Photosynthesis in Higher Plant1

PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS
 Physico-chemical process
 Endergonic (Endothermic) process → source of energy → Sunlight

 Anabolic process
 Redox process
o Light Reaction – Oxidation – Splitting of water
o Dark Reaction – Reduction – CO2 fixation
 Uphill process
o Reason: CO2 is a weak electron acceptor.
Photosynthesis is important due to two reasons :

(i) Primary source of all food on earth.
(ii) Release of oxygen into the atmosphere.
EXPERIMENTS:
 Variegated Leaf experiment:
Starch test – Iodine + KI (I2 + I-) = I3-
Conclusion: Photosynthesis occurred only in the green parts of the leaves in the presence of light.
 Moll's Half leaf experiment

KOH absorbs CO2
Exposed part leaf tests positive for starch test.
Conclusion: CO2 is required for photosynthesis.
 Joseph Priestley
o Revealed the essential role of air in the growth of green plants in 1770.
Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 2
o Discovered oxygen in 1774

o Plants restore to the air whatever breathing animals and burning candles remove.
 Jan Ingenhousz
o Sunlight is essential to the plant process (photosynthesis) that somehow purifies the air fouled by
burning candles or breathing animals.
o Experiment with an aquatic plant showed that in bright sunlight, small bubbles were formed around the
green parts while in the dark they did not.
o Only the green part of the plants can release oxygen.
 Julius von Sachs
o In 1854, evidence for production of glucose when plants grow.
o Glucose is usually stored as starch.
o The green substance in plants is located in special bodies within plant cells.
Today, the green colour substance → Chlorophyll
Special bodies → Chloroplasts
 By the middle of the 19 century
th
The empirical equation representing the total process of photosynthesis for oxygen evolving organisms
 Cornelius Van Niel

o Studied on Purple and Green Bacteria
o Photosynthesis is essentially a light-dependent reaction in which hydrogen from a suitable oxidisable
compound reduces carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
o In green plants and BGA, H2O is the hydrogen donor and is oxidised to O2.
o In purple and green sulphur bacteria H2S is the hydrogen donor and is oxidised to sulphur or sulphate
depending on the organism.
o “He inferred that the O2 evolved by the green plant comes from H2O, not from CO2 ”
 Robert Hill and Bendall:
o Detailed study of light reaction and proposed Z scheme.
o Robert Hill illuminated the isolated chloroplasts of Stellaria media in the presence of hydrogen acceptors
(ferricyanides) in the absence of carbon dioxide.
o The Chloroplasts evolved oxygen.
DCPIP (Dichlorophenol indophenol) is a blue colour dye, which become colourless on reduction.
Lakshay Goyal | Photosynthesis in higher plants
 Ruben, Hasid and Kamen:

Proved - O2 evolved by the green plant comes from H2O, not from CO2 by using radioisotopic techniques.
Overall Process of Photosynthesis:

Ques: Can you explain why twelve molecules of water as substrate are used in the above equation?
Ans. To make one molecule of glucose total six turns of Calvin cycle are required. Per Calvin cycle there is a need of 2
NADPH(H+) and to fulfil this need 2 molecules of H2O splits. Therefore splitting of total 12 molecules of H2O
occur.
Where does photosynthesis take place?

In the green leaves, sepals, herbaceous stem and unripe green fruits (green chilly, green tomato) etc.
Note - Etiolation: the presence of non-green plastids (etioplasts) in plant tissues due to absence or poor light
conditions. Characterized by long, weak stems; smaller leaves due to longer internodes; and a pale yellow color
(chlorosis).
Photosynthetic Pigments:
Leaf pigments can be separated from any green plant through paper chromatography, and the picture obtained is
called chromatogram.
Chromatographic separation of the leaf pigments shows that the colour we see in leaves is not due to a single
pigment but due to four pigments.
Types of pigments:
(A) Chlorophylls (B) Carotenoids (C) Phycobillins

(A) Chlorophylls :
 green colour pigments
 occur inside chloroplast
 lipid in nature
 insoluble in water
 soluble in organic solvents
Types of chlorophyll:
(1) Chlorophyll ‘a’:

