Literary Terms

This is a list of some literary terms that you should be very familiar with. These terms will help you
understand literary texts and will also be a part of the meta-language that you will use to describe,
discuss, analyze, and write about literary works.

1. Allegory

An allegory is a story within a story. It has a “surface story” and another story hidden
underneath. For example, the surface story might be about two neighbors throwing rocks at each
other’s homes, but the hidden story would be about war between countries. Some allegories are
very subtle, while others (like the rock-throwing example) can be more obvious.

In most allegories, the hidden story has something to do with politics, religion, or morality —
complex subjects that are difficult to understand directly. Many authors find it easier to think
through these issues by translating them into allegories, which are easier to understand (and more
fun to read) than dense philosophical arguments.

Example:

George Orwell’s Animal Farm is one of literature’s most famous allegories. The surface story is
about a group of farm animals who rise up, kick out the humans, and try to run the farm
themselves. The hidden story, however, is about the Russian Revolution, and each of
the characters represents some figure from that revolution. The pigs represent Communist
leaders like Stalin, Lenin, and Trotsky, the dogs represent the KGB, the humans represent
capitalists, the horses represent the working class, etc.

The Importance of Allegory:

Allegories deliver difficult messages in easy-to-read stories. That makes them extremely useful
and expressive tools. So for centuries, human beings have used allegories to say things they
couldn’t say any other way. Some scholars believe that myths and religious stories originated as
allegories for the deep secrets of the universe and the human mind — secrets that humans cannot
comprehend without the help of an allegorical story. On this interpretation, the allegory is the
oldest form of story in the world. People often use allegories in order to understand the world
around them — whether it’s the world of politics, new technology, or the many ethical problems
that challenge us today.

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2. Allusion
Allusion is basically a reference to something else. It’s when a writer mentions some other
work, or refers to an earlier part of the current work.
In literature, it’s frequently used to reference cultural works (e.g. by alluding to a
Bible story or Greek myth). Allusion also exists in other art forms – musicians, for example,
frequently “allude” to melodies used by other musicians.

Example of Allusion:

We see allusion all the time in everyday speech. For example, has anyone ever told you that you
were about to “open up Pandora’s box?” This is an allusion to the Greek story of Pandora, the
first woman, who accidentally released evil into the world.

Example 1

I didn’t have any bus fare, but fortunately some good Samaritan helped me out!
This is an allusion to the Biblical story of the good Samaritan, from Luke 10:29-37 – a good
Samaritan is someone who helps others in need, just as the Samaritan does in the story.

Allusion is also found in nearly every work of great literature, as well as in scholarly works and
all kinds of non-fiction. Once you know what to look for, you’ll see it everywhere! Just keep an
eye out for moments when a writer or speaker makes a passing reference to something else.

3. Dilemma
A dilemma is a conflict, problem, or situation with two possible solutions. When a dilemma
occurs, a person has to make the difficult choice between two desirable options, or,
contrastingly, two undesirable options. The word comes from the Greek dilēmma (di “twice”
+ lēmma “premise”); it is a term used in logic and rhetoric when causing an opponent to
choose between two unfavorable options.
A dilemma can have a leading role in a narrative and may be the cause behind a character’s
behavior—as a type of conflict, they are key parts of countless literary plots. Literature and
other entertainment have given us many a superhero forced to save one person or a whole
crowd; and many romantic scenarios where one character has to choose between two potential
lovers. It is not uncommon for a character to be faced with choosing between two positive or
two negative outcomes!

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 a. Moral/Ethical Dilemma
One of the most popular themes in literature is the “moral dilemma” or “ethical dilemma,”
where a character is faced with a conflict of morals or ethics. In such a dilemma, choosing one
moral will result in violating another; or, doing one thing could bring positive results but is
morally wrong. A common example is “stealing from the rich to feed the poor.”

4. Fable
In literature, a fable is a short fictional story that has a moral or teaches a lesson. Fables use
humanized animals, objects, or parts of nature as main characters, and are therefore
considered to be a sub-genre of fantasy.
The word fable comes from the Latin fābula meaning discourse or story.

