Examining Parental Involvement in Private Rural Grade Schools Through Epstein's Model

Asia Pacific Journal of Human Development and Family Studies (AHEAD) 2022: 1 (1)
Examining Parental Involvement in Private Rural Grade Schools Through Epstein’s

Model
Arlene U. Cauilan and Catherine A. Salazar2*
1
1
DepEd, Schools Division of Aurora, 2Philippine Normal University (Philippines)
*
Corresponding author, E-mail address: salazar.ca@pnu.edu.ph
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study is to determine the profile of parents in private rural grade
schools, examine their parental involvement in the schooling of their children through
the Epstein school-family-community relationship model, and analyze the relationship
of the parents’ profile with parental involvement. The study is quantitative and
specifically utilized a descriptive research design. A total enumeration of 281 parents
from three Catholic grade schools in the central of Aurora, a rural province in Region
III of the Philippines, composed the respondents of the study. The validated
researcher-developed survey questionnaire is the primary instrument in data
gathering. Data were statistically analyzed using five-point Likert scale, frequency
count, percentage, weighted mean, and Kendal Tau-b. Most of the respondents are
female parents, engaged in professional occupations, belonging to low income but not
poor, earned degree in college, with two children, and whose houses are in near
proximity to the school. Epstein’s school-family-community relationship model
categorized parental involvement into six types: parenting, communicating,
volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the
community. It was found out that parents in private rural grade schools are always
involved in parenting and learning at home, very often involved in communicating and
in decision making, and sometimes involved in volunteering and in collaborating with
the community. The study concluded that there is a significant relationship between
the profile of the parents and their school involvement, specifically their educational
attainment. Tailored parents’ involvement programs and activities are recommended
as a result of the study.
Keywords: Parental Involvement, Epstein Model, Private Rural Schools, School-