 Bluish green or bright green pigment
 Molecular formula: C55H72O5N4 Mg.
 A universal photosynthetic pigment
Reason: Present in every photosynthetic organism.
 A primary photosynthetic pigment.
Reason: Primary reaction of photosynthesis which involve conversion of light energy into chemical
energy (ATP and NADPH) is mediated by chl-a molecule (Reaction center)
 Most abundant photosynthetic pigment.
Three minerals are essential for chlorophyll synthesis namely Mg, Fe and N (Mg and N are structural
constituent)
Light is compulsory for chlorophyll synthesis.
Structure of chlorophyll-a: look like a tadpole
 Porphyrin Head:
 Hydrophilic
 Acidic in nature
 Tetrapyrrole Structure
 Mg is held by two covalent and two
coordinate bonds
 Phytol Tail: [C20H39OH]
 Hydrophobic
 Alcoholic in nature
 Embedded in lipid bilayer of thylakoid
membrane
(2) Chlorophyll ‘b’:
 Yellow green pigment
 Molecular formula: C55H70O6N4 Mg
 Structurally similar to chlorophyll a, except it has –CHO group in place of - CH3 at III position of II
pyrrole ring.
(3) Chlorophyll ‘c’ : blue-green colour pigment

 Molecular formula: C35H32N4O5Mg
 lacks phytol tail
 Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, Brown Algae
(4) Bacteriochlorophyll or Bacteriopurpurin:
 purple colour pigment,
 molecular formula: C55H74O6N4Mg
 occur in purple bacteria.
(5) Bacterioviridin or chlorobium chlorophyll:
 green colour pigment
 Molecular formula: C51H67O4N4Mg
 occur inside green bacteria.
(B) Carotenoids :
 Yellow to yellow orange colour pigments
 occur alone inside chromoplast and occur alongwith chlorophylls inside chloroplast.
 universal in occurrence (except eubacteria)
 insoluble in water
 Chemically - terpenes
 Considered as most stable pigments.
 Light is not necessary for their synthesis.
 They are hydrocarbons with conjugated double bonds (–CH=CH–CH=CH–)
Accessory pigments / Antenna molecules
All pigments except Chl. ‘a’ are accessory pigments.

Thylakoid pigments like chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids are accessory pigments.
Function:
 Enable a wider range of wavelength of incoming light to be utilised for photosynthesis.
 Protect chl-a from photo oxidation
 Carotenoids also protect photosynthetic machinery by converting lethal nascent oxygen into
unharmful molecular oxygen, thus called shield pigments.
(C) Phycobillins
 hot water soluble (C33H38N4O6)

 open tetrapyrrole pigments which are associated with proteins
 lack Mg and phytol tail.
 Types :
(i) Phycocyanin – Blue
(ii) Phycoerythrin – Red
(iii) Allophycocyanin – Light blue
They occur exclusively in BGA and Red algae as an accessory pigments.

Absorption spectrum:
Graphic representation of absorption of different wavelength of light by various pigment molecules. (chl-a,
chl-b and carotenoids)
T.W. Engelmann (1843-1909):

 Described the first action spectrum of photosynthesis.
 By using a prism he split sunlight into its spectral components (VIBGYOR) and then
illuminated a green algae, Cladophora placed in a suspension of aerobic bacteria.
 “The bacteria were used to detect the sites of O2 evolution”
 Bacteria accumulated mainly

