CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 COMPOSITE
A composite material is made by combining two or more materials – often
ones that have very different properties. The two materials work together to give
the composite unique properties. However, within the composite you can easily tell
the different materials apart as they do not dissolve or blend into each other.
The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light
as well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design flexibility
because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The downside is often
the cost. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the raw materials are
often expensive.

1.2 TYPES OF COMPOSITE

Generally the composite material classified three type, there are
 Polymer matrix composite
 Metal matrix composite
 Ceramic matrix composite

1.3 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess
lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high
temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main
kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities
such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They
decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic

1
composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and
determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured
condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible.
Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced
composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber
composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers
of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy,
polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have one- or two-
dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and
show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening
at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling,
facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the
compounds.Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging
group of composites. The theme of most experiments in this area to improve the
base properties of the resins and extract the greatest functional advantages from
them in new avenues, including attempts to replace metals in die-casting processes.
In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the morphology to a
considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation.
Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their
creep over an extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at
which the usage of resins is constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can
increase the failure load as well as creep resistance.

1.4 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in
research fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High
strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those
offered by their polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in
corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be

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used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be stable
over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for
the choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix
for temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the
aforementioned reasons are characterized by high moduli. Most metals and alloys
make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low temperature
applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density
proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminium and magnesium are the popular
matrix metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft
applications. If metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require
high modulus reinforcements. The strength-to weight ratios of resulting composites
can be higher than most alloys. The melting point, physical and mechanical
properties of the composite at various temperatures determine the service
temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be used
with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes
more stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.

1.5 CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITE

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic
bonding in general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good
corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive
strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a favourite for applications
requiring a structural material that doesn’t give way at temperatures High modulus
of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics possess, have combined to
cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement.
This is because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient
elongation of the matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective
quantum of load to the reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the
percentage of fiber volume is high enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize

3
the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an increase in load bearing
capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker ceramic has not
always been successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be
weaker.The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of
the problem to some extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic
matrix is being increasingly resorted to as an option. When ceramics have a higher
thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials, the resultant composite
is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the composite will
develop strength within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in micro cracks
extending from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Micro cracking can result in a
composite with tensile strength lower than that of the matrix.

1.6 FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITE

Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired
conditions and transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and
enhancing their properties as desired. Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers
used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently found out
and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer more resistant to heat. Fibers
fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber
composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers
and the mechanical properties of the matrix. The orientation of the fiber in the
matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and the strength is greatest
along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This doesn’t mean the longitudinal
fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the direction in which it is
applied. Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the load
is applied along its direction. The slightest shift in the angle of loading may
drastically reduce the strength of the composite. Unidirectional loading is found in
few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of orientations for fibers in
composites particularly where the load is expected to be the heaviest. Monolayer

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tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented
unidirectional stacked into plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in the
same direction. More complicated orientations are possible too and nowadays,
computers are used to make projections of such variations to suit specific needs. In
short, in planar composites, strength can be changed from unidirectional fiber
oriented composites that result in composites with nearly isotropic properties.
Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may vary with
the number of plies and their orientations. Composite variables in such composites
are assumed to have a constant ratio and the matrices are considered relatively
weaker than the fibers. The strength of the fiber in any one of the three axes would,
therefore be one-third the unidirectional fiber composite, assuming that the volume
percentage is equal in all three axes. However, orientation of short fibers by
different methods is also possible like random orientations by sprinkling on to
given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state before or after the fiber
deposition. Even three-dimensional orientations can achieve in this way. There are
several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-dimensional one,
yield composites with one-third the strength of a unidirectional fiber-stressed
composite, in the direction of fibers. In a 3-dimension, it would result in a
composite with a comparable ratio, about less than one-fifth.
In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed.
Application of the strength of the composites with such matrices and several
orientations is also possible. The longitudinal strength can be calculated on the
basis of the assumption that fibers have been reduced to their effective strength on
approximation value in composites with strong matrices and non-longitudinally
orientated fibers. It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed
with either continuous or short fibers. Experience has shown that continuous fibers
(or filaments) exhibit better orientation, although it does not reflect in their
performance. Fibers have a high aspect ratio, i.e., their lengths being several times
greater than their effective diameters. This is the reason why filaments are
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manufactured using continuous process. This finished filaments. Mass production
of filaments is well known and they match with several matrices in different ways
like winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a
fabric. Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in
filaments or other fibers yield considerable influence on the mechanical properties
as well as the response of composites to processing and procedures. Shorter fibers
with proper orientation composites that use glass, ceramic or multi-purpose fibers
can be endowed with considerably higher strength than those that use continuous
fibers. Short fibers are also known to their theoretical strength. The continuous
fiber constituent of a composite is often joined by the filament winding process in
which the matrix impregnated fiber wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part
over which the composite is to be placed, and equitable load distribution and
favourable orientation of the fiber is possible in the finished product. However,
winding is mostly confined to fabrication of bodies of revolution and the
occasional irregular, flat surface. Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or
close-mould process are found to be less efficient, although the input costs are
considerably lower than filament winding. Most fibers in use currently are solids
which are easy to produce and handle, having a circular cross-section, although a
few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show signs of capabilities that can
improve the mechanical qualities of the composites. Given the fact that the vast
difference in length and effective diameter of the fiber are assets to a fiber
composite, it follows that greater strength in the fiber can be achieved by smaller
diameters due to minimization or total elimination of surface of surface defects.
After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections have
provided new options for applications in high strength structures. Owing to their
shapes, these fibers provide perfect packing, while hollow fibers show better
structural efficiency in composites that are desired for their stiffness and
compressive strengths. In hollow fibers, the transverse compressive strength is
lower than that of a solid fiber composite whenever the hollow portion is more
6
than half the total fiber diameter. However, they are not easy to handle and
fabricate.