Family-Community Relationship
INTRODUCTION
United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 4 is focused on ensuring inclusive and
equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all. In the Philippines,
Article XIV, Section 1 of its 1987 Constitution, provides that it is the responsibility of the state to
protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education and in making education accessible
to all at all levels. The country’s Republic Act No. 8980 otherwise known as the Early Childhood
Care and Development (ECCD) Act declared to promote children’s rights to survival, development,
and special protection and to assist parents as the primary caregivers and first teachers of the children.
The enactment of Republic Act No. 10533 (Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013) was considered
a big leap to transform education quality and access for basic education learners in the country. DepEd
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Order No. 021, s. 2019 presents policy guidelines on its implementation and specifically stipulates
that the goal of elementary education is to engage learners in rich, vibrant, and culture-based
experiences that they can connect to other learning areas. However, an ancient proverb says that it
takes a village to educate a child. This means that putting the vision of providing quality and equitable
education for the children need a collaborative effort not only among the child’s family and school’s
stakeholders but of all the different sectors of the society.
From this perspective emerged the inquiry regarding parental involvement. Parental
involvement refers to the degree of participation that parents perform when it comes to education
access and opportunities for their children (Bartolome et al., 2017). Parents’ involvement also
describes the interest that the parents have in the schooling of their children. Article 209 of the
Family Code of the Philippines states that the moral, mental, and physical character development and
well-being of the children are included in parental authority and responsibility (Executive Order No.
209, 1987). Article 76 of Child and Youth Welfare Code states that the total school program
towards child’s physical, social, intellectual, and moral proper development must be fully supported
by every Filipino home (Presidential Decree No. 603, 1974).
Home is where family ties are nurtured and where one feels a sense of belonging. Parents
need to guide their children and set good examples for their children to follow and emulate. Parents
are responsible in providing and securing the well-rounded development of their children by giving
attention to their physical, emotional, social, intellectual, moral, and spiritual needs. With these,
children build a stronger relationship with their parents and, eventually, with other people. Studies
on parent involvement use different variables including the type and amount of parent-school
communication, the time parents spent as volunteers in schools, parents’ attendance at community
activities related to education, and even the frequency of parents’ school visit in a school year.
Parents’ support in homework and school activities and their volunteerism in school programs were
also the focus of some related studies. In the early childhood development of the child, parental
involvement plays crucial role in broadening the horizons, in enhancing social relationship, and in
developing the self-efficacy and self-esteem of the child (Faniyi, 2011). Looking into family as the
basic unit of society, children’s parents and their families are playing primary roles in the effective
education of every child; that’s why schools focus on methods to make parents view supporting
children’s education as part of their family life similar with how each family is considered by schools
as part of the education process.
School-family-community relationship is a primary concept when it comes to effective
parents’ involvement. It refers to a reciprocal process and shared responsibility by which schools,
community, and organizations engage families to meaningful activities and provide family-children
support. This, in turn, requires parents to actively engage in the development and education of their
children. Schools need inputs and assistance from students’ families and the community in order to
provide students with rich and diverse meaningful experiences at school (Sanders & Epstein, 2005).
In the Philippines, the Department of Education (DepEd) has been implementing programs that
target to engage parents in child’s schooling. Examples are utilizing parent-teacher association (PTA)
and the Brigada-Eskwela. Article 77 of the Child and Youth Welfare Code mandates that organization
of parent-teachers associations intend to provide means of communication regarding school
programs’ issues and ensure parents’ full cooperation in the education process of every child
(Presidential Decree No. 603, 1974). The code mandated also that PTA shall aid the local
government and authorities in promoting child welfare and enforcing measures related to juvenile
delinquency. DepEd Order 54, s. 2009 also emphasized that PTA shall provide mechanism of proper
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coordination with the community regarding school concerns and support schools in promoting
parent-school common interests. Brigada Eskwela, on the other hand, according to DepEd Order
No. 24, s. 2008, institutionalized a week-long school maintenance program of schools nationwide
that engages school internal and external stakeholders in doing minor to medium repairs in the school
and in preparing the school for the opening of classes. This program invites voluntary efforts as well
as contribution of time and resources from local communities, individuals, teachers, parents, civic
groups, and school alumni.
However, Bartolome et al. (2017) argued that even with these policies, programs and
current practices being implement, national policies and frameworks are not fully supporting early
childhood education. Among the challenges in parental involvement, according to Abrahams ( 2013),
are poverty and unemployment, single parenting, poor home structure, lacking educational
stimulation, inequalities and lack of educational resources together with other schools and
community factors. The results of Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018, Asia
Primary Learning Metrics (SEA-PLM) 2019, and Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study 2019 implied that Philippine education is very alarming; and World Bank commented that
reflects an education crisis in the Philippines which has already started even before COVID-19 onset
and was even worsened by the pandemic (Gita-Carlos, 2021). Due to COVID-19 pandemic, the
Philippine education was set into remote learning for two consecutive school years. This means that
the supervision of education at home was primarily dependent on the effort of the children’s parents
and families. The current school year 2022-2023 still needs major parental involvement as the
learning modality in different localities is still not in full face-to-face. Strong partnership and
collaboration with parents help teachers execute printed modular learning modality (Palad, 2022).
Parental involvement through school-family-community relationship is much needed now, specially
that the children need to catch up with numeracy and literacy competencies. As a response to the
World Bank report, DepEd incited prioritizing the improvement of literacy and numeracy in the
basic education of the country amidst the pandemic (Yang, 2022).
Continuous studies and review of parental involvement can provide school administrators,
community leaders with updated and contextualized research-driven data. Reconceptualization of
parents’ involvement must be based on what parents value which can provide implications to
educational policy making and implementation (Stitt & Brooks, 2014). In the context of COVID-19
pandemic where the modality of education switch to online or blended, Shao et al. (2022), found a
positive correlation between parents’ involvement and their satisfaction with online learning. Ates
(2021) also revealed that the relationship of parental involvement with student’s academic
performance is only moderate though recognized that the continuous efforts of schools to improve
parental involvement may contribute to the effectiveness of the school. However, several related
studies concluded on the positive correlation of parental involvement to the academic performance
of the children. Salac & Florida (2022) concluded that the types of parental involvement such as
learning at home, decision making, collaborating with community, and communicating have
significant relationship with the learner’s academic achievement. Increased parental involvement has
shown result of increase student’s access, improved school climate, and enhance satisfaction of
teachers and parents (Đurišić & Bunijevac, 2017). Positive students’ outcomes, enhanced
cooperative behavior, better school attendance, improved school retention, and decrease in dropout
rates are also linked to degree of parents’ involvement (Kocayörük, 2016). When parental
involvement was studied from a different perspective, Marshall & Jackman (2015) found out that
four constructs of parental involvement such as modeling, instruction, encouragement, and
reinforcement of parents manifest positive relationship with secondary students’ academic active
32
engagement. Lara & Saracostti (2019) also worked on data indicating that children whose parents
have low involvement manifest poor academic achievement.
The above premises incited the researchers to work on a study that specifically explores
parental involvement in private rural grade schools. Section 4 of Enhanced Basic Education Act
stipulates that elementary education is the second stage composed of six years compulsory basic
education where the typical entrant age is six years old. During this formative age, parenting and
parental involvement are considered crucial to ensure quality and equitable education to young
children. Learners’ early childhood experiences regarding their well-being, relationship, and
opportunities have a direct link to their adulthood experiences. According to Avvisati et al. (2010),
parental involvement practices that prevalently provide more direct instructions and support happen
in elementary schools.
When studying parents’ involvement, there are different models that schools can adopt.
Bartolome et al. (2017) cited the theory of overlapping spheres explaining that there are practices at
schools, homes, and communities though conducted separately or jointly somehow influence the
learning and the development of the children in various ways. According to Flores & Perez (2022),
the interaction of the school, the family, and the community shows a significant relationship in the
level of performance of the learner. In this study, the researchers considered utilizing Epstein’s
school-family-community relationship model as the framework for understanding parental
involvement in private grade schools in a rural community. Epstein’s types of family involvement
were the most popular framework that researchers utilize to conceptualize and reconceptualize
school-family-community relationship in child’s education (Yamauchi et al., 2017).
Epstein (2002) writes, “the way the school cares about children is reflected in the way schools
care about the children’s families.” The social interaction of schools, families, and communities leads
to the conceptualization of the different types of involvement. According to Epstein (2002), there is
a great benefit when schools establish an effective relationship with the learners’ families and the
community. One is helping children optimize their potentials in their adulthood. This can be achieved
when there are holistic school parental involvement programs that include Epstein’s six types of
involvement such parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and
collaborating with community. Parenting is about providing assistance to children’s families in
understanding principles of the learners’ development from early childhood to adolescence, thereby
helping them create a stimulating home environment. Communicating is about school-home two-
way collaboration utilizing a communication mechanism to work together in monitoring the
academic progress of the children. Volunteering provides children’s families, their parents, and even
the community opportunities to get involved in school programs and activities. Learning at home
refers to how schools and parents collaborate in attending to and sustaining the learners’ curricular-
related goals and activities at home. Decision making supports parent leaders and the involvement of
the parents in school-related decision making as well as how this impact the learners. Collaborating
with the community is providing opportunities to civic groups, community leaders, and community
sectors to provide resources and assistance that support schools, every family, and children’s
education (Epstein, 2002; Epstein, 2018).
The researcher utilized these six types of parental involvement according to Epstein to
specifically examine parental involvement in private grade schools in a rural community and
understand how parents’ profile is significantly related to their involvement. This study specifically
sought to answer the following research questions:
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1. How may the profile of the parent-respondents be described in terms of:

1.1. sex,
1.2. occupation,
1.3. family monthly income,
1.4. highest educational degree,
1.5. number of children, and
1.6. distance of home from school?
2. How may the parents’ involvement in private rural grade schools be described in terms of:
2.1. parenting,
2.2. communicating,
2.3. volunteering,
2.4. learning at home,
2.5. decision-making, and
2.6. collaborating with community?
3. Is there a significant relationship between parents’ profile and parents’ school involvement ?
METHODOLOGY
The study is quantitative in nature and specifically utilized descriptive research design. This
research design describes certain subjects or topics as they are in nature without manipulation of the
variable though it can explore multiple variables (Siedlecki, 2020). The researchers found it fit for
study because the current study focused on describing the respondents’ profile variables, their school
involvement as parents, and the relationship of the latter with the profile data. The study also involved
describing parents’ school involvement through multiple variables based on Epstein’s School-Family-
Community Partnership Model.
A total enumeration of 281 parents were the respondents in this study whose children are
currently enrolled in three Catholic private grade schools in the central area of Aurora province
during the study. The research locale of the study is a rural community in the Region III of the
Philippines. A survey questionnaire was the primary instrument utilized in data gathering. The items
in the researcher-made survey questionnaire were based on Epstein’s school-family-community
model, specifically Epstein’s six types of parental involvement. Upon the validation process of the
survey questionnaire and approval of the concerned school principals, the questionnaires were
accomplished by the parent-respondents during the scheduled parent’s meetings in which the purpose
of the study and confidentiality issues were explained to them. Data gathered were statistically
treated through frequency count, percentage, weighted mean, 5-point Likert scale, and Kendal Tau-
b embedded in the SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) for measure of relationship.
There was no known ethical issues and risk to the respondents in the conduct of this study.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section presents the results of the study and the discussion regarding the profile of the
parent-respondents from private rural grade schools, their parental involvement based on Epstein’s
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Parent-School-Community Partnership Model and types of involvement and the relationship of the
parent profile to their involvement.
1. Profile of Parents in Private Rural Grade Schools
There was a total of 281 respondents in this study who are parents of pupils in private rural
grade schools. Their profile was determined in terms of gender, occupation, family monthly income,
educational attainment, number of children, and distance of home from school. The results of the
study revealed that most of them are female parents (74.7%), engaged to professional occupations
(42.3%), with at least Php 15,000.00 family monthly income (19.9%), earned degree in college
(55.9%), with two children (34.9%), and whose houses are less than one kilometer distance to school
(49.1%).
These results revealed that female parents are more involved in their children’s education as
guardians compared to male parents. It reflects traditional Filipino culture that looking after the
education of the children in the family is primarily a mother’s responsibility. In the context of the
pandemic, Filipino mothers are experiencing struggles financially, physically and emotionally as
working parents, but they are critically aware of their roles in the education of their children and
sustain their school involvement through meeting the child’s basic needs and providing education
support to their children at home like assisting in homework and collaborating with school staff (Lirio
et al., 2022). Additionally, it was also found out that mother’s educational attainment was
significantly associated to school involvement such as volunteering, cultural activities and group
activities (Rawls, 2013). In the exploration of related studies, much studies have been conducted
about mother’s parenting knowledge, style, and practice, thereby suggesting that studies on father’s
parenting may also be explored in future studies.
Albert et al. (2020), cited the Philippine Institute for Development and Studies (PIDS)’ salary
classification showing that Php 10,957.00 - Php 21, 914.00 per month family income classifies
Filipinos belonging to low income but not poor. This means that most of the parent-respondents are
belonging to low-income class but not experiencing poverty given the context that they are living in
rural place where the cost of living is significantly lower when compared to urban places in the
country; that’s why they are still capable sending their children to private institutions. Parents’
education and the family’s financial capability significantly influence the boost in the academic
performance of their children (Rawls, 2013). Strong family socio-economic family background when
combined with government-provided school facilities play significant role in enhancing academic
achievement of learners (Soharwardi et al., 2020). The parent-respondents of this study, being in a
rural setting and with sufficient monthly income, have the capacity to enroll their children in private
institutions, support the needs of their child morally, intellectually, spiritually, and psychologically,
and in a better condition to assist and encourage their children to boost their academic performance
and participation in school activities.
In terms of the number of children, parents having one child or two children can support and
organize family needs easily. Most of the respondents have two children which can be categorized as
small family. Small families can provide the amenities of their children, and it is easy for the parents
to supervise their children than those from large families. Liu & Jiang (2021) found out that only
children in the family tend to have close parent-child relationship. Also, children from small families
tend to have higher school and personal achievement levels than children from larger families. The
number of children in the family also implies that the financial costs of maintaining a household is
lower.
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This study also revealed that most of the parent-respondents live less than one kilometer
from school which is a factor in their children’s school performance. For male primary pupils, school
distance and academic achievement have been found to have significant relationship though the
relationship has not been associated to female pupils (Stanley et al., 2017). Distance from home to
school is also associated as a factor in determining parents’ school involvement. It was believed that
the near the proximity of the parent’s house to the school, the more that the parent is capable of
participating in school activities and in immediately attending to their children’s education needs as
well in attending and assisting in school programs. However, the school choice of parents is a
challenge since multiple schools in close proximity with one another is lacking in many rural
communities (Robson et al., 2020). These results are suspecting that parental involvement can be
better understood when examined from the perspectives of their context and profiles. (Bartolome et
al., 2017) recommended that parents’ involvement programs and activities must be contextualized
based on the cultural factors of Filipino families in order to holistically developed Filipino children.
2. Parents’ Involvement in Private Rural Grade Schools Using Epstein’s Model