in the region of blue and red
light of the split spectrum.
 Most of the photosynthesis
takes place in the blue and red
regions of the spectrum.
 It resembles roughly the
absorption spectra of
chlorophyll a and b.
 Some photosynthesis does
take place at the other
wavelengths of the visible
spectrum.
 Chlorophyll is the major
pigment responsible for
trapping light.
 Most abundant plant pigment
in the world – Ch. ‘a’
 Max. absorption by Chl. ‘a’ at
wavelength app. 430 nm
(blue)
There is no complete one to one overlap between the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll ‘a’ and the action
spectrum of photosynthesis because at certain points action is more than absorption because wavelengths not
absorbed by chlorophyll ‘a’ are absorbed by accessory pigments and transferred to reaction centre (chlorophyll a).
Mechanism of photosynthesis:
1) Light Reaction
2) Dark Reaction
WHAT IS LIGHT REACTION?
Light reactions or the ‘Photochemical’ phase include
 light absorption,
 water splitting,
 oxygen release, and
 the formation of high energy chemical intermediates - ATP and NADPH.
Photosynthetic Units/ Pigment systems:
 The pigments are organised into two discrete photochemical light harvesting complexes (LHC) within the
photosystem-I (PS-I) and photosystem-II (PS-II) (named in the sequence of their discovery)
 The LHC are made up of hundreds of pigment molecules - quantasomes (250-400) bound to proteins.
 Each photosystem has all the pigments (except one molecule of chl.-a) forming a light harvesting system also
called antennae.
 The single chlorophyll-a molecule forms the reaction centre.
Photosystem I Photosystem II
1. Located in non-appressed parts of grana thylakoid 1. Usually located at appressed parts of grana
and stroma lamellae thylakoids.
2. Its reaction centre is P 700 2. Its reaction centre is P 680
3. It has reducing nature (reduce NADP+) 3. It has oxidizing nature (oxidise H2O)
4. Not associated with splitting of water 4. Associated with splitting of water & release of O2
5. Participates in both cyclic and non-cyclic 5. Participates only in non-cyclic
photophosphorylation photophosphorylation
Photolysis of water:
 Occurs at grana i.e., lumen side of grana thylakoid membrane with the help of water splitting complex or
OEC (oxygen evolving complex).
 Associated with PS-II of Z-scheme.
 The electrons that are moved from photosystem II are replaced by electrons available due to splitting of
water.
The electrons needed to replace those removed from photosystem I are provided by photosystem II
 Three minerals Mn ion, Ca++, Cl– are associated with splitting of water
 Water is split into 2H+, [O] and electrons.
 Protons or hydrogen ions that are produced by the splitting of water accumulate within the lumen of the
thylakoids while O2 released outside
Overall Reaction:
Antenna or accessory pigments receive radiant energy and transfer it

among themselves. This transfer of energy is known as resonance transfer.
Then antenna molecules excited and transfer their energy to Chl. ‘a’
molecules of reaction centre. It is k/n as Inductive resonance.
Photophosphorylation:
Photophosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate in the presence of light.
It is of two types (according to Arnon et. al.):
(a) Cyclic photophosphorylation

(b) Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Cyclic photophosphorylation:
 only PS-I is functional -independently

 PS-I activated by wavelength beyond 680 nm.
 Possible location – stroma lamellae
 No oxygen evolution
 No photolysis of water
 External source of electron not required.
 Synthesizes only ATP.
 No NADPH production
 Operates under low light intensity, anaerobic
conditions or poor availability of CO2.
 Plastocyanin (PC) is Cu containing blue
coloured protein
 First e- acceptor is FRS (Ferredoxin Reducing
Substance) which is Fe-S containing protein.
Non-Cyclic photophosphorylation: (Z - Scheme)

