Lesson 1 dissection – notes

Lesson 2 microscopes +
ultrafiltration
 1st Homework
Flipped learning:
Go to
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xY9zWMXH
Kwg
Describe what happens in each part of the
nephron
a) Glomerulus and renal capsule
b) Proximal convoluted tubule
c) Loop of Henle
d) Distal Convoluted tubule
e) Collecting Duct
Why do
we
pee??
Ureter PCT
Glomerulus renal artery
Urethra renal vein
bladder nephron
DCT Renal capsule
collecting duct loop of Henle
Efferent arteriole Afferent arteriole
Capsule Pelvis Cortex
Medulla
 EXCRETION

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EhnRhfFLyOg
Deamination
Removal of the amino group from an amino acid to make ammonia and a
ketoacid
R
H O
N C C
H H OH

amino acid residue - Ketoacid

NH3
ammonia
1.Ammonia is toxic and enters the ornithine cycle. Here it is converted
to a safer compound urea. This is excreted through the blood then
kidneys
2.The Ketoacid is enters the Kreb’s cycle and is used to release
energy in aerobic respiration
Ornithine cycle
ammonia
ammonia
NH 3
NH 3
Citruline

CO ATP
2

H2O H2O
ornithine

arginine

urea
H2O
CO(NH )2
2
ATP
 NH3 Citruline NH3
ATP

CO2
H2O
H2O

A___________ O__________

H2O Urea
Have a go at the following past
exam question
 Draw
1. Cross section of a kidney to include
medulla, cortex, capsule, pelvis
2. A nephron – label all parts
• Dissect the kidney
• Draw a plan of the organ to include
1. Cortex
2. Medulla
3. Pyramids
4. Pelvis
5. Capsule
6. Ureter (if possible)
 Biological drawings
General advice
• Sharp continuous lines
• No shading
• Drawn in pencil
• Labels drawn with a ruler
• True representation of the kidney

• Make drawing big enough on the page

 distal convoluted
glomerulus efferent arteriole tubule
afferent
arteriole
proximal
convoluted tubule

renal
capsule collecting
duct
cortex

medulla

descending
limb of loop
of Henle

ascending limb of
loop of Henle
High Pressure in Glomerulus
1. Afferent wider than efferent arteriole
2. Coiled structure
A B

C
Which part of the nephron does this
show?.. think about it!

• Irregular nuclei in
glomerulus
• Circular shaped
renal capsule
• Different colours in
in different tissue
 Biological drawings
General advice
• Sharp continuous lines
• No shading
• Drawn in pencil
• Labels drawn with a ruler
• True representation of the kidney

• Make drawing big enough on the page

What three structures can you see?

N_______ Features
Brush border
C________ Regular arrangement of nuclei

L__________
 Whiteboards
1. Draw and label a cross section of kidney

2. Draw and label a nephron

1.Endothelium of
capillary

2. Basement
membrane

3. Epithelium of renal
capsule (podocytes)

1.Pores between
cells

2. Filtration unit/
Selective barrier

3. Filtration slits
8 marks (7 for content and 1 for QWC)
 How can high blood pressure affect the kidneys?

How can damage to the glomerulus affect the

kidneys?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L7OEN8JqJMc
Whiteboards
Draw and label the nephron

List the 3 parts of the filtration unit

List the molecules found in the glomerular

filtrate
 distal convoluted
glomerulus efferent arteriole tubule
afferent
arteriole
proximal
convoluted tubule

renal
capsule collecting
duct
cortex

medulla

descending
limb of loop
of Henle

ascending limb of
loop of Henle
1.Endothelium of
capillary

2. Basement
membrane

3. Epithelium of renal
capsule (podocytes)

1.Pores between
cells

2. Filtration unit/
Selective barrier

3. Filtration slits
List the different methods molecules
can move across a membrane
 Selective reabsorbtion

1.AT of Na+ from PCT wall to TF

2.Cotransporter protein - FD of Glu /aa and Na+ into PCT wall
3.FD of glu and aa into TF
Selective reabsorbtion

1.Active Transport of Na+ from PCT wall to Tissue Fluid

(or blood). (this establishes a concentration gradient for
Na+)
2.Co-transporter protein - Facilitated Diffusion of
Glucose/amino acids and Na+ into PCT wall from
glomerular filtrate
3.Facilitated Diffusion of glucose and amino acids from
PCT wall into Tissue fluid
1. Name the 3 layers of ultrafiltration unit
2. Name 3 adaptations of PCT wall
3. State 2 processes that take place for
selective reabsorption of glucose
4. Name 3 parts of a kidney
5. Name 3 molecules filtered out of the
blood in the bowman’s capsule
Questions
1. Short diffusion path because:
a) Capillary and tubule wall touch
b) Tubule and capillary wall is one cell