Objective
The main objective of this addition of jute and sunnhemp to epoxy resin
reduces density and significantly increases stiffness; for each weight percent of jute
and sunnhemp epoxy (up to 4 wt. %), density and elastic modulus is improved by
3% and 4%, respectively. Designers are able to achieve a weight saving of up to 20
% by using natural fibers-polyester instead of traditional interior materials in
aircraft. Studies of the effect of slip morphology on the monotonic and cyclic
ductility of natural fibers-polyester show that ductility is controlled by strain
localization which depends on the extent of work softening on the glide plane. As
aging is increased from under aged to peak strength, shear able precipitates localize
monotonic strain in intense bands of deformation which produce stress
concentrations and reduced ductility.

Design Consideration
Among the unique characteristics of aerospace grade materials, mechanical
properties are most important and play a decisive role while selecting a material .
Aircraft designers principally consider properties like weight, strength, toughness,
ductility, hardness, elasticity, fatigue resistance, creep resistance, and corrosion
resistance. When designing a new material in aircraft industry, one has to consider
multiple factors and these are;
 Raw material's availability and cost
 Required skills and processing technology
 Finished component rejection rates and waste recycling
 Unknown risks while deciding application area
 Uncertainties in performance
 Damage tolerance maintenance frequency & replacement procedures

7
  Other factors i.e. improvement in profitability and margins.

Use Of Composite In Aerospace Structure

It is to be realized that in order to meet the demands in feature of aerospace
structure, it is necessary to have materials with a peculiar property-set. The use of
composites has been motivated largely by such considerations. The composites-in
particular, the advanced fibre reinforced composites using carbon or aramid fibres
in polymer matrices--offer several of these features as given below
 Light-weight due to high specific strength and stiffness
 Fatigue-resistance and corrosion resistance
 Capability for high-degree of optimization: tailoring the directional
strength and stiffness
 Capability to mould large complex shapes in small cycle time reducing
part count and assembly times. Good for thin-walled or generously
curved construction
 Capability to maintain dimensional and alignment stability in space
environment
 Possibility of low dielectric loss in radar transparency
 Possibility of achieving low radar cross section. These composite
materials also have some inherent weaknesses
 Laminated structure with weak interfaces: poor resistance to out-of-plane
tensile loads
 Susceptibility to impact-damage and strong possibility of internal damage
going unnoticed

Use Of Composite In Automotive Industry

The automotive industry has two very distinct parts: the large-volume sector
and the specialist area producing modified or complete vehicles in small numbers.

8
The challenges of each are different and this is reflected in the way car
manufacturers approach the use of composites.

 In the large-volume sector, a large percentage of the cost is in the capital

plant needed for manufacture and so once the required equipment has
been procured and commissioned it is very costly to change the design of
a component. This naturally makes the industry very conservative, and
encourages extensive prototype testing in both real and simulated
environments of any new system before the investment is made.
 In small-volume production, however, the manufacturing operations are
much less capital intensive and so the resistance to change in material is
somewhat less.

1.8 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The scope of the project is to develop high strength and increase in
elongation of composite material with mixture of jute and sunnhemp with Epoxy.
To reduce the density of composite material used in aerospace industry and also to
reduce the weight of the material used in interior parts of the aircrafts.