 Oxygen liberated
 Photolysis of water occurs
 External source of
electron required.
 Synthesizes ATP and
NADPH + H+
 Operates under optimum
light, aerobic conditions
and in presence of CO2
 FNR = Ferredoxin NADP+
oxido-reductase enzyme
Transfers e- b/n Fd and
NADPH.
 The NADP reductase
enzyme is located on the
stroma side of the
membrane.
 Energy is used to pump
protons across a membrane,
to create a gradient or a high
concentration of protons
within the thylakoid lumen.
 Both PS-I (receive red light of wavelength 700 nm) and PS-II (Reaction
centre Chl. ‘a’ absorbs 680 nm wavelength of red light)
 Occurs only in Grana thylakoids
 e- ejected from PS-II never returns & finally gained by NADP+
 The primary accepter of electron which is located towards the outer side of the membrane transfers its
electron not to an electron carrier but to an H carrier.
 Scheme of transfer of electrons:
Starting from the PS II → uphill to the acceptor → down the electron transport chain to PS I → excitation of
electrons → transfer to another acceptor → finally downhill to NADP+ reducing it to NADPH + H+ is called the
Z scheme
 Phaeophytin: It is derived from chlorophyll ‘a’ where, Mg is replaced by 2 H. It acts as a primary (First)
electron acceptor of Z scheme.
 Final e- acceptor is NADP+ (Hill reagent)
 During non-cyclic ETS, 3 ATP and 2 NADPH + H+ produced (2 mol. of water is photolysed and 1 O2 released).
 Eight photons are required to yield three molecules of ATP (2.7 photons per ATP).
Note: Cyclic photophosphorylation is a somewhat more productive way to synthesize ATP than noncyclic
photophosphorylation (the Z scheme). The absorption of four photons by photosystem-I leads to the release
of eight protons into the lumen by the cytochrome bf system. These protons flow through ATP synthase to yield
two molecules of ATP. Thus, each two absorbed photons yield one molecule of ATP. No NADPH is produced.
Quantum requirement –
The number of light Quanta or photons required for the evolution of 1 mol. of O2 in photosynthesis. Emerson
calculated that the quantum requirement is 8.
Quantum Yield –
The number of oxygen molecule evolved by one quantum of light in photosynthesis is called as Quantum
yield. Hence the quantum yield is 0.125 or 12.5%
Emerson effect and Red drop:

Emerson and Arnold experimented upon Chlorella.
Observation:
 Reported minimum photosynthetic yield, when supplied monochromatic beam of 700 nm or > 680 nm only.
(Red drop)
 Reported enhancement in photosynthetic yield, when both 700 nm and 680 nm supplied together
(Enhancement effect or Emerson effect)
Conclusion:
Two types of photosystems (PS-I and PS-II) exist in photosynthetic units. They operate simultaneously and
their operation / activation required 700 nm and 680 nm radiation.
Previous Year Questions
Ques. In photosystem-I, the first electron acceptor is AIPMT 2006

(1) Plastocyanin (2) An iron-sulphur protein (3) Ferredoxin (4) Cytochrome
Ques. The first acceptor of electrons from an excited chlorophyll molecule of photosystem II is:- AIPMT 2007,08
(1) Quinone (2) Cytochrome (3) Iron-sulphur protein (4) Ferredoxin
Ques. Read the following four statements, A, B, C and D and select the right option having both correct statements.
Statements: AIPMT 2010
(A) Z scheme of light reaction takes place in presence of PS-I only.
(B) Only PS-I is functional in cyclic photophosphorylation
(C) Cyclic photophosphorylation results into synthesis of ATP and NADPH(H+ )
(D) Stroma lamellae lack PS-II as well as NADP reductase
Options:
(1) A and B (2) B and C (3) C and D (4) B and D
Ques. In photosynthesis, the light-independent reactions take place at: AIPMT 2015
(1) Stromal matrix (2) Thylakoid lumen (3) Photosystem-I (4) Photosystem-II
Ques. The oxygen evolved during photosynthesis comes from water molecules. Which one of the following pairs of
elements is involved in this reaction? AIPMT 2015
(1) Magnesium and Chlorine
(2) Manganese and Chlorine
(3) Manganese and Potassium
(4) Magnesium and Molybdenum
Ques. Emerson's enhancement effect and red drop have been instrumental in the discovery of:- NEET 2016
(1) Photophosphorylation and non-cyclic electron transport

(2) Two photosystems operating simultaneously
(3) Photophosphorylation and cyclic electron transport
(4) Oxidative phosphorylation
Ques. In a chloroplast the highest number of protons are found in:- NEET 2016
(1) Stroma (2) Lumen of thylakoids (3) Inter membrane space (4) Antennae complex
Ques. Which of the following is not a product of light reaction of photosynthesis? NEET 2018
(1) ATP (2) NADH (3) NADPH (4) Oxygen
Ques. Which of the following statements is incorrect? NEET 2021
(1) Cyclic photophosphorylation involves both PS I and PS II