2. Increase SA for diffusion using Brush

border/microvilli and infolds on tubule
membrane
Convoluted: long winding tubule gives
increase SA for diffusion

3. Maintain diffusion gradient: Active

transport of Na+ out of PCT wall allows
diffusion of Na+ and aa/glucose in. Many
mitochondria provide ATP, mito can be
close to carrier proteins in infoldings.
Questions
Homework
How is the proximal convoluted tubule and
its cells adapted for selective reabsorption?
Draw
Adaptations of PCT Wall
 Water moves
out of
descending
limb by
osmosis and
enters
capillaries

http://www.colorado.edu/intphys/Class/IPHY3430-
Question on Loop of Henle 200/countercurrent_ct.swf COUNTER CURRENT MULTIPLIER
Why does the water potential
decrease as you go down the
descending limb?
• Loss of water by osmosis to
surrounding tissue
• Diffusion of sodium and chloride ions
into the tubule
What happens when we...

OR
 Osmoreceptors
(neurosecretory
cells)

hypothalamus

pituitary gland
(Posterior pituitary)
 osmoreceptors
hypothalamus
Posterior lobe of
pituitary gland

axons

Secretion of ADH
into blood

Blood with ADH Blood supply

• Decrease water potential
• Hypothalamus - osmoreceptors
• More ADH made
• Sends impulse down axon
• Posterior Pituitary Gland
• Into blood
• Collecting duct receptors
• cAMP
• More aquaporins
• More water absorbed into blood by osmosis
because:
• Medulla has lower ψ due to Na+ and Cl- from
Loop of Henle (and collecting duct)
• Negative Feedback
1. How does the disease Lupus affect
the kidney?
2. What is glomerulonephritis? and what
are its affect on urine?
3. Describe haemodialysis (use pictures)
4. Describe peritoneal dialysis (use
pictures)
5. Give 3 facts about the inventor of
dialysis
6. Read a news story about the kidneys
and summarise it in 1 paragraph
5
 What is the question?
1. Aquaporin
2. Anti diuretic hormone
3. Anti coagulant
4. Dialysate
5. Dialysis membrane
6. Peritoneal Dialysis
 Learning Outcomes
• Outline the problems that arise from
kidney failure and discuss the use of renal
dialysis and transplants for the treatment
of kidney failure.
1. What is glomerulonephritis? and
what are its affect on urine?
2. Describe haemodialysis (use
pictures)
3. Describe peritoneal dialysis (use
pictures)
4. Give 3 facts about the inventor of
dialysis
5. Read a news story about the
kidneys and summarise it in 1
paragraph
 Glomerular filtration rate
• GFR - glomerular filtration rate is the best test to measure your level
of kidney function and determine your stage of kidney disease.
• GFR is a measurement of how many millilitres (ml) of waste fluid
your kidneys can filter from the blood in a minute (measured in
ml/min). A healthy pair of kidneys should be able to filter more than
90ml/min.
• Your doctor can calculate it from the results of your blood creatinine
test (waste product of the muscles), your age, body size and gender.
• Your GFR tells your doctor your stage of kidney disease and helps
the doctor plan your treatment. If your GFR number is low, your
kidneys are not working as well as they should. The earlier kidney
disease is detected, the better the chance of slowing or stopping its
progression.
If a person has 4.7 litres of blood how long would It take to filter all
of the person blood at each stage
Stage Description GFR (ml/min) Time (hours)
Risk factors for kidney disease
(e.g., diabetes, high blood
Healthy 100
pressure, family history, older
age, ethnic group)
Kidney damage with normal
1 85
kidney function

Kidney damage with mild loss of

2 63
kidney function

Mild to moderate loss of kidney

3a 52
function
Moderate to severe loss of
3b 35
kidney function

4 Severe loss of kidney function 24

5 Kidney failure 12

Your GFR number tells you how much kidney function you have.
As kidney disease gets worse, the GFR number goes down.
If a person has 4.7 litres of blood how long would It take to filter all
of the person blood at each stage
Stage Description GFR (ml/min)
Risk factors for kidney disease
At increased (e.g., diabetes, high blood
More than 90
risk pressure, family history, older
age, ethnic group)
Kidney damage with normal
1 90 or above
kidney function