9
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

1.Jani S P A. Adamkhan A. Senthil Kumar Nithin

Effect of Coconut Fillers on Hybrid Coconut Kevlar Fiber Reinforced Epoxy

Composites
This project focuses on the conversion of naturally available coconut fibers and
shells into a useful composite. In addition to it, some mechanical properties of the
resultant composite is determined and also the effect of coconut shell fillers on the
composite is also investigated. The few portion of the composite is incorporated
with synthetic Kevlar fiber, thus the coconut fiber is hybridized to enhance the
mechanical properties of coconut. In this work two types of composite is fabricate,
kevelar coconut fibre (kc) composite and kevelarcoco nut fibre coconut shell filler
(kccsf) composite. Coconut fibers have low weight and considerable properties
among the natural fibers, while coconut fillers have a good ductile and impact
property. The natural fibers and fillers are treated with Na-OH to make it free of
organic impurities. Epoxy resin is used as the polymer matrix. Two composite are
produced one with fillers and the other without the fillers using compression
molding method. Mechanical properties like tensile strength, flexural strength and
water absorption tests are done with ASTM standard. It is observed that that the
addition of filler materials improves the adhesiveness of the fibers leading to the
increase in the above mentioned properties. The density of the composite is also
low hence the strength to weight ratio is very high. The water absorption test also
showed that the resultant composite had a small adhesion to water and absorption
of water.

2.Alagarsamy.S.V, Arockia Vincent Sagayaraj.S , Vignesh.S

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Investigating the Mechanical Behaviour of Coconut Coir – Chicken Feather
Reinforced Hybrid Composite
In present days, automobile industries are rapidly increased. All the automobile
industries are in the process of supplying the vehicles at low cost. The major cost
of the automobile components is its body parts. As per the any automobile
industries concentrate with automotive components end life is very important
factor in the design of the automotive. So everybody is concentrating on new
materials which will be strong enough, less weight, recyclable with reduced cost.
Hence all the researchers are concentrated on the composite materials which have
all the above properties. Hence the present work is concentrated on coconut coir
fiber and chicken feather reinforced polyester hybrid composites. The composites
specimen was fabricated with various weight percentages of natural fibers namely
coconut coir (20%, 22%, 24%, and 26%) and chicken feather (10%, 8%, 6%, and
4%) combined with polyester resin using hand lay-up method. So to obtain new
composite materials different proportions of coconut coir and chicken feather is
added and the mechanical properties such as Tensile strength, Flexural Strength
and Impact test were carried out for the samples cut from the fabricated composites
specimen to the dimensions as per ASTM standard.

3.M. S. EL-Wazery

Mechanical Characteristics and Novel Applications of Hybrid Polymer

Composites- A Review
Hybrid polymer composites are fabricated by collecting two or more fibers or
particulate fillers in individual polymer matrix. Hybrid composites can be
combining from artificial fiber or natural fibers or both of them. Hybrid polymer
composite material offers the designer to obtain the required characteristics in a
controlled considerable extent by the choice of suitable fibers or fillers and
polymer matrix. The mechanical characteristics of a hybrid composite mainly
depend upon the fiber content, length of individual fibers, fiber orientation, and
11
fiber to matrix bonding and configuration of both the fiber and filler. The
investigation of the novel applications of hybrid composites has been of interest to
the researchers for many years as evident from notices. This paper summarized a
review on the mechanical characteristics and the potential application of hybrid
polymer composites. Also, this paper concerned on different properties of natural
fibers and its applications which were used to substitute artificial fibers

4.Bharath B Chethan Kumar G Shivanna G Syed Sajjad Hussain

Bio-Design And Fabrication Of Bio-Composite Helmet (Sisal, Banana, Jute And

Coconut Coir)”
Recently, bio composite materials are synthesized using natural cellulose fibers as
reinforcements together with matrix, which have attracted the attention of
researchers due to their low density with high specific mechanical strengths,
availability, renewability, degradable and being environmental-friendly. The
present work attempts to make an improvement in the current existing helmet
manufacturing methodology and materials used to have better mechanical
properties as well as to enhance the compatibility between fibers and the matrix.
The biocomposite are prepared with the unsaturated polyester matrix and fibers
such as jute, sisal, coconut, areca and banana using hand lay-up method with
appropriate proportions to result in helmet shell structure. The fabricated helmet
are planned to evaluate its mechanical properties such as tensile strength, impact
strength and compression strength .

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 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

3.1 MATERIALS REQUIRED

1. Jute fiber
2. Hemp fiber
3. Epoxy resin LY556
4. hardner HY915

DETAILED DESIGNATION AND COMPOSITION OF

COMPOSITES.