Example of a Fable

Read the following story:

An ugly, warty frog sat on his lily pad enjoying the sunshine. Another frog hopped along and
said, “wow, you are hideous! There is no way you will ever find a mate!” Just then, a
beautiful princess came to the pond, scooped up the ugly frog, and planted a big kiss on his
warty nose. He instantly turned into a tall, handsome prince, and walked off hand in hand
with the princess as the other frog watched with his mouth wide in astonishment. Never judge
a book by its cover.
This short story constitutes a fable for two key reasons: first, its main characters are
anthropomorphic frogs (frogs that have been given human qualities); they have been given the
ability to speak for the story. Second, the story ends with a lesson—“never judge a book by its
cover”—which is relayed to the audience when the ugly frog turns into a prince.

5. Parable
Like a fable, a parable is a short story that has a moral or teaches a lesson. However, parables are
different from fables because they employ humans as the main characters, whereas fables feature
animals, objects, etc. The most well-known parables are spoken by Jesus in the Bible.

6. Theme
One of the first questions to ask upon hearing someone has written a story is, “What’s it about?”
or “What’s the point?” Short answers may range from love to betrayal or from the coming of age

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to the haziness of memory. The central idea, topic, or point of a story, essay, or narrative is its
theme.
Types of Theme
Just as a life is not constantly immersed in love, the pursuit of knowledge, or the struggle of
the individual versus society, themes are not always constantly present in a story or
composition. Rather, they weave in and out, can disappear entirely, or appear surprisingly
mid-read. This is because there are two types of themes: major and minor themes.

a. Major Themes
Major themes are, just as they sound, the more important and enduring themes of the
narrative. Major themes are the most significant themes of the story, and often they are a part
of the entire story. A book on war would have the major theme of war’s effect on humanity,
whereas a romance novel would have the major theme of love.
b. Minor Themes
Minor themes are, on the other hand, less important and less enduring. They may appear for
part of the narrative only to be replaced by another minor theme later in the narrative. They
provide discussion points for a chapter or two, but do not color the entire story. A book on
war may have minor themes such as the home front’s reaction to war or the political aspects
of war. A romance novel may have minor themes such as flirtation, marriage, and fidelity.

7. Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing gives the audience hints or signs about the future. It suggests what is to come
through imagery, language, and/or symbolism. It does not directly give away the outcome, but
rather, suggests it.
To foreshadow an event in a story, the audience is given direct and/or subtle clues about what
will happen. Imagine this scene:
Example:
A professionally dressed woman hurriedly leaves the house, slamming the front door. She
frantically searches for her keys in the bottom of a giant purse while balancing a briefcase
under her other arm. She finds her keys, gets in the car and begins backing out of the
driveway, and then slams on the brakes. “I feel like I’m forgetting something,” she says. She
shrugs and drives away.
With only this information, we can predict the outcome of this story—the woman has
forgotten something important at home, and she probably won’t realize it until she needs it,

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 perhaps at a meeting. Her clothing, behavior, and dialogue are all clues that work together
to foreshadow what will happen in her future.

8. Hubris
Hubris (pronounced HEW-bris) means “excessive pride” or “overconfidence. It’s when
somebody gets so confident that they start to believe they’re invincible. As a result, they make
foolish decisions that ultimately bring about their defeat.

The word comes from Greek literature, where it refers to a defiant or arrogant attitude toward
the gods. The gods, of course, will not stand for this sort of behavior and always punish those
who are guilty of hubris, usually with death. Our concept of “playing God” is borrowed from
Greek notions of hubris.

9. Point of View
Point of view (POV) is what the character or narrator telling the story can see (his or her
perspective). The author chooses “who” is to tell the story by determining the point of view.
Depending on who the narrator is, he/she will be standing at one point and seeing the action.
This viewpoint will give the narrator a partial or whole view of events as they happen. Many
stories have the protagonist telling the story, while in others, the narrator may be
another character or an outside viewer, a narrator who is not in the story at all. The narrator
should not be confused with the author, who is the writer of the story and whose opinions may
not be those written into the narrative.
Types of Point of View

First person: The example above with little Rachel is told in the first-person point of view,
meaning that we are seeing events through the eyes of the character telling the story.
Second person: In second person, the narrator is speaking to YOU. This isn’t very common in
fiction, unless the narrator is trying to talk to the reader personally. We see second-person
point of view mostly in poems, speeches, instructional writing, and persuasive articles.