2.1 Parenting
In this type of parental involvement, three indicators received the highest weighted means.
They are constantly involved in teaching their children to observe good manners at all times, telling
their children to respect to authorities in school and in the community, and enlightening their
children about how important education is by talking to them about their future. This means that
parents are always involved in teaching their children good behavior which is a basic parenting
responsibility. There is a positive outcome with how parental involvement influence not only the
child’s academic achievement but also the child’s social behavior and mental health (Harris, 2019).
The internalization of sense and value of respect developed among children at home can be reflected
on how they relate to other people outside their homes. Parents as the first teachers are responsible
for the behavior and attitude of the child, especially during their foundation years. Children’s
behavior towards other people and school authorities reflects how they are taught at home.
On the other hand, parent-respondents do not engage in exercise or any physical activities.
This has the lowest weighted mean. This means that parents are emphasizing academic goals more
that encouraging their children about physical exercise, physical habit, and sports activities. Young
learners perceive their parents to be an agent of academic achievement but not of their physically
active lifestyle (Arazuri et al., 2012). This result needs attention because, according to Sukys et al.
(2014), parental exercising are predictors of adolescents involvement in sports and that father’s
exercise habit is significantly related to children’s sport motives. If there is one parent in the family
who has a sports activity or constant physical exercise, a child’s motivation for sports activities or
exercise will lead to habit.
2.2 Communicating
In terms of communicating, parent-respondents are always involved in monitoring their
children’s academic performance, in attending school meeting, in aiding in funding school projects,
in participating family day activities at school, and in reviewing lessons with their children at home
as communicated by the teachers. Also, they are very often involved in coordination with teachers
regarding their children’s academic performance, in explaining to their child the schooling goals, in
regularly tracking their children’s progress in school, in communicating to teachers and school
personnel regarding school activities and programs that will be participated by and concern their
children, in relaying to teachers the learning struggles of their children, and in attending programs
36
that will make them understand children’s learning styles through meetings, seminars, and
recollection.
The results reflect the effort of the school in communicating with the learners’ families. The
most significant driver of parents’ involvement is their regular communication with their children’s
teachers (Badri et al., 2014). Parents’ involvement is usually in attending parents’ meetings,
seminars, responding to communication from school, and attending school activities. These are ways
by which parents respond to calls of school personnel. In the Philippines, parents and school
communication is sustained through parent-teacher associations. Schools are joined by parents to
participate in the school policymaking, in the conduct of school activities and in providing educational
services for their children. Parent participation in these associations has a significant relationship to
student’s academic performance level, social as well as emotional well-being, teacher-parent
relationship, and the learner’s development (Balaba & Rama, 2015).
Additionally, in the perspective of neuroscience, research revealed that student’s brain
performs efficiently and boost memory formation when there is a calming home and school
environment. This fact suggests holistic approach to learning by supporting both the intellectual and
emotional welfare of the children since brain’s emotional regulation area has been found out to
influence learning potentials (Ilomäki & Lakkala, 2018). This suggests that digital technology may be
used to further improved and sustain parent-school communication. For example, updated school
websites and conduct of parent activities online can be utilized by schools to sustain connection and
communication with parents.
2.3 Volunteering
The parent-involvement in terms of volunteering revealed that they are only very often
involved in school’s important activities/programs and in parents’ trainings/seminar. In the context
of grade school education, parents tend to be more active in attending school events or in
volunteering at school when their children are in primary school. However, they are hardly and
seldomly involved as coach in school sport activities, as parent tutor/aide, as committee members/
leaders during school activities, and as helping hand in other school services like the canteen. This
means that there is a need to further engage parents not only in policy making, but also in other
programs and services of the private rural grade schools in different phases throughout the whole
school year. The study also revealed that in terms of volunteerism, parent-respondents are hardly
involved in most of the indicators in the survey instrument. With volunteerism, parents, their
children, other children, schools, and teachers can gain mutual benefits. The potential benefits are
too impactful to not be given considerable attention.
Parents can be instrumental in improving school services and education opportunities of the
children in many ways. They can volunteer on tasks like assisting with provision of learning and school
equipment and facilities, tutoring/co-teaching, and facilitating career awareness information based
on their field of specialization. For example, the Brigada Eskwela program in the public basic
education institutions, in which the community and learners’ family and coming together through
volunteered services and donations, has been a significant help not only to the teachers and schools
but also the government. This program has supported the basic education in great extent in terms of
unity of purpose and in moderate extent in terms of academic performance enrichment and school
physical facilities improvement (Garcia, 2021). In disadvantaged localities, school-based parents
volunteering is also associated with less school crimes, violence and bodily harm to students and
school personnel (Hamlin & Li, 2020). In terms of literacy improvement among children, the
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implementation and process of paired reading with their parents and volunteer tutors may still be
explored by schools and researchers particularly in terms of tutor training (Villiger et al., 2022).
2.4 Learning at Home