Sun hemp fiber (15%)+Jute (15 %) +Epoxy

1 C1
resin(70%)
Sun hemp fiber (10%)+Jute (10 %) +Epoxy
2 C2
resin(80%)

Table 3.1 Detailed Designation And Composition Of Composites

JUTE FIBER

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 Fig 3.1 Jute Fiber

Jute is a natural fiber  popularly known as the golden fiber. It is one of the cheapest
and  the strongest of all natural fibers and considered as fiber of the future. Jute is
second only to cotton in world's production of textile fibers.  India, Bangladesh,
China and Thailand are the leading producers of Jute.  It is also produced in
southwest Asia and Brazil.  The jute fiber is also known as Pat, kosta, Nalita, Bimli
or Mesta (kenaf)
Kenaf known as Mesta or Ambari (species Hibiscus Cannabinus) is also
considered as a variety of Jute.  It is cultivated in Indian subcontinent, Thailand,
China and Africa.  The two main types of jute, white jute
(CorchorusCapsularies)and dark jute or tossa (CorchorusOlitorius) are  grown in
India, Bangladesh, Thailand, China, south Asian countries and Brazil.
India is the largest producer of jute goods in the world, while Bangladesh is the
largest cultivator of raw jute.  The cultivation of Jute in India is mainly confined to
the eastern region states - West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, Orrissa
and Uttar Pradesh.  Nearly 50 percent of total raw jute production in India alone
figures in West Bengal.
In India 4000,000 families are involved in the cultivation of raw jute.  There
are 76 jute mills in India and nearly 1,37,679(Oct.2001) people are employed in
these mills.  Several thousand other people are engaged in several jute related
diversified goods.  India is also self sufficient in the jute seed production.  More

14
than 90 percent of seeds are produced by the state seed corporation of Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra. Jute, as a natural fibre, has many inherent advantages
like lusture, high tensile strength, low extensibility, moderate heat and fire
resistance and long staple lengths.  It is a biodegradable and eco-friendly.  It has
many advantage over synthetics and protect the environment and maintain the
ecological balance.
Jute is not only a major textile fibre but also a raw material for non traditional and
value added non-textile products.  Jute is used extensively in the manufacture of
different types of traditional packaging fabrics, manufacturing Hessian, saking,
carpet backing, mats, bags, tarpaulins, ropes and twines.  Recently jute fibres are
used in a wide range of diversified products: decorative fabrics, chic-saris,
salwarkamizes, soft luggage's, footwear, greeting cards, molded door panels and
other innumerable useful consumer products.  Supported by several technological
developments today jute can be used to replace expensive fibres and scare forest
materials.
The production of diversified jute products, consumer products, fashion
products carving out new export market.  The Indian Jute Industries Research
Association (IJIRA) in association with Indian Jute Industry has recently
developed Hydrocarbon free jute bags  - a food grade jute bags and cloths
confirming to international standard specifications.  These bags are used for
packaging food stuffs and in great demand throughout the world.
A large number of projects are being implemented by various institutions,
Government of India, its special jute development programme with UN agencies as
UNDP to modernise the jute industries and itsall round development.  The notable
institutions in India.

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 SUNNHEMP FIBER

Fig 3.2 Sunnhemp Fiber

sun fibre is lustrous, with a whitish, gray, or yellow colour. The fibre
strands, about 1 to 1.5 metres (3.3 to 5 feet) long, are composed of individual fibre
cells, cylindrically shaped and with striated surface markings. Sunn fibre is almost
as strong as hemp and more durable than jute. It increases in strength when wet
and is fairly resistant to mildew.

sunn, (Crotalaria juncea), also called sann hemp or Indian hemp, annual

plant of the pea family (Fabaceae) and its fibre, one of the bast fibre group. Sunn is
likely native to the Indian subcontinent, where it has been cultivated since
prehistoric times. The sunn plant is not a true hemp. The fibre is made into
cordage, fishing nets, sacking fabrics, canvas, and rug yarns and is used to
manufacture such paper products as cigarette and tissue papers. The plant is also
cultivated in many tropical countries as a green manure crop that is plowed under
to fertilize soil.

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 EPOXY RESIN

Fig 3.3 Epoxy Resin

Epoxy is either any of the basic components or the cured end products
of epoxy resins, as well as a colloquial name for the epoxidefunctional
group. Epoxy resins, also known as polyepoxides, are a class of
reactive prepolymers and polymers which contain epoxide groups.

Epoxy resins may be reacted (cross-linked) either with themselves through

catalytic homopolymerisation, or with a wide range of co-reactants including
polyfunctional amines, acids (and acid anhydrides), phenols, alcohols
and thiols (usually called mercaptans). These co-reactants are often referred to as
hardeners or curatives, and the cross-linking reaction is commonly referred to as
curing.