Third person: With third-person point of view, the narrator is describing what’s seen, but as a
spectator. If the narrator is a character in the story, then we are reading what he or she observes
as the story unfolds. This narrator has three possible perspectives.
• Limited – In limited third-person, the narrator sees only what’s in front of him/her, a
spectator of events as they unfold and unable to read any other character’s mind.

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 • Omniscient – An omniscient narrator sees all, much as an all knowing god of some kind.
He or she sees what each character is doing and can see into each character’s mind. This
is common with an external character, who is standing above, watching the action below
(think of a person with a crystal ball, peering in).
• Limited Omniscient – The limited omniscient third-person narrator can only see into one
character’s mind. He/she might see other events happening, but only knows the reasons
of one character’s actions in the story.

Point of view is important in a story because it helps the reader understand characters’ feelings
and actions. Each character will have his or her own perspective, so whoever is telling the story
will impact the reader’s opinion of other characters and events.
Additionally, reading the story from a character in the story versus an external character changes
the amount of information a reader has as the story unfolds. With an omniscient third-person, we
can see everything before other characters do, which gives us forewarning about other events.
With a limited third-person, we are not allowed to see other events until the narrator does so.
This may leave us with more surprises as we read.
10. Flashback
A flashback is an interruption in a narrative that depicts events that have already occurred, either
before the present time or before the time at which the narration takes place. This device is often
used to give the reader more background information and details about specific characters,
events, plot points, and so on.
Example: Most of the novel Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë is a flashback from the point of
view of the housekeeper, Nelly Dean, as she engages in a conversation with a visitor named
Lockwood. In this story, Nelly narrates Catherine Earnshaw's and Heathcliff's childhoods, the
pair's budding romance, and their tragic demise.
11. Irony
Irony is when a statement is used to express an opposite meaning than the one literally expressed
by it. There are three types of irony in literature:
Verbal irony: When someone says something but means the opposite (similar to sarcasm).
Situational irony: When something happens that's the opposite of what was expected or intended
to happen.
Dramatic irony: When the audience is aware of the true intentions or outcomes, while the
characters are not. As a result, certain actions and/or events take on different meanings for the
audience than they do for the characters involved.
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Examples:
Verbal irony: One example of this type of irony can be found in Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of
Amontillado." In this short story, a man named Montresor plans to get revenge on another man
named Fortunato. As they toast, Montresor says, "And I, Fortunato—I drink to your long life."
This statement is ironic because we the readers already know by this point that Montresor plans
to kill Fortunato.
Situational irony: A girl wakes up late for school and quickly rushes to get there. As soon as she
arrives, though, she realizes that it's Saturday and there is no school.
Dramatic irony: In William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Romeo commits suicide in order
to be with Juliet; however, the audience (unlike poor Romeo) knows that Juliet is not actually
dead—just asleep.
12. Metaphor/Simile
Metaphors are when ideas, actions, or objects are described in non-literal terms. In short, it's
when an author compares one thing to another. The two things being described usually share
something in common but are unalike in all other respects. A simile is a type of metaphor in
which an object, idea, character, action, etc., is compared to another thing using the words "as"
or "like." Both metaphors and similes are often used in writing for clarity or emphasis.
Examples:
"What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun." In this line from
Romeo and Juliet, Romeo compares Juliet to the sun. However, because Romeo doesn't use the
words "as" or "like," it is not a simile—just a metaphor.
"She is as vicious as a lion." Since this statement uses the word "as" to make a comparison
between "she" and "a lion," it is a simile.
13. Paradox
A paradox is a statement that appears illogical or self-contradictory but, upon investigation,
might actually be true or plausible. Note that a paradox is different from an oxymoron: a paradox
is an entire phrase or sentence, whereas an oxymoron is a combination of just two words.
Example: Here's a famous paradoxical sentence: "This statement is false." If the statement is
true, then it isn't actually false (as it suggests). But if it's false, then the statement is true! Thus,
this statement is a paradox because it is both true and false at the same time.
14. Satire
Satire is genre of writing that criticizes something, such as a person, behavior, belief,
government, or society. Satire often employs irony, humor, and hyperbole to make its point.