In this parental involvement type, parent-respondents revealed that that they are always
involved in assisting their children with their homework, projects, examination reviews, and in
utilizing learning resources. In terms of psycho-social, they are also always involved in recognizing
their children good behavior and school achievement through praises, teaching the value of
homework compliance, providing conducive learning environment at home, and engaging to
conversation with their children. Additionally, they are very often involved in reviewing their
children about lessons taught in school, in preparing daily and weekly schedule and calendar of
activities of their children at home, in exploring about how they can improve learning environment
at home, and in establishing study time habit among their children.
This is another type of parental involvement where parents from private rural grade schools
described their school involvement as constant. (Clark, 2020) found out that among the different
types of involvement, learning at home is the most prevalent and preferred type of minority parents.
Many studies have also proven that there is a significant effect on the child’s learning process and
experience when parents have direct involvement, especially in sustaining at home what has been
taught at school. It can develop study habits even at an early age. Study habit and academic
performance have a significant and direct relationship (Jafari et al., 2019). In the case of secondary
student, same relationship has also been found out (Ebele & Olofu, 2017). However, due to the
disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic on the pattern and usual modality of learning, grade
schools have to consider how learning at home with the parents’ involvement can still be of great
use, especially since the pandemic has caused problems on the socio-economic status of households,
health and psychological status of family members, and children’s interaction with tutors as well as
the quality of childcare at home. Also, now that the trend in education system has become digital in
various aspects, school leaders must also take into account the needs of parents to continuously
support their children’s learning at home through digital technology (Osorio-Saez et al., 2021).
2.5 Decision Making

In terms of decision making when it comes to schooling of their children, parent-respondents
are very often involved in helping their children plan for their homework, advising them with regards
to school-related problems, motivating them to join school contests and programs, and respecting
their choices about their studies. The crucial time and area of proximal development to perform a
responsible decision-making is in the primary school age (Dotsenko et al., 2020). In relation to this,
Zhang (2020) also found out that child’s self-concept, as a result of quality child-parent
communication, has a positive association to the child’s academic performance. Allowing the children
to make decisions on their own, like in participating contests and programs in schools enables them
to feel free at home and at school which encourages them to share their thoughts and develop high
self-esteem. As decision making is an underlying structure in the development of cognitive function,
and it also requires a stimulating environment at school and at home (Mahapatra, 2016). Allowing
children to make choices and letting them learn the consequences of their choices teach them to be
responsible of their actions and can develop their goal-setting skills.
However, the study reveals that parent-respondents are rarely involved in attending school
programs related to planning, review and improvement assessment; in providing advice to their
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fellow parents about school involvement; and in encouraging group discussion and decision-making.
Baker et al. (2016) found out that parents’ sense of belongingness as they visit schools or attend school
programs is also a factor. Similarly, according to Lima et al. (2019), teachers should maintain an
affirmative attitude towards recognizing that engaging parents in a welcoming teacher-parent
interaction can lead to a win-win effect on both ends. They view school climate as how they feel
that their presence is welcomed in school by teachers and school personnel. In this case, the assistance
of the school as well as the parent-involvement program of the school must also be examined to
determine whether opportunities for parents collaboration and decision-making involvement about
school programs and activities are provided for the parents in private grade schools.
2.6 Collaborating with Stakeholders/Community