Kidney damage with mild loss of

2 89 to 60
kidney function

Mild to moderate loss of kidney

3a 59 to 44
function
Moderate to severe loss of
3b 44 to 30
kidney function

4 Severe loss of kidney function 29 to 15

5 Kidney failure Less than 15

Your GFR number tells you how much kidney function you have.
As kidney disease gets worse, the GFR number goes down.
 Electrolyte Balance
• Electrolytes, particularly sodium, help the body maintain normal fluid
levels in these compartments (called fluid balance) because the
amount of fluid a compartment contains depends on the
concentration of electrolytes in it. If the electrolyte concentration is
high, fluid moves into that compartment. If the electrolyte
concentration is low, fluid moves out of that compartment. To adjust
fluid levels, the body can actively move electrolytes in or out of cells.
Thus, having electrolytes in the right concentrations (called
electrolyte balance) is important in maintaining fluid balance among
the compartments.

• The kidneys help maintain electrolyte concentrations by filtering

electrolytes from blood, returning some electrolytes to the blood, and
excreting any excess into the urine. Thus, the kidneys help maintain
a balance between daily consumption and excretion.
• If the balance of electrolytes is disturbed, disorders can
develop. An electrolyte imbalance can result from the
following:

• Becoming dehydrated

• Taking certain drugs

• Having certain heart, kidney, or liver disorders

• Being given intravenous fluids or feedings in

inappropriate amounts
 Kidney failure
• Renal dialysis
– Haemodialysis
– Peritoneal dialysis

• Kidney transplant
– Dues to a shortage of donors scientists are
studying the possibility of a xenotransplant.
Haemodialysis
 Haemodialysis
• Blood from the patient’s vein is passed
through very small tubes made from a
partially permeable membrane.
• On the outside of the membrane, dialysis
fluid flows in the opposite direction.
• The fluid has the water potential and
concentration of ions and glucose that the
patient’s blood should have.
 Peritoneal dialysis
• Peritoneum is the layer of tissue that lines
the abdominal cavity.
• A catheter is inserted into the peritoneum
cavity
• Dialysis fluid is passed in and left there
• Fluid is drained off.
 F214 June 2015
Why does the dialysate have sugar
dissolved in it?
Why is peritoneal dialysis repeated 3 times a day and
haemodialysis repeated 3 times a week?
 Haemodialysis
• Blood from the patient’s vein is passed through
very small tubes made from a partially
permeable membrane. Heparin is added to
prevent clotting

• On the outside of the membrane, dialysis fluid

flows in the opposite direction.

• The fluid has the water potential and

concentration of ions and glucose that the
patient’s blood should have if their kidneys
were working properly
• As the blood flows through the tubes, water,
ions and blood are able to diffuse easily
through the membrane so concentrations
become the same as the dialysis fluid. Things
can move into or out of the blood.

• Blood cells and dialysis fluid are too large to

pass through so remain in the blood

• Bubbles are removed before the blood is

returned to the body
 Advantages and disadvantages of
haemodialysis
• More efficient than peritoneal at removing
unwanted substances from the blood –
because dialysate is constantly replaced
and due to counter current flow
• Takes several hours and must be
connected to the machine
• Machines are expensive
• Patient has to take care with what they eat
between treatments- low protein diet
 Peritoneal dialysis
• Peritoneum is the layer of tissue that lines the
abdominal cavity – this becomes the filter
• This cavity contains fluid, which bathes the internal
organs
• A catheter is inserted into the peritoneum cavity.
• Dialysis fluid is passed in, allowing exchange
between the blood and the fluid and then drained off.
• Takes around half to three quarters of an hour.
• Person can walk around, though they do need to
have the fluid introduced and removed several times
a day
 Advantages and disadvantages of
peritoneal dialysis
• Frees patient from being connected to a
removal machine
• Has to be done more than haemodialysis
Because dialysate is not changed,
movement of water and urea reaches
equilibrium
• Continuous process therefore no large
swings in blood volume or content
• Relatively high risk of infection
 Kidney Transplants
• There are no where near enough kidneys
available
• Needs suitable tissue types and matches

• Though of xenotransplants
 Treating kidney failure

1. Kidney dialysis
• This is the process of removing ................. and
excess fluid from the blood using an
.......................... kidney machine that filters or
washes the blood.
• Blood is collected from a vein in the arm and
passes along a tube that is
............................................
• The dialysis solution on the other side of the
tube has no urea so urea passes out of the
blood.
• Treatment is required three times a week, each
 Treating kidney failure
2. Kidney transplantation