Reaction of polyepoxides with themselves or with polyfunctional hardeners

forms a thermosetting polymer, often with favorable mechanical properties and
high thermal and chemical resistance. Epoxy has a wide range of applications,
including metal coatings, use in electronics/electrical components/LEDs, high

17
tension electrical insulators, paint brush manufacturing, fiber-reinforced
plastic materials and structural adhesives. Epoxy is sometimes used as a glue.

applications

The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include

coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon
fibre and fibreglass reinforcements (although polyester, vinyl ester, and
other thermosetting resins are also used for glass-reinforced plastic). The chemistry
of epoxies and the range of commercially available variations allows cure
polymers to be produced with a very broad range of properties. In general, epoxies
are known for their excellent adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, good-to-
excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical insulating properties.
Many properties of epoxies can be modified (for example silver-filled epoxies with
good electrical conductivity are available, although epoxies are typically
electrically insulating). Variations offering high thermal insulation, or thermal
conductivity combined with high electrical resistance for electronics applications,
are available.

As with other classes of thermo set polymer materials, blending different

grades of epoxy resin, as well as use of additives, plasticizers or fillers is common
to achieve the desired processing or final properties, or to reduce cost. Use of
blending, additives and fillers is often referred to as formulating.

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 PREPARATION OF MOULD

Fig 3.4 EPOXY, Hardener& Remover

Fig 3.5 Weighting Machine

19
 Fig 3.6 Hand layer Molding Preparation

Fig 3.7 Comparison layer Molding Preparation

20
 Fig 3.8 Surface Finishing Of Molding

Fig 3.9 Fabricated composite material

Test to be Performed
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  Tensile test
 Hardness test
 Flexuraltest

Fig 3.10 Tensile Test

3.2 UNIAXIAL TENSILE TESTING

Uniaxial tensile test is known as a basic and universal engineering test to
achieve material parameters such as ultimate strength, yield strength, % elongation,
% area of reduction and Young's modulus. These important parameters obtained
from the standard tensile testing are useful for the selection of engineering
materials for any applications required. The tensile testing is carried out by
applying longitudinal or axial load at a specific extension rate to a standard tensile
specimen with known dimensions (gauge length and cross sectional area
perpendicular to the load direction) till failure. The applied tensile load and
extension are recorded during the test for the calculation of stress and strain. A
range of universal standards provided by Professional societies such as American
Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), British standard, JIS standard and DIN
standard provides testing are selected based on preferential uses. Each standard
may contain a variety of test standards suitable for different materials, dimensions
and fabrication history. For instance, ASTM E8: is a standard test method for
tension testing of metallic materials and ASTM B557 is standard test methods of

22
tension testing and cast aluminium and magnesium alloy products A standard
specimen is prepared in a round or a square section along the gauge length as
shown below, depending on the standard used. Both ends of the specimens should
have sufficient length and a surface condition such that they are firmly gripped
during testing. The initial gauge length Lo is standardized (in several countries)
and varies with the diameter (Do) or the cross-sectional area (Ao) of the specimen
as listed in table 1. This is because if the gauge length is too long, the % elongation
might be underestimated in this case. Any heat treatments should be applied on to
the specimen prior to machining to produce the final specimen readily for testing.
This has been done to prevent surface oxide scales that might act as stress
concentration which might subsequently affect the final tensile properties due to
premature failure. There might be some exceptions, for examples, surface
hardening or surface coating on the materials. These processes should be employed
after specimen machining in order to obtain the tensile properties results which
include the actual specimen surface conditions.

Fig 3.11 Cylindrical Bar and Sheet Specimen

Standard Tensile Specimens

The equipment used for tensile testing ranges from simple devices to
complicated controlled systems. The so-called universal testing machines are
commonly used, which are driven by mechanical screw or hydraulic systems. The
below figure illustrates a relatively simple screw-driven machine using large two

23
screws to apply the load whereas next figure shows a hydraulic testing machine
using the pressure of oil in a piston for load supply. These types of machines can
be used not only for tension, but also for compression, bending and torsion tests. A
more modernized closed-loop servo-hydraulic machine provides variations of load,
strain, or testing machine motion (stroke) using a combination of actuator rod and
piston. Most of the machines used nowadays are linked to a computer-controlled
system in which the load and extension data can be graphically displayed together
with the calculations of stress and strain. General techniques utilized for measuring
loads and displacements employs sensors providing electrical signals. Load cells
are used for measuring the load applied while strain gauges are used for strain
measurement. A Change in a linear dimension is proportional to the change in
electrical voltage of the strain gauge attached on to the specimen.

