts that "reading culture and
parental involvement in the development of children in their formative years are the most
crucial factors which form the foundation for the child's education".
Opportunity Tree

Reverse the Problem Tree

- From the problem to
immediate causes, to
underlying causes, to root
causes
- Replace negative statements
to positive statements
C

IS

US

RS
 Introduction
Diagnosing … writing process
• Opportunity tree: identification of the
possible solutions
• Identify possible solutions of immediate,
underlying and root cause/s of the most
relevant, important, urgent, doable gap
• Narrate how possible solutions were identified
• Cite related study to support the proposed
probable solutions
 Using the opportunity tree, the researcher came up with possible solutions to
the immediate, underlying and root causes of the existence of 679 non-readers in English
from Grades Ill to VI in the division. Pupils must be given proper nutrition, that is, food rich
in nutrients, so that they will have good focus and concentration inside the classroom which
will result to good comprehension when they read different types of texts. Pupils must also
have knowledge in word attack skills in order to be good in word recognition/vocabulary
which is instrumental in having good comprehension. As far as the weak home background
of pupils is concerned, there is a need to have literate/supportive/concerned parents so
that a reading culture will be cultivated inside the home. Research published in the British
Journal of Educational Psychology shows that the involvement of fathers and mothers in
creating a reading culture at home has a direct impact on a child's academic performance,
cognitive and social development. Parents must also have sustainable jobs in order to be
able to purchase appropriate reading materials that will develop love for reading among
their children.
Meanwhile, "traditional" Reading teachers must have adequate knowledge of
remedial reading strategies and materials that they can use to come up with a school
reading program to address the needs of the non- readers. These teachers must also be
armed with commitment in adopting innovative strategies in teaching reading so that
reading will be an activity that pupils will be looking forward to every school day.
STEP 2 – Action Planning-
Considering alternative
courses of action
Choosing the best possible solution
or strategy

1. Identification of a problem (CTT)

2. identification of decision criteria
(what’s important/relevant in
resolving the problem
3. Allocation of weights to the criteria
(most important = 6)

4. Development of alternatives (root

solutions identified in OT)

5. Analysis of alternatives – evaluate each

alternative by using the decision criteria in
S2; give scores, multiply with the assigned
weights, total for each alternative=WC,
rank
6. Selection of an alternative (generated
the highest total in S5)

7. Implementation of an alternative –
putting decision into action

8. Decision effectiveness – find out if the

problem has been resolved or remedied
Decision Criteria

C6 - Manageability of data
C5 - Speed of implementation
C4 - Within the span/jurisdiction
of the researcher
C3 - Cost-efficiency
C2 - Likelihood for success
C1 - Potential impact
 Decision making model
Alternatives (root solutions) C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 T R
teachers effectiveness in delivering 5x6 5x5 55 1
instruction 5 =30 =25
strong support system by the 4x2 4x
parents 4
healthy lifestyle among students 3 3x6

financial stability among parents 2 2x1

good mental condition/mental 1x1

stability 1

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1nV_lOwcAltRQS2xrK7OxHiwC1Sq5R9WJ2xe3t03LNC0/edit?usp=sharing
 action planning … writing process

• Choosing the best possible solution/strategy

(decision making model)
• Statement of the problem
• Formulation of essential research questions
• Formulation of hypothesis
• Statement of the purpose and significance of the
study
• Specify the scope and limitation
 action planning … writing process

• Which of root solutions is the best strategy that

can be done to address the gap?
• What is the problem of the study?
• … questions to be investigated?
• … hypothesis?
• … purpose? Who will benefit ?
• Who are included/not included in the study?
 In order to identify the best possible solution to the 679 non-readers in English from Grades Ill
to VI, the researcher used a decision matrix. First, she looked into the six possible solutions and generated
decision criteria consisting of six items: manageability of data, speed of implementation, within the
span/jurisdiction of the researcher, cost-efficiency, likelihood for success and potential impact. Second, she
assigned weights to the criteria. Since availability of data would be very important in order to come up
with the appropriate intervention for the problem, manageability of data was given the most weight (6). A
weight of five (5) was assigned to speed of implementation because the identified problem would demand
an immediate solution. Otherwise, if the perceived solution would take a longer period of time to
implement, it would have residual effects that would eventually be very difficult to address. The solution
must also be within the control or span/ jurisdiction of the researcher. Thus, this criterion was given a
weight of four (4). The solution must also have the quality of being effective witkout wasting time or effort
or expense. As such, cost-efficiency was assigned a weight of three (3). The fifth item emphasized that the
solution had extensive usefulness and would not be liable to various problems. Therefore, likelihood for
success was given a weight of two (2). The last item, potential impact, which meant that the solution
would likely result to changes on organizational activities or outputs, was assigned the weight of one (1).
Third, with the decision criteria in place, the researcher assigned points to the six solutions
culled from the opportunity tree by using her experience as a reading teacher. Hence, the solutions, based
on their degree of importance, were as follows: adequate knowledge of teachers on remedial reading
strategies and materials, knowledge of word attack skills on the part of the pupils, teachers' commitment
in adopting innovative strategies in teaching reading, proper nutrition, literate/concerned/supportive
parents and sustainable job of parents. Fourth, after careful perusal, the researcher objectively assigned
points to each solution using the weights of each criterion as reference. Then, the points were multiplied
with the assigned points for each solution. Lastly, after getting the total per solution, data revealed that
adequate knowledge of teachers on remedial reading strategies and materials would be the best solution
from which the researcher could derive the appropriate intervention to reduce or minimize the number of
non- readers in English from Grades III to VI.
Get ready to