(2) Both ATP and NADPH + H+ are synthesized during non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
(3) Stroma lamellae have PS I only and lack NADP reductase.
(4) Grana lamellae have both PS I and PS II.
Ques. How many electrons, protons and photons are involved in the lysis of water to evolve one molecule of
oxygen?
(1) 4e-, 4H+ and 4 photons

Chemiosmotic hypothesis:
 By Peter Mitchell
 Explains the mechanism of ATP synthesis in photosynthesis (Photophosphorylation) and in respiration
(oxidative phosphorylation)
Photophosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation
1. Membranes through which proton gradient 1. Membrane through which proton gradient
develop, are the membranes of thylakoid develop, is the inner membrane of
mitochondria
2. Protons accumulate towards the inner side of 2. Protons accumulate towards the outer side of
the membrane, i.e., in the lumen. the inner membrane i.e., in the intermembrane
space.
3. Light energy is utilised for the production of 3. Energy of oxidation reduction utilised for same
proton gradient required for phosphorylation process.
 ATP synthesis is linked to development of a proton gradient across a membrane.

What causes the proton gradient across the membrane?
 Splitting of the water molecule.
The protons or hydrogen ions accumulate within the lumen of the thylakoids.
 Influx of H+ ions during the electron transport by PQ.
 Reduction of NADP+ to NADPH+ H+. Protons are removed from the stroma.
The ATP synthase enzyme consists of two parts:
(a) CF0:
o embedded in the membrane and forms a trans-membrane channel
o carries out facilitated diffusion of protons across the membrane.
(b) CF1 :
o Protrude on the outer surface of the thylakoid membrane on the side
that faces the stroma.
Requirements of chemiosmosis:
(i) A membrane (ii) A proton pump (iii) A proton gradient (iv) ATP synthase enzyme
DARK REACTION
 Biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis

 Does not directly depend on the presence of light but is dependent on the product of the light reaction i.e,
ATP and NADPH, besides CO2 and H2O.
 Occurs at fluid of stroma
 Also called Blackman’s reaction or Biosynthetic phase

 Reductive step (CO2 reduced) of photosynthesis.
 Three different ways :
[A] C3 pathway [B] C4 pathway [C] CAM pathway
C3 pathway consists of only C3 cycle or Calvin cycle while C4 pathway and CAM pathway consists of both C3
cycle and C4 cycle. Therefore, Calvin cycle occurs in all photosynthetic plants.
The Calvin Cycle:

The use of radioisotope 14C by Calvin in algal (Chlorella)
photosynthesis studies led to the discovery that the first CO2
fixation product is a 3-carbon organic acid called 3-
phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA). It has 3 carbons thus cycle
named C3 cycle.
Melvin Calvin and his co-workers then worked out the whole
pathway and showed that the pathway operated in cyclic
manner.
RuBisCO:
 Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase enzyme
 Former name was carboxydismutase
 Most abundant protein on the earth
 Dual nature - can bind with CO2 (carboxylase) as well as O2 (oxygenase)
More affinity with CO2

 Binding of CO2 or O2 is competitive with active site. It is the relative concentration of O2 and CO2 in the
stroma of chloroplast that determines which of the two will bind to the enzymes.
 Mg and Red light are necessary for activation of enzyme RuBisCO
 For every CO2 molecule entering the Calvin cycle, 3 molecules of ATP and 2 of NADPH are required.
 It is probably to meet this difference in number of ATP and NADPH used in the dark reaction that the cyclic
phosphorylation takes place.
The C4 pathway or Hatch and Slack pathway:

The first stable product is a 4-carbon compound (oxaloacetic acid). So called as C4 pathway.
• It was discovered by two Australian scientists, Marshall Davidson Hatch and Charles Roger Slack, in 1966. Hence, it
is also known as the Hatch-Slack pathway.
Plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions have the C4 pathway. Such plants are called C4 plants.
C4 plants: Sugarcane, Maize, Sorghum, Amaranthus, Salsola, Atriplex etc.
Special features of C4 plants:
(i) They have a special type of leaf anatomy i.e., Kranz anatomy.
(ii) They tolerates higher temperatures.
Reason: Pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PPDK) a low temperature sensitive enzyme of C4. Thus, C4 plants
show poor rate of photosynthesis at low temperature.
(iii) They show a response to high light intensities.
(iv) They lack of process called photorespiration. Thus, they have a greater productivity of biomass.
(v) The evolution of the C4 photosynthetic system is probably one of the strategy for maximising the
availability of CO2 while minimising water loss. C4 plants are twice as efficient as C3 plants in terms of
fixing carbon (making sugar).
C4 plants loses only half as much water as a C3 plant for
the same amount of CO2 fixed.
Features of Kranz Anatomy:
(i) Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy

tissue.
(ii) Cells of bundle sheath arranged in concentric rings around
vascular bundle. (Wreath manner)
(iii) Cells of mesophyll and bundle sheath are interconnected
by plasmodesmata.
(iv) Bundle sheath cells may form several layers
around the vascular bundle ;
They are characterised by:
(a) Having a large number of chloroplast
(b) Thick walls impervious to gaseous exchange
(c) No intercellular spaces.
C4 plants are also characterised by dimorphic

chloroplast:
(a) Chloroplasts of mesophyll cells are small in

size and granal (with grana)
(b) Chloroplasts of bundle sheath cells are large
in size and agranal (without grana)
Mechanism of C4 pathway:
 The primary CO2 acceptor is a 3-carbon molecule

phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) and is present in the
mesophyll cells
 Mesophyll cells in C4 plants lack RuBisCO enzyme.
 Bundle Sheath cells are rich in RuBisCO but lacks
PEPcase.
 Regeneration of PEP from C3 acid requires
2 ATP equivalent (ATP → AMP + 2 Pi)
 ATP consumed in C4 plants:

C4 cycle – 2 ATP per CO2 fixed
C3 cycle – 3 ATP per CO2 fixed
Total – 5 ATP per CO2 fixed
To form hexose sugar:
Importance of C4 plants:
 Can tolerate saline conditions due to abundant organic acids, lowers water potential.
 Can perform photosynthesis even when their stomata are closed due to presence of strong CO2 fixing
PEPcase.
 Concentric arrangement of cells in leaf produces small area in relation to volume for better water utilization.
 Photosynthesis in C4 plants is relatively less limited by atmospheric CO2 levels because CO2 effectively
pumped into bundle sheath cells. Therefore,
(a) Little or no chance of photorespiration.
(b) CO2 is not a limiting factor for C4 plants.
CAM Pathway:
 CAM pathway (Crassulacean acid metabolism) was discovered by Oleary and Rouhani.
 They observed that CO2 fixation occurs during night in members of Crassulaceae family (succulent
xerophytes).
 Succulents or CAM plants are characterised by scotoactive stomata (stomata open during night and remain
closed during day time)
CAM Plants: Kalanchoe, Bryophyllum, Opuntia, Agave, Aloe, Sedum, Euphorbia, Pineapple, Welwitschia
(Gymnosperm)
 These plants are adapted to water conservation.

 Primary acceptor of CO2 is PEP and OAA is the first product.
 PEPcase and RuBisCO both are present in mesophyll cells.
 CAM cycle have the slowest photosynthetic rate while C4 pathway has highest rate.
 CAM plants better suited to adverse conditions (extreme dessication)
Warburg Effect: It is the decrease in rate of photosynthesis by high oxygen conc. Oxygen is a competitive inhibitor of
the carbon dioxide fixation by RuBisCO. Furthermore, oxygen promotes photorespiration which reduces
photosynthetic output.
Photorespiration:
 Also called PCO (photosynthetic carbon oxidation) cycle or C2 -