Fig 3.12 Lead Screw Driven and Htdralic Testing Machine

Stress And Strain Relationship

When a specimen is subjected to an external tensile loading, the metal will
undergo elastic and plastic deformation. Initially, the metal will elastically deform
giving a linear relationship of load and extension. These two parameters are then
used for the calculation of the engineering stress and engineering strain to give a
relationship as illustrated in figure 3 using equations 1 and 2 as follows

24
Where
σ is the engineering stress
ε is the engineering strain
P is the external axial tensile load
Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen
Lo is the original length of the specimen
Lf is the final length of the specimen
The unit of the engineering stress is Pascal (Pa) or N/m2 according to the SI Metric
Unit whereas the unit of psi (pound per square inch) can also be used.

Young's Modulus, E:
During elastic deformation, the engineering stress-strain relationship follows
the Hook's Law and the slope of the curve indicates the Young's modulus (E)

Young's modulus is of importance where deflection of materials is critical for the

required engineering applications. This is for examples: deflection in structural
beams is considered to be crucial for the design in engineering components or
structures such as bridges, building, ships, etc. The applications of tennis racket
and golf club also require specific values of spring constants or Young's modulus
values.

25
 Fig 3.13 Stress-strain relationship under uniaxial tensile loading

Yield Strength, ΣY :

By considering the stress-strain curve beyond the elastic portion, if the

tensile loading continues, yielding occurs at the beginning of plastic deformation.
The yield stress, σy , can be obtained by dividing the load at yielding (Py ) by the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen (Ao ) as shown in equation 4.

The yield point can be observed directly from the load-extension curve of the BCC
metals such as iron and steel or in polycrystalline titanium and molybdenum, and
especially low carbon steels, see figure 3 a). The yield point elongation
phenomenon shows the upper yield point followed by a sudden reduction in the
stress or load till reaching the lower yield point. At the yield point elongation, the
specimen continues to extend without a significant change in the stress level. Load
26
increment is then followed with increasing strain. This yield point phenomenon is
associated with a small amount of interstitial or substitutional atoms. This is for
example in the case of low-carbon steels, which have small atoms of carbon and
nitrogen present as impurities. When the dislocations are pinned by these solute
atoms, the stress is raised in order to overcome the breakaway stress required for
the pulling of dislocation line from the solute atoms. If the dislocation line is free
from the solute atoms, the stress required to move the dislocations then suddenly
drops, which is associated with the lower yield point. Furthermore, it was found
that the degree of the yield point effect is affected by the amounts of the solute
atoms and is also influenced by the interaction energy between the solute atoms
and the dislocations.

Ultimate Tensile Strength, ΣTS:

Beyond yielding, continuous loading leads to an increase in the stress
required to permanently deform the specimen as shown in the engineering stress-
strain curve. At this stage, the specimen is strain hardened or work hardened. The
degree of strain hardening depends on the nature of the deformed materials, crystal
structure and chemical composition, which affects the dislocation motion. FCC
structure materials having a high number of operating slip systems can easily slip
and create a high density of dislocations. Tangling of these dislocations requires
higher stress to uniformly and plastically deform the specimen, therefore resulting
in strain hardening. If the load is continuously applied, the stress-strain curve will
reach the maximum point, which is the ultimate tensile strength (UTS, σTS). At
this point, the specimen can withstand the highest stress before necking takes
place.

Fracture Characteristics Of The Tested Specimens

27
 Metals with good ductility normally exhibit a so-called cup and cone
fracture characteristic observed on either halves of a broken specimen as illustrated
in figure 8. Necking starts when the stress-strain curve has passed the maximum
point where plastic deformation is no longer uniform. Across the necking area
within the specimen gauge length (normally located in the middle), microvoids are
formed, enlarged and then merged to each other as the load is increased. This
creates a crack having a plane perpendicular to the applied tensile stress. Just
before the specimen breaks, the shear plane of approximately 45o to the tensile
axis is formed along the peripheral of the specimen. This shear plane then joins
with the former crack to generate the cup and cone fracture as demonstrated in
figure 8. The rough or fibrous fracture surfaces appear in grey by naked eyes.
Under SEM, copious amounts of micro voids are observed as depicted in figure 9.
This type of fracture surface signifies high energy absorption during the fracture
process due to large amount of plastic deformation taking place, also indicating
good tensile ductility. Metals such as aluminium and copper normally exhibit
ductile fracture behaviour due to a high number of slip systems available for plastic
deformation. For brittle metals or metals that failed at relatively low temperatures,
the fracture surfaces usually appear bright and consist of flat areas of brittle facets
when examined under SEM as illustrated in figure 10. In some cases, clusters of
these brittle facets are visible when the grain size of the metal is sufficiently large.
The energy absorption is quite small in this case which indicates relatively low
tensile ductility due to limited amount of plastic deformation prior to failure.