In terms of collaborating with stakeholders/community, parent-respondents are more
involved in teaching their children of the province heritage, in actively participating in church
activities, in teaching their children how to utilize community resources, and in taking their children
to local tourist spots. Adversely, parent-respondents are rarely involved in taking their children in
neighborhood/barangay assembly, in discussing with other parents techniques to improve the
achievement level of their children, and in involving children to neighborhood/barangay projects.
They also responded that they are seldom engaged in organized programs of the government that will
make them aware of opportunities and benefits government sectors and agencies can offer them.
The findings reveal that most of the respondents were lacking opportunities to attend organized
programs where they can learn information about government agencies and community services. The
issue can be associated to the community programs related to supporting home and child education.
Albert et al. (2020) discussed the importance of government effort to provide social protection not
only to poor families but also to those belonging to social classes who are at risk of falling into poverty
line due to reduced economic activities caused by COVID-19 pandemic. The study of Rejuso (2021)
also concluded that parents believed that in order to maximize their involvement, relevant state
policies and programs must be greatly considered while Teti et al. (2017) suggested a tailored
program to support parenting since parents and their family structure and context vary in terms of
economic and emotional distress. Community leaders should organize activities where they can
increase communication opportunities with other sectors and members of the community. They are
also expected to organize dialogues and training that can further support parental involvement not
only in schools but also in the whole community. Pertinent topics may be discussed such as school
improvement effort through parent-community partnership, how parents play vital role in the child’s
learning process, shared leadership, parenting and digital era, and role of the community in the
development of a child. While in the case of parents whose children are with disabilities and learning
challenges, parent-teacher collaboration can be strengthened through school-parent rapport building,
well-maintained communication system, and special events/ opportunities for parent involvement
(Staples & Diliberto, 2010).
Table 1. Summary table of parents’ involvement in private rural grade schools
Epstein’s Types of Weighted Verbal
Interpretation
Parental Involvement Mean Description
1. Parenting 4.49 Always Constantly Involved
2. Communicating 4.12 Very Often Involved
3. Volunteering 2.98 Sometimes Rarely Involved
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Epstein’s Types of Weighted Verbal