cycle or glycolate metabolism.
 discovered by Decker and Tio in tobacco (a C3 plant)
 Photorespiration is a wasteful process because there is neither
synthesis of sugars nor of ATP and NADPH. Rather it results in
the release of CO2 with the utilisation of ATP.
 Approximately 25% carbon is lost during this process.
 Photorespiration is a characteristic of C3 plants.
 Three cell organelles are required to complete a turn of PCO
cycle, namely - chloroplast, peroxisome and mitochondria.
 Oxygen is first utilised in Chloroplast than in peroxisomes.
 Loss of CO2 occurs in mitochondria
Conditions that favour photorespiration:
(a) High light intensities: It is considered as main condition for

photorespiration. This leads to:
(b) Higher concentration of O2 and lower concentration of CO2 inside

mesophyll cells (under such condition RuBisCO binds with O2 and acts as
an oxygenase enzyme).
(c) High temperatures.
Note:
In C4 plants photorespiration does not occur. This is because they have a mechanism that increases the
concentration of CO2 at the enzyme site. This takes place when the C4 acid from the mesophyll is broken down in the
bundle sheath cells to release CO2 – this results in increasing the intracellular concentration of CO2. In turn, this
ensures that the RuBisCO functions as a carboxylase minimising the oxygenase activity.
C4 plants lack photorespiration, therefore productivity and yields are better in these plants. In addition these plants
show tolerance to higher temperatures.
Lakshay Goyal | Photosynthesis in higher plants Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

 Endergonic (Endothermic) process → source of energy → Sunlight

Photosynthesis is important due to two reasons :

 Variegated Leaf experiment:

Starch test – Iodine + KI (I2 + I-) = I3-

 Moll's Half leaf experiment

Conclusion: CO2 is required for photosynthesis.

o Discovered oxygen in 1774

 Cornelius Van Niel

 Ruben, Hasid and Kamen:

Overall Process of Photosynthesis:

Where does photosynthesis take place?

(A) Chlorophylls (B) Carotenoids (C) Phycobillins

(1) Chlorophyll ‘a’:

Light is compulsory for chlorophyll synthesis.

Structure of chlorophyll-a: look like a tadpole

(3) Chlorophyll ‘c’ : blue-green colour pigment

Accessory pigments / Antenna molecules

All pigments except Chl. ‘a’ are accessory pigments.

 hot water soluble (C33H38N4O6)

They occur exclusively in BGA and Red algae as an accessory pigments.

T.W. Engelmann (1843-1909):

 Bacteria accumulated mainly

WHAT IS LIGHT REACTION?

Light reactions or the ‘Photochemical’ phase include

Photosynthetic Units/ Pigment systems:

Antenna or accessory pigments receive radiant energy and transfer it

It is of two types (according to Arnon et. al.):

(a) Cyclic photophosphorylation

 only PS-I is functional -independently

Non-Cyclic photophosphorylation: (Z - Scheme)

Emerson effect and Red drop:

Previous Year Questions

Ques. In photosystem-I, the first electron acceptor is AIPMT 2006

(1) Photophosphorylation and non-cyclic electron transport

Ques. Which of the following statements is incorrect? NEET 2021

(1) Cyclic photophosphorylation involves both PS I and PS II

(1) 4e-, 4H+ and 4 photons

 ATP synthesis is linked to development of a proton gradient across a membrane.

The ATP synthase enzyme consists of two parts:

 Biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis

 Also called Blackman’s reaction or Biosynthetic phase

The Calvin Cycle:

More affinity with CO2

The C4 pathway or Hatch and Slack pathway:

C4 plants: Sugarcane, Maize, Sorghum, Amaranthus, Salsola, Atriplex etc.

Special features of C4 plants:

Features of Kranz Anatomy:

(i) Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy

C4 plants are also characterised by dimorphic

(a) Chloroplasts of mesophyll cells are small in

 The primary CO2 acceptor is a 3-carbon molecule

 ATP consumed in C4 plants:

To form hexose sugar:

 These plants are adapted to water conservation.

 Also called PCO (photosynthetic carbon oxidation) cycle or C2 -

Conditions that favour photorespiration:

(a) High light intensities: It is considered as main condition for

(b) Higher concentration of O2 and lower concentration of CO2 inside

(c) High temperatures.

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