28
 Fig 3.14 Fracture Characteristics Of The Tested Specimens

In summary, tensile properties should be considered as important design

parameters for the selection of engineering materials for their desired application.
Engineers have played a significant role in that they should be able to analyse and
understand material behaviour and properties through these mechanical testing
parameters.
Materials and Equipment
1. Tensile specimens
2. Micrometer or vernier callipers
3. Universal testing machine
4. Stereoscope
Experimental Procedure
1. The specimens provided are made of composite materials. Measure and
record specimen dimensions (diameter and gauge length) in a table
provided for the calculation of the engineering stress and engineering
strain. Marking the location of the gauge length along the parallel length

29
 of each specimen for subsequent observation of necking and strain
measurement.
2. Fit the specimen on to the universal Testing Machine (UTM) and carry
on testing. Record load and extension for the construction of stress-strain
curve of each tested specimen.
3. Calculate Young's modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
fracture strain, % elongation and % area of reduction of each specimen
and record on the provided table.
4. Analyse the fracture surfaces of broken specimens using stereoscope,
sketch and describe the results.
5. Discuss the experimental results and give conclusions.

Hardness Test

Fig 3.15 Hardness Test

Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation,

usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to
bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.

Measurement Of Hardness
Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise definitions
in terms of fundamental units of mass, length and time. A hardness property value
is the result of a defined measurement procedure. Hardness of materials has
30
probably long been assessed by resistance to scratching or cutting. An example
would be material B scratches material C, but not material A. Alternatively,
material A scratches material B slightly and scratches material C heavily. Relative
hardness of minerals can be assessed by reference to the Moh's Scale that ranks the
ability of materials to resist scratching by another material. Similar methods of
relative hardness assessment are still commonly used today. An example is the file
test where a file tempered to a desired hardness is rubbed on the test material
surface. If the file slides without biting or marking the surface, the test material
would be considered harder than the file. If the file bites or marks the surface, the
test material would be considered softer than the file. The above relative hardness
tests are limited in practical use and do not provide accurate numeric data or scales
particularly for modern day metals and materials. The usual method to achieve a
hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an indentation left by an indenter
of a specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time. There are three
principal standard test methods for expressing the relationship between hardness
and the size of the impression, these being Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell. For
practical and calibration reasons, each of these methods is divided into a range of
scales, defined by a combination of applied load and indenter geometry.
3.3 FLEXURAL TEST
Method for measuring behaviour of materials subjected to simple beam
loading. It is also called a transverse beam test with some materials. Specimen is
supported on two knife edges as a simple beam and load is applied at its
midpoint. Maximum fibre stress and maximum strain are calculated for increments
of load. Results are plotted in a stress-strain diagram, and maximum fibre stress at
failure is flexural strength. Flexural yield strength is reported for materials that do
not crack. Standard test procedures are given in ASTM D-790 (plastics) and
ASTM C-674 (fired white ware). ASTM D-797 (elastomers), ASTM A-438 (cast
iron) and ASTM D-86 (glass).

31
 Fig 3.16 Flexural Test

Flexure tests are generally used to determine the flexural modulus or flexural
strength of a material.  A flexure test is more affordable than a tensile test and test
results are slightly different. The material is laid horizontally over two points of
contact (lower support span) and then a force is applied to the top of the material
through either one or two points of contact (upper loading span) until the sample
fails. The maximum recorded force is the flexural strength of that particular
sample. Unlike a compression test or tensile test, a flexure test does not measure
fundamental material properties. When a specimen is placed under flexural loading
all three fundamental stresses are present: tensile, compressive and shear and so the
flexural properties of a specimen are the result of the combined effect of all three
stresses as well as (though to a lesser extent) the geometry of the specimen and the
rate the load is applied.

The most common purpose of a flexure test is to measure flexural strength and
flexural modulus. Flexural strength is defined as the maximum stress at the
outermost fibre on either the compression or tension side of the specimen. Flexural
modulus is calculated from the slope of the stress vs. strain deflection curve. These
two values can be used to evaluate the sample materials ability to withstand flexure
or bending forces.

32
Why Perform a Flexure Test?
A flexure test produces tensile stress in the convex side of the specimen and
compression stress in the concave side. This creates an area of shear stress along
the midline. To ensure the primary failure comes from tensile or compression
stress the shear stress must be minimized. This is done by controlling the span to
depth ratio; the length of the outer span divided by the height (depth) of the
specimen. For most materials S/d=16 is acceptable. Some materials require S/d=32
to 64 to keep the shear stress low enough.