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Example: The Onion is a satirical newspaper and digital media company. It uses satire to parody
common news features such as opinion columns, editorial cartoons, and click bait headlines.
15. Symbolism
Symbolism refers to the use of an object, figure, event, situation, or other idea in a written work
to represent something else—typically a broader message or deeper meaning that differs from its
literal meaning. The things used for symbolism are called "symbols," and they'll often appear
multiple times throughout a text, sometimes changing in meaning as the plot progresses.
Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel The Great Gatsby, the green light that sits across
from Gatsby's mansion symbolizes Gatsby's hopes and dreams.
16. Characterization
Characterization is the act of creating and describing characters in literature. Characterization
includes both descriptions of a character’s physical attributes as well as the character’s
personality. The way that characters act, think, and speak also adds to their characterization.
Character Archetypes:
Some types of characters appear so often in narratives that they come to seen as archetypes—an
original, universal model of which each particular instance is a kind of copy. The idea of the
archetype was first proposed by the psychologist Carl Jung, who proposed that there were twelve
fundamental "patterns" that define the human psyche. He defined these twelve archetypes as the:
• Caregiver
• Creator
• Explorer
• Hero
• Jester
• Lover
• Magician
• Orphan
• Rebel
• Ruler
• Sage
While many have disagreed with the idea that any such twelve patterns actually psychologically
define people, the idea of archetypes does hold a lot of sway among both those who develop and
analyze fictional characters. In fact, another way to define round and flat character is to think
about them as they relate to archetypes:

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Flat characters are easy to define by a single archetype, and they do not have unique personal
backgrounds, traits, or psychology that differentiates them from that archetype in a meaningful
way.
Round characters may have primary aspects that fit with a certain archetype, but they also may
be the combination of several archetypes and also have unique personal backgrounds, behaviors,
and psychologies that make them seem like individuals even as they may be identifiable as
belonging to certain archetypes.
Good characterization often doesn't involve an effort to avoid archetype altogether—archetypes
are archetypes, after all, because over human history they've proved to be excellent subjects for
stories. But successful authors will find ways to make their characters not just archetypes. They
might do so by playing with or subverting archetypes in order to create characters who are
unexpected or new, or more generally create characters whose characterization makes them feel
so unique and individual that their archetype feels more like a framework or background rather
than the entirety of who that character is.
17. Round vs. Flat Characters
Characters in a novel, short story, play, or film can be either round or flat. A round character is
nuanced and well thought-out. They usually play an important role in the story. They are written
specifically so audiences can pay attention to them for a specific reason. Flat characters, on the
other hand, are more like window dressing. They are two-dimensional and lack nuance. Their
purpose in a story is usually perfunctory.
What Is a Round Character?
A round character is deep and layered character in a story. Round characters are interesting to
audiences because they feel like real people; audiences often feel invested in these characters’
goals, successes, failures, strengths, and weaknesses.
Round characters are fully realized characters that come into conflict with each other and other
characters in believable ways, spurring character development.
One literary term often confused with “round character” is “dynamic character,” and while they
both go hand in hand, they are different concepts. While a round character is a character with a
complex personality, a dynamic character is one that changes throughout the course of a story.
Hence, a character can be both round (interesting) and dynamic (changed).
Examples of famous round characters in literature include Elizabeth Bennet in Jane Austen’s
Pride and Prejudice and Jay Gatsby in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby.
What Is a Flat Character?

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A flat character is a two-dimensional character lacking depth or a real personality. Usually, flat
characters have just one or two perfunctory traits. Often considered “stock characters,” flat
characters can often be summarized in one word (like “bully” or “love interest”) and never
digress from or transcend their role.
A good story is never made up of mostly flat characters. A good story needs to have a balance of
round and flat characters.
Flat characters still need to serve a specific purpose to propel the story forward in some way.
Flat characters are often confused with static characters, and while they are related, they are
different concepts. Where a flat character is one that is two-dimensional, a static character is one
that doesn’t change throughout the course of the story.
Most flat (uncomplex) characters are static (unchanged by the end of the story), but not all static
characters are flat.
Examples of flat characters in literature include Crabbe and Goyle in J.K. Rowling’s Harry
Potter series and Elizabeth Proctor in Arthur Miller’s The Crucible.
The biggest difference between round and flat characters is the character’s complexity: round
characters have layers, while flat characters do not.

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