• A kidney ......................... may

be considered if your doctor
feels that your general health is
good enough to stand up to the
operation.
• You also need drugs to
suppress the .........................
system after surgery. This is
needed to stop rejection of the
foreign tissue.
• A ........................ kidney can come from a
living person (usually a blood relative such
as a parent, brother, sister or child).
• Or, from someone who has died in
hospital and permission has been given to
use their kidneys.
• The transplant kidney is placed in the
groin. Your own kidneys are not removed.
• After a transplant the person no longer
needs dialysis.
 Advantages of Transplants

• Have a normal lifestyle as no dialysis.

• Dialysis takes several hours in hospital
three times a week and makes a person
very tired.
• Dialysis machines are expensive.
Disadvantages of Transplants

• A good tissue match is needed for the

donor kidney to reduce rejection.
• Very expensive operation.
• Risk of rejection of the donor kidney so
immunosuppressant drugs must be taken
daily.
• Some religions do not allow transplants.
 Learning Outcomes
• Describe how urine samples can be used
to test for pregnancy and detect misuse of
anabolic steroids.
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/doctors-used-to-
use-live-african-frogs-as-pregnancy-tests-64279275/?no-ist
• http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-
2986133/Teenager-s-shock-doctors-use-
PREGNANCY-TEST-diagnose-testicular-
cancer.html

• http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-
and-baby/pages/pregnancy-
test.aspx#close
 Urine Sampling
• Urine contains many waste products of
metabolism
• This can be tested and used to diagnose
illness
• Examples
– Early diagnosis of pregnancy
– Evidence for the misuse of drugs
 Pregnancy testing
• Most pregnancy test kits use monoclonal
antibodies to test for the presence of HCG
(human chorionic gonadotrophin) in the
urine.
• The antibodies bind with HCG.
 How a dipstick works
• HCG-specific antibodies
are coated with gold
atoms
• Anti-body gold complexes
coat the end of the
dipstick
• Further up the dipstick in
the Patient Test Result
region are monoclonal
anti-bodies which bind to
the HCG-antibody-gold
complex.
How the dipstick works
Draw how a pregnancy test kit
works
Why the second blue strip?

to prove that the mobile monoclonal antibodies have

moved to the top of the strip or past the large window /
proves viability or activity of antibodies;
Anabolic steroids
• Anabolic steroids
stimulate anabolic
reactions in the body
– Large molecules are built
up from smaller ones
– Increase protein synthesis
– Increase muscle growth
• Steroids are
– Derived from cholesterol
– Lipid soluble so can diffuse
into cells

Nandrolone
• Urine samples are tested using gas chromatography
1. The sample is vaporised in the presence of a
gaseous solvent
2. It is passed down a long tube lined with an
absorbing agent.
3. Each substance dissolves differently in the gas and
stays there for a unique, specific time- the retention
time
4. Eventually, the substance leaves the gas and is
absorbed by the lining
5. It is then analysed to make a chromatogram
6. Standard samples of drugs and urine samples are
run so drugs can be identified and quantified in the
chromatogram.
How can Urine be used to test for drug use in sport?

• Anabolic steroids increase protein synthesis in cells

• Causes build up of tissue in the muscles
• Have a half life of 16 hours
• Gas chromatography used to detect presence of
steroids
• Sample is vapourised with a solvent and passed down a
tube
• Absorption agent in tube lining is analysed to make a
chromatogram
 Anabolic Steroids
• Urine testing
– Gas chromatography to create a
chromatogram
– Test for presence of nandrolone
– Although difficult to ascertain what is an
abnormal level
 Why is the selling and use of
steroids by athletes unethical?
• The liver is responsible for producing
enzymes which detoxify alcohol by
breaking it down into smaller units. This
breakdown by enzymes uses NAD. This
means that other reactions that use NAD
are less likely to take place. The build up
of fats in the liver is one of the first signs of
liver damage due to excessive alcohol
intake.
• Using the information in the diagram
above, explain why the build up of fats
occurs in the liver of an individual who
consumes large amounts of alcohol.
Why alcohol abuse causes fatty
liver (cirrhosis)
(β-)oxidation (of fatty acids) requires NAD;
NAD used in breakdown of alcohol;
NAD is, limiting/in short supply/AW;
Fats/fatty acids, not respired;
Fats formed from fatty acids plus glycerol;
AVP; e.g. further detail of alcohol/fat
metabolism
Excretion revision questions
Q 4 January 2010
Q2 June 2010
Q2 June 2012
Do Now!
Back
Q5 June 2011
Q4 January 2011
Q6 January 2013
Q 6 January 2004
8 marks (7 for content and 1 for QWC)
 Detoxification of alcohol