Procedure
 Prepare the test specimen
 Clean the bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers, and
remove any loose sand or other material from the surfaces of the
specimen where they are to make contact with the rollers.
 Circular rollers manufactured out of steel having cross section with
diameter 38 mm will be used for providing support and loading points to
the specimens. The length of the rollers shall be at least 10 mm more than
the width of the test specimen. A total of four rollers shall be used, three
out of which shall be capable of rotating along their own axes. The
distance between the outer rollers (i.e. span) shall be 3d and the distance
between the inner rollers shall be d. The inner rollers shall be equally
spaced between the outer rollers, such that the entire system is
systematic.
 The test specimen shall be placed in the machine correctly centred with
the longitudinal axis of the specimen at right angles to the rollers. For
moulded specimens, the mould filling direction shall be normal to the
direction of loading.
 The load shall be applied at a rate of loading of 400 kg/min for the 15.0
cm specimens and at a rate of 180 kg/min for the 10.0 cm specimens.

33
Types of Flexure Tests
Flexure testing is often done on relatively flexible materials such as
polymers, wood and composites. There are two test types; 3-point flex and 4-point
flex. In a 3-point test the area of uniform stress is quite small and concentrated
under the center loading point. In a 4-point test, the area of uniform stress exists
between the inner span loading points (typically half the outer span length).

Typical Materials
Polymers
The 3-point flexure test is the most common for polymers. Specimen
deflection is usually measured by the crosshead position. Test results
include flexural strength and flexural modulus.

Wood and Composites

The 4-point flexure test is common for wood and composites. The 4-point
test requires a deflectometer to accurately measure specimen deflection at the
center of the support span. Test results include flexural strength and flexural
modulus.

Brittle Materials
When a 3-point flexure test is done on a brittle material like ceramic or
concrete it is often called modulus of rupture (MOR). This test provides flex
strength data only, not stiffness (modulus). The 4-point test can also be used on
brittle materials. Alignment of the support and loading anvils is critical with brittle
materials. The test fixture for these materials usually has self-aligning anvils.

CALCULATION
The Flexural Strength or modulus of rupture (fb) is given by
fb = pl/bd2  (when a > 20.0cm for 15.0cm specimen or > 13.0cm for 10cm
specimen)

34
Or

fb = 3pa/bd2  (when a < 20.0cm but > 17.0 for 15.0cm specimen or < 13.3 cm but >
11.0cm for 10.0cm specimen.)

Where,

a = the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured on
the centre line of the tensile side of the specimen

b = width of specimen (cm)

d = failure point depth (cm)

l = supported length (cm)

p = max. Load (kg)

35
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT

4.1 TENSILE STRENGTH OF COMPOSITES

The composite specimens are tested for tensile properties in universal testing
machine and obtained tensile strength are shown in the below figure. The value of
tensile strength obtained is

Table 4.1 Tensile Strength Of Composites

TEST SAMPLE
TENSILE 1
TENSILE 2
TENSILE 3
TENSILE 4

4.2 FLEXURAL TEST

The value of Flexural test obtained is

Table 4.2 Flexural Test

TEST SAMPLE
Flexural

Flexural

36
4.3 HARDNESS STRENGTH OF COMPOSITES

The values are furnished in the following figure. The value of hardness strength
obtained is

Table 4.3 Hardness Strength Of Composites

TEST SAMPLE

HARDNESS

HARDNESS

CHAPTER 5
37
 CONCLUSION

The experimental study on the hybrid composite with natural fillers on

physical, tensile, harness,flexural and mechanical behaviour test leads to the
following conclusions

Table 5.1 Mechanical Behaviour

S.No TEST DETAILS SAMPLE

1.
2.
3.

On the upcoming study the natural fillers are added with the prescribed
weight ratio to the jute,sunnhemp and its mechanical characteristics are analysed
by the same testing procedure and by comparing the obtained results, the better
material composition is finalized.

CHAPTER 6

38
 APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

APPLICATION
 Home applicance like(door)
 Automobile light casing
 Harsbetsheet
 Panel making
 Lathe bet
 Wheel hub etc..,

ADVANTAGES
The possible advantages of such basaltl fiber composites (NFC) could be
 Basaltlfibers are renewable resources.
 Lower pollution level during production.
 Energy necessary for fiber production is lower than that of basalt.
 CO2 neutral: amount of CO2 neutralized during fiber plant.
 Growth is comparable with that emitted during processing.
 Lower cost.
 low cost
 ease of decomposability.
 It is replace basaltl plastic
 Strong bonding strength
 3D-combination
 High flexural strength
 High tensile strength
 High hardness strength&impact strength

REFERENCES

39
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