1. State your action research title

2. Formulate your three research
questions
3. Formulate your alternative and
null hypotheses
4. Significance of your study to
teachers, pupils/students, school
heads, and the other DepEd officials

5. Scope and delimitation of the study

Statement of the Problem

Teachers are always considered as crucial factors in the attainment of learning

outcomes in the classroom. As such, if some pupils perform below par in specific areas such
as reading, they still rely on the expertise of their teachers to help them.

This study aims to present the effectiveness of teachers' adequate knowledge

and utilization of remedial reading strategies on the number of non-readers in English.

Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What are the remedial reading strategies used by teachers to decrease their
non-readers in English?
2. How can teachers' knowledge of remedial reading strategies be described in
terms of:
2.1. Level of proficiency;
2.2. Frequency of use; and
2.3. Utilization of appropriate remedial reading materials?
3. What is the effectiveness of teachers' adequate knowledge and utilization of remedial
reading strategies on the number of non-readers in English?
Purpose and Significance of the Study

This action research aims to present the effectiveness of teachers' adequate

knowledge and utilization of remedial reading strategies on the number of non-readers in
English. As such, the following will benefit from the study:
English Teachers. They will be made aware that an adequate knowledge of a
variety of remedial reading strategies will be a significant factor in addressing the problem
of non-readers in their respective classes. They will also realize that remedial reading
strategies should be partnered with appropriate instructional materials to ensure optimum
results.
Pupils. They will be the ultimate beneficiaries especially those who are
experiencing reading difficulties. They will be given remedial strategies and instructional
materials that match their reading deficiencies.
School Heads. They can use the results of this study to craft a school reading
program that will address pupils who are diagnosed as non-readers. They will also
eventually realize the importance of providing motivation and support to teachers who take
charge of remedial reading classes.
Researcher. She will be able to find out the effectiveness of teachers' adequate
knowledge and utilization of remedial reading strategies to the number of non-readers in
English. Then, she can devise annual training programs focused on remedial reading that
will benefit both teachers and pupils.
Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This study will cover the teachers of Grades Ill to VI pupils who are diagnosed as
non-readers based on the PHIL-IRI Pre-Test Results for School Year 2014-2015. These
teachers and pupils are from the different public elementary schools in the Division of
Angeles City.
Meanwhile, the fourteen remedial reading strategies that are included in this
study are selected from an array of strategies based on their appropriateness to the reading
levels of Grades ill to VI pupils.
STEP 3 – Taking Action
Selecting a course of
action
Selecting a course of action
includes
1. Selecting a research design
2. Planning the methodology
3. Writing the action plan
4. Planning and preparing the
monitoring and evaluation
scheme
5. Implementing the plan
Action Plan preparation
1. List down all the activities that will
answer the three research questions
2. Arrange the activities
chronologically
3. Transfer activities in the action plan
template
4. Determine objectives, persons
involved, time frame, resources
needed, expected output and
statistical tools
Action Plan Template
1. Objective/target
2. activities/tasks/steps
3. Persons involved
4. Time frame
5. Resources needed
6. Expected output
7. Statistical tools/Data Analysis
 Guide questions
• What is the plan?
• Objectives?
• Steps that will be undertaken?
• How are data collected?
• How will data be statistically treated?
The Action Plan
Template completes
the Action Research
Proposal
WORKSHOP 2
Action Plan
Template making
 ACTION PLAN TEMPLATE
Monitoring and Evaluation Template
Strategy: (the best alternative becomes the strategy)

Objectives Activities/ Persons Time Resources Expected Statistical

/Targets Tasks/Ste Involved Frame Needed Outputs Tools to
ps be used
 GANTT CHART
ACTIVITIES W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9
Strategy:
Obtain age and(the
genderbest
data alternative becomes the strategy)
Design a TOS
make a test question
Subject to reliability and
validity
Finalize the questionnaire
Administer
 Method and Design (writing
process)
• State and define the research design and
methodology including the statistical
tools/treatment that will be used in the study
• Describe the plan of action
• List down chronologically the activities to be
undertaken
• Identify the persons involved, time frame, etc
Methods and Design