Why does alcohol abuse causes fatty liver

(cirrhosis)?
 Fatty Liver
• NAD is used to
oxidise fatty acids in
the liver
– If NAD is reduced it
can not oxidise the
fatty acids, which
accumulate and are
converted into fat
– The fat is deposited
in the liver where it is
stored in hepatocytes
 Why alcohol abuse causes fatty
liver (cirrhosis)
(β-)oxidation (of fatty acids) requires NAD;
NAD used in breakdown of alcohol;
NAD is, limiting/in short supply/AW;
Fats/fatty acids, not respired;
Fats formed from fatty acids plus glycerol;
AVP; e.g. further detail of alcohol/fat
metabolism
1. Draw urinary system to include urethra,
ureter, bladder, kidney, renal artery, renal
vein

2. Draw and label the nephron

Excretion Questions
1.Describe what deamination is ketoacid,
amino group
2.Draw the ornithine cycle citruline, arginine,
urea, ammonia
3.Describe ultrafiltration in detail 3 functional
units, afferent arterriole, name the molecules,
glomerular filtrate
4.Explain how water is conserved in the PCT -
glomerular filtrate
 ammonia
ammonia
NH 3
NH 3
Citruline

CO ATP
2

H2O H2O
ornithine

arginine

urea
H2O
CO(NH )2
2
Have a go at the following past
exam question
Back
Excretion Questions
5. Explain how water is conserved in the loop of Henle Cl-,
osmosis, H____ C_____ M_______, limbs
6.Describe how an amino acid is selectively reabsorbed PCT,
ACTIVE TRANSPORT, COTRANSPORTER
7.How does the concentration of urea in the glomerular filtrate
change as it travels from the Bowman’s capsule to the distal
convoluted tubule?
8.Describe the structural adaptations of the nephron and PCT
wall for selective reabsorption – Think how rate of diffusion
increases
9.Explain how the body responds (and uses negative
feedback) if the water potential of the blood falls below the
normal range
10.Compare 2 types of dialysis
1. Short diffusion path because:
a) Capillary and tubule wall touch
b) Tubule and capillary wall is one cell

2. Increase SA for diffusion using Brush

border/microvilli and infolds on tubule
membrane
Convoluted: long winding tubule gives
increase SA for diffusion

3. Maintain diffusion gradient: Active

transport of Na+ out of PCT wall allows
diffusion of Na+ and aa/glucose in. Many
mitochondria provide ATP, mito can be
close to carrier proteins in infoldings.
Questions
Excretion Questions
1.Describe what deamination is
2.Draw the ornithine cycle
3.Describe ultrafiltration in detail
4.Explain how water is conserved in the PCT
5.Explain how water is conserved in the loop of Henle
6.Describe how an amino acid is selectively reabsorbed
7.How does the concentration of urea in the glomerular
filtrate change as it travels from the Bowman’s capsule to
the distal convoluted tubule?
8.Describe the structural adaptations of the nephron and
PCT wall for selective reabsorption
9.Explain how the body responds (and uses negative
feedback) if the water potential of the blood falls below
the normal range
10.Compare 2 types of dialysis
• Peritoneal wall is a membrane made up of living cells ✓
• The peritoneum acts as a surface across which waste can be removed.
• The dialysis fluid, containing the sugar dextrose, fills the abdominal
cavity.
• The fluid remains in the abdominal cavity for 4 to 6 hours then drained
• The procedure usually needs to be done four times each day.
• Haemo:
Blood pumped out – no air bubbles, optimum temp
• Dialysis occurs using countercurrent system
• Uses diffusion / osmosis
• Needs anticoagulant
Transplant
• does not require repeated dialysis
• diet less limited
• better quality of life / no longer chronically ill ✓
disadvantage:
idea of difficulty finding donor organ OR risks of surgery OR risks from,
organ rejection / long term immunosuppressant drugs ✓
 Essay
Describe the structure and function of the
liver
1st: Write an essay plan
 Homework – Essay
Describe the structure and function of the
liver
Keywords:
Hepatocyte Bile
Canaliculus Ornithine
Lobule Ethanol
Kupffer Bilirubin
HPV