Interpretation
Parental Involvement Mean Description
4. Learning at Home 4.42 Always Constantly Involved
5. Decision-making 3.75 Very Often Involved
6. Collaborating with
3.18 Sometimes Rarely Involved
Community
Grand Weighted Mean 3.82 Very Often Involved
Source: Primary Source
The table above presents the summary of parental involvement in private rural grade schools.
It shows that parents are constantly involved in the aspects of parenting and learning at home. They
are also involved in the aspects of communicating and decision-making. However, the findings
revealed that parent-respondents are rarely involved in the aspects of volunteering and collaborating
with community. It is notable that parents are more involved in the aspects that concern their basic
responsibilities in parenting when it comes to educating their children at home as compared to those
involvement aspects that pertain to external linkages like volunteering and collaborating with
community.
The findings implied that parents are more involved in the aspects that they can regulate or
control as compared to other aspects that only demand their participation. According to Vellymalay
(2012), parents manifest high degree of involvement in every involvement strategy at home that
targets academic achievement of their children. According also to Emerson et al. (2012), parents
decide to get involved only when they think that the collaboration is part of their responsibilities as
parents. Blandin (2016) considered parenting and learning at home and among other proximal
processes as home-based forms of parental involvement and facilitators of school-based parental
involvement that also have direct influence with the child’s achievement level. In terms of
communicating, Reese (2021) discovered that parents who have actively engaged to the
communication sent by the school have children who achieve better in class. A positive support
system and improved learning for the children are among the results of effective home-school
relationship that require equal efforts both from parents and teachers.
It shows that two types of parental involvement are lacking and they are volunteering and
collaborating with community. Baker et al. (2016) identified that among the barriers in parental
involvement in volunteering is the number of children and conflict with work-schedule. These
barriers concern particularly the female parents who are usually representing as guardians of the
children. Given that most of the respondents are female parents, the barriers can also be understood
from the feminism perspective. According to Jabar (2010) the Filipino mothers reported several
factors which inhibited them from participating in their children’s education which are feeling of
discomfort in attending PTA meetings, efficacy, time constraints, and language issues. Weger et al.
(2022) also found out that low-income citizens’ interest and capacity to community involvement
depends on their experiences of the community services they accessed as well as their individual
situations regarding their health, extent of financial crisis, and home context. This is supported by
how Manzon et al. (2015) discussed that the fundamental critique of parental involvement models is
that they are only applicable for upper-middle class and suburban families. Manzon et al. (2015) also
presented that barriers to some types of parental involvement can be school-related, parent-related,
and student-related. In relation to these, Simbre (2021) recommends that conduct of parent-help-
40
parent program along with parenting seminars can be done by PTA or local community council to
enhance parental involvement.
3. Relationship between Parents’ Profile and Parental Involvement in Private Rural Grade Schools
Table 2: results of correlation analysis between parents’ profile and parental involvement
Profile Correlation Epstein’s Types of Parental Involvement
Analysis Parenting Communicating Volunteering Learning Decision- Collaborating All
at Home Making Aspects
Sex Correlation .081 .098 -.090 .036 .067 -.117 -.011
Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) .175 .100 .131 .546 .266 .051 .852
N 281 281 281 281 281 281 281
Occupation Correlation .122* -.022 -.047 .093 .021 .085 .049
Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) .040 .715 .436 .119 .727 .154 .410
N 281 281 281 281 281 281 281
Family Correlation .214** .046 .082 .081 .089 .142* .110
Income Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .443 .172 .174 .137 .017 .067
N 281 281 281 281 281 281 281
Educational Correlation .259** .194** .031 .181** .119* .084 .149*
Attainment Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001 .599 .002 .045 .158 .013
N 281 281 281 281 281 281 281
Number of Correlation -.210** -.116 .038 -.125* -.079 -.061 -.076
Children Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .051 .531 .036 .188 .306 .205
N 281 281 281 281 281 281 281
Distance of Correlation -.025 .036 .060 .113 .073 .105 .077
Home Coefficient
from Sig. (2-tailed) .682 .546 .317 .058 .222 .080 .199
School N 281 281 281 281 281 281 281
Source: Primary Source
Table 2 presents the results of correlation analysis between parents’ profile and parental
involvement. It shows that among the parents’ six profile variables, four were found to have
correlation coefficients with Epstein types of parental involvement. These aspects are occupation,
family income, educational attainment, and number of children. Occupation is significantly related
to parenting; family income to parenting and collaborating; educational attainment to parenting,
communicating, learning at home, and decision-making; and number of children to parenting and
learning at home. On relationship of profile variables to all types of parental involvement, only
educational attainment is found to be significantly related. Therefore, there is significant relationship
between profile variables of parents and their school involvement.
Parents educational attainment was revealed to be significantly related to most of the types of
parental involvement. These aspects include parenting, communicating, learning at home, and
decision-making. In the context of the Philippines, specifically the research locale of this study which
is the central of the province of Aurora, one’s educational attainment is connected to his or her
occupation opportunities and also to the potential family income. Data suggest that parents with
higher levels of education are more likely to be involved in their children’s schools. Vellymalay
(2012) concluded that parents’ educational level, their employment status, and their income affect
their knowledge and understanding of the value and level of effort that they have to put into their
41
children’s education. In terms of communicating, parents with high educational attainment can be
more involved than those who lack education as they can communicate effectively to other people
and to society when they have better level of confidence, knowledge and experiences. For example,
Noel et al. (2013), found out that students whose parents had a bachelor’s degree or higher degrees
had their parents attended school events as compared to students whose parents had a high school of
lower educational attainment. The relationship between educational attainment and communicating
as type of parental involvement can also be attributed to the differences on the educational processes
and programs between public and private schools. Kuru Cetin & Taskin (2016) found out that it was
easy for parents whose children are in private schools to communicate to teachers when compared
to those whose parents are enrolled in public schools. Analyzing from the perspective of the parent-
respondents profile, 74.7% of the respondents were female parents. (Kalil et al., (2012) concluded
that highly educated mothers spend more time in basic care of their children and also in management
of activities when their children are aged 6 to 13.
As revealed by the correlation analysis, the occupation of the parent is significantly related to
parenting. Parenting as a type of involvement is about how school assists parents in establishing a
home environment that supports children’s better development. Related studies reveal that parents’
involvement in the aspect of parenting can be influenced by their occupation in different manners.
These include how occupation relate to parenting in the aspects of educational attainment, parenting
styles, children personality development, children’s academic success, and quality time with
children. Parents’ occupation is usually associated to parents’ educational attainment. There is a
significant correlation between parents’ educational attainment and their demographic profile with
their parenting styles and the authoritative parenting style, the not severe one, which shows success
in terms of children’s high academic achievement (Kashahu et al., 2014). Considering the child’
personality, social anxiety has a positive significant relationship to parental authority (Khan, 2020).
This suggests that children’s level of self-esteem can be either developed or destructed starting from
the home environment. Additionally, as the type of occupation that parents have determine their
socioeconomic status, family’s financial capabality plays an important role in providing the
educational resources and impose to have a great impact in the child’s educational achievement
(Vellymalay, 2012). Shah & Hussain (2021), similarly, concluded that disparity in academic
achievement of learners is rooted from the occupational status of their parents. Occupation of the
parents does not only affect their children in terms of financial aid but also the level of focus and the
quality of interaction they had with their children. Low-income children tend to be unsupervised and
deprived with child care. Aspiras et al. (2020) observed that learners with less quality time with
their parents manifest independence and are conditioned to handle responsibilities. This implies how
parents manage learning environment at home and how sufficient are the requisite educational
resources and family supports that can be provided at home manifest children’s success in their
schooling.
Family income, specifically, as correlated to parenting has been revealed and explored by studies
related to educational background and occupation. The Philippine Statistics Authority (2022)
surveyed that the sources of family income remained to be the wages and salaries. Additionally, the
current study has also found correlation of family income to collaborating with community. It is
explained as coordinating information regarding support, resources, and services as well as
community activities for students and families that will enrich the community health, culture,
recreation, and social interaction. Parents’ community involvement is also considered as cornerstone
of quality education and school services. School and community have to look into the experiences of
low-income families. Yamauchi et al. (2017) cited Bourdieu’s Social Capital Theory which explains
42
that, in the context of the current study, social capital or social status of the parents is often related
to their social networks and access. The lower the family income is, the higher the needs for the
school and community to engage their learners’ parents to community programs and activities that
can improve them access to community resources and income-generating opportunities. In relation
to this, Oncescu & Neufeld (2019) concluded that there are positive outcomes associated to parents’
active participation to community-based educational programs among low-income families.
The correlation findings also revealed a correlation of number of children to parenting and
learning at home. The success of the collaboration among school, family, and community to support
the education and secure the well-being of the children somehow depends on the number of children
that parents must take care of. For example, each child experiences and accesses to resources differ
depending on his or her birth order. The experiences of an only child in the family have also a
significant difference from the child who has two or more siblings. The number of children has also
a regressive impact on school attendance (Orbeta, 2009).
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