The Every Child a Reader Program (ECARP) is an initiative to directly address the thrust
of the Department of Education to make every Filipino child a reader by the third year of
schooling. Its goal is to enable elementary grade pupils to communicate and access a variety of
information in oral and written forms through effective reading instruction.
However, Phil-IRI results showed that there are still 679 pupils from Grades Il-Vi who
are classified as non-readers in the division. Based on analysis, one significant way to address this
problem is to equip English teachers with adequate knowledge of remedial reading strategies.
To systematize the procedure, the researcher, in her capacity as Education Program
Supervisor in English, will schedule the administration of the Phil-/RI Pre Test and the submission
of results to the Division Office so that she can specify the number of non-readers per grade
level and per school. Then, a survey form will be prepared, validated (by experts and Grade I
Teachers) and finalized. The accomplished survey form will provide the researcher with an
inventory or list of remedial reading strategies used by teachers to decrease non-readers in
English. A questionnaire will also be prepared, validated and finalized to describe teachers'
knowledge of remedial reading strategies in terms of level of proficiency (Below Basic, Basic,
Proficient, Highly Proficient), frequency of use (Never, Sometimes, Often, Always) and utilization
of appropriate remedial reading materials.
 After tallying and interpreting the results by using frequency and mean, the researcher
will hold a meeting with the elementary school heads in order to orient them about the title,
coverage, objectives and significance of the study to the division's thrust to decrease the number
of non-readers in English.
In order to arm English teachers with adequate remedial reading strategies to help
them address the needs of their non-readers, a training will be conducted. At the end of the
training, they will be required to submit an Action Plan on Remedial Reading for their respective
schools. The said Action Plan will be the basis of the researcher during her observation on the
conduct of remedial reading in elementary schools. She will also conduct on- the spot reading
test to randomly selected pupils (Grades Il-Vi) as her way of validating the Phil-IRI Pre Test
Results. After the administration of the Phil-IRI Post Test, the researcher will prepare a Division
Reading Profile which will show whether there is a decrease, in the lumber of non-readers after
English strategies. Teachers have been equipped with adequate knowledge of remedial reading
strategies.
Thus, this study will use the descriptive method and t-test of correlated samples, at
0.5 level of significance, in order to evaluate the effectiveness of teachers' adequate knowledge
and utilization of remedial reading strategies in reducing the number of non-readers.
STEP 4 – Evaluating
Studying the
consequences of an
action
Analyze and evaluate the data
to derive the results of the
implementation of action
 Results
Evaluating- studying the consequences of
an action

• Results
• Observation; Analysis and evaluation of data
• What are the results after implementing the
action plan?
• How can the essential RQs be answered?
Monitoring and Evaluation Template

1. Target
2. Actual Output
3. % Accomplishment
4. Remarks
 Monitoring and Evaluation Template

Strategy: ______________

Target Actual Output % Accomplishment Remarks

Present the answers to the research
questions

Research Question No. 1

1. What are the remedial reading

strategies used by teachers t reduce
their non-readers in English?

Answer: (based on the survey, what did

you find out)
Present the answers to the research
questions

Research Question No. 2

2. How can teachers’ knowledge of

remedial reading strategies be described
in terms of: -

Answer: (based on the survey, what did

you find out)
Present the answers to the research questions

Research Question No. 3

3. What is the effectiveness of teachers’ adequate

knowledge and utilization of remedial reading strategies
in the reduction of the number of non-readers in
English?

Answer: (what did you get from the statistical analysis

and treatment that you applied on the data gathered)
Chapter IV is the Conclusion. A research
proposal for obvious reasons has no
conclusions. Conclusions are written by
doing Step 5

- Written by doing Step 5 which consists

of identifying general findings
 Conclusion
Specifying learning – identifying the
general findings

• Formulation of conclusions and

recommendations
• How can the findings and conclusions be
meaningful and relevant to you?
STEP 5 – Specifying Learning –
Identifying the General Findings

Formulate your conclusion based on these

findings.

State the impact of your result on the

improvement of the teaching-learning
process, performance targets or indicators
and current educational practices.
 Methodological approach to the
conceptual framework
Parts of an action Action research model (Susman, 1983; Parts of a Parts of a
research (Fraenkel & Tamayo et al., 2014) research research
Wallen, 2010) proposal report

√ √
Introduction Diagnosing
√ √
Action planning
√ √
Method and Taking action
Design
√
Results Evaluating
√
Conclusion Specifying learning
POINTS TO
REMEMBER
1. Spell-out names used for the first
time
2. Spell out stand-alone unit of
measurement
3. Spell-out any number used as first
element
4. Use word equivalents for 0-9,
numerals for 10+
5. No full point for abbrev. titles
6. Complete scientific names of species
in first mention
7. Use gender-sensitive language
8. Use English equivalents of Latin
abbrev if not within the parentheses
9. Use symbols in tables
10. Times New Roman, 12”, single space
GRAMMAR
1. Proposal = Future
2. Introduction (Chapter in a chapter =
present)
3. RRL = past or present perfect
4. Chapter Summary = past tense
(current); present tense (next)
5. Methodology = past tense
6. Results = past tense
7. Implications/Conclusions = present
To describe your methodology and
report your results

At the time you are writing your report,

you have already completed your study,
so you should use past tense in your
methodology section to record what you
did, and in your results section to report
what you found.
When referring to the work of
previous researchers, use past tense.
Whatever a previous researcher said, did
or wrote happened at some specific,
definite time in the past and is not still
being done. Results that were relevant
only in the past or to a particular study
and have not yet been generally
accepted as fact also should be
expressed in past tense.
Per APA 3.18, refer to the work of
another researcher in the past

•Patterson (2012) presented, found,

stated, discovered…
Sample Sentence Explanation
"Smith (2008) reported Smith’s study was
that adult respondents completed in the past
in his study and his finding was
remembered 30 specific to that particular
percent more than study.
children."
"Previous research The research was
showed that children conducted in the past,
confuse the source of but the finding is now a
their memories more widely accepted fact.
often than adults
(Lindsey et al., 1991)."
However, there can be a shift to the
present tense if the research findings still
hold true.

•King (2010) found that revising a

document three times improves the final
grade.
•Smith (2016) discovered that the
treatment is effective.
To describe a fact, law or finding that is
no longer considered valid and relevant
Sample Sentence Explanation
"Nineteenth-century Note the shift here
physicians held that from past tense
women got migraines (discredited belief) to
because they were 'the present (current
weaker sex,' but current belief).
research shows that the
causes of migraine are
unrelated to gender."
To express findings that continue to be
true

Use present tense to express general

truths or facts or conclusions supported
by research results that are unlikely to
change—in other words, something that
is believed to be always true.
Sample Sentence
"Genetic information is encoded in
the sequence of nucleotides on
DNA."
"Galileo asserted that the earth
revolves around the sun."
1) “Singer (1982) stated that sexual
dimorphism in body size is
common among butterflies.”
2) "Sexual dimorphism in body size
is common among butterflies
(Singer 1982)."
"We chose Vietnam for this study
because it has a long coastline."
"We used cornmeal to feed the
fingerlings because it provides high cornmeal), but present tense indicates that
nutritional content at a relatively neither the nutritional content nor the cost
low cost."
Explanation
Note also that no source citation is needed
here since it is a widely known and well-
accepted fact.
The asserting took place in the past, but
the earth is still revolving around the sun.
Here you use past tense to indicate what
Singer reported (sentence one), but
present tense to indicate a research result
that is unlikely to change (sentence two).
Use past tense to indicate what you did
(chose Vietnam), but present tense
to indicate you assume that the length of
Vietnam's coastline is unlikely to change.
Past tense reflects what you did (used
of cornmeal is likely to change.
To discuss your findings and present
your conclusions
Sample Sentence Explanation
"Weight increased as the Use past tense to
nutritional value of feed indicate what you found
increased. These results [weight increased], but
suggest that feeds higher use present tense to
in nutritional value suggest what the result
contribute to greater implies.
weight gain in livestock."
To refer to the research undertaking
itself
Sample Sentence Explanation
"Table 3 shows that Table 3 will always
the main cause of show this; it is now
weight increase was a fact that is unlikely
nutritional value of to change, and will
the feed." be true whenever
anyone reads this
sentence, so use
present tense.
To preview what is coming in the document
or to explain what is happening at that
moment in the document, use the present
or future tense:
•In this study, I will describe…
•In this study, I describe…
•In the next chapter, I will discuss…
•In the next chapter, I discuss…
To refer back to information already covered,
such as summaries of discussions that have
already taken place or conclusions to
chapters/sections, use the past tense:

•Chapter 1 contained my original discussion

of the research questions.
•In summary, in this section,
I presented information on…
Bottomline

1. Third person is potentially

confusing/ambiguous, so other
institutions use the pronoun “I”

1. No “I think”/”I believe”. Use strong

introductory phrases instead
 Coming together is a
beginning; keeping together
is progress; working
together is success.
-Henry Ford
Sources

1. Publication Manual of the American Psychological

Association, 5th Ed. The Comprehensive Guide to
Writing in the Health Sciences, University of Toronto.
2. academicguides.waldenu.edu