From the findings of this study, the researchers arrived at a conclusion regarding the profile of
parents in private grade schools, their involvement in school based on Epstein’s school-family-
community relationship model, and the relationship of their profile with their school involvement.
Firstly, the results of the study revealed that female parents are more involved in the education
of their children as guardians. This implies that parental involvement was influenced by the
experiences and struggles of Filipino mothers. The findings also revealed that most of the parents in
private grade schools are professionals and attained at least a college degree, but since they are in a
rural place, their family monthly income is categorized as low income but not poor because they are
still capable to send and sustain their children’s education in private schools. Also, most of the parent-
respondents have only two children and their houses situate very near in proximity to school. These
suggest that the number of children in the family and the distance of school to their homes influence
their decision to send their children in private educational institutions.
Secondly, the study examined the parental involvement in private rural schools using Epstein’s
school-family-community model, specifically utilizing Epstein’s six types of parental involvement
such as parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making, and
collaborating with community. The study found out that parents in private rural grade schools are
always involved in parenting and learning at home which means that they are constantly involved.
They are also very often involved in communicating and in decision making which still reflect their
involvement in these two aspects. However, parents are sometimes involved in volunteering and in
collaborating with the community which shows that they are rarely involved. Summarizing the
findings of parents’ six types of involvement, data revealed that parents in private rural grade schools
are involved.
Finally, the results of correlation analysis concluded that only educational attainment among
the profile variables of the parent-respondents was found to be significantly related to parents’
involvement. However, when related to Epstein’s six types of parental involvement, occupation,
family income, and number of children were found significantly related to parenting,
communicating, learning and collaborating. Therefore, there is significant relationship between
profile variables of parents and their school involvement.
43
Based on the conclusion of the study, schools may strategize and adopt parental involvement
programs that are based on Epstein’s school-family-community relationship model which can
integrate all types of parental involvement starting from those that concern the individual parent up
to whatever support that community collaboration can provide. Also, tailored parents’ involvement
programs and activities based on the profile of the pupils’ families and the current context evident as
an effect of the COVID-19 pandemic may be explored by schools, parent-teacher associations, and
the government to better engage and support parental involvement in the education of their children.
Training and orientations of parents, school personnel and community leaders are requisites in the
adoption of the school parental involvement program. Future related studies may focus on further
exploration of the involvement level of male and female parents and on utilizing larger samples and
diverse representations of parent-respondents that may extend from rural to urban schools or from
grade school level to higher education level. Future studies may also utilize other models, theories,
and frameworks in the reconceptualization of parental involvement in relation to education.
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Examining Parental Involvement in Private Rural Grade Schools Through Epstein's Model

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Examining Parental Involvement in Private Rural Grade Schools Through Epstein's Model

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Asia Pacific Journal of Human Development and Family Studies (AHEAD) 2022: 1 (1)

Examining Parental Involvement in Private Rural Grade Schools Through Epstein’s

Keywords: Parental Involvement, Epstein Model, Private Rural Schools, School-

1. How may the profile of the parent-respondents be described in terms of:

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

2. Parents’ Involvement in Private Rural Grade Schools Using Epstein’s Model

2.4 Learning at Home

2.5 Decision Making

2.6 Collaborating with Stakeholders/Community

Epstein’s Types of Weighted Verbal

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Model [Doctor of Philosophy, Andrews University].

Vellymalay, S. K. N. (2012). Parental involvement at home: Analyzing the influence of parents’

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