ME 559

FLUID MACHINERY
Unit 2

PROF. A. K. SUNNU
Jan 2014
albertsunnu@yahoo.com//0208155130
 CHAPTER 2: BASIC RELATIONS
➢The basic design relationship for all turbo machines is very simple and is
only a form of the Newton’s Laws of Motion applied to a fluid traversing
a rotor.
➢ Fluids obey laws of impulse, linear momentum, angular impulse and
angular momentum.
➢Impulse is defined as force times time (F x t).
➢ Angular impulse is equal to torque multiplied by time T x t).
➢Similarly, linear momentum is mass times velocity (M x V) and moment
of momentum or angular momentum is equal to linear momentum
multiplied by length (MVr or MNr2).
➢ As force is equal to time rate of change of linear momentum (d/dt
(MV), torque is equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum
(d/dtMNr2).
➢The length to be used in finding the moment of momentum must be the
distance normal to the velocity vector from the axis passing through the
point about which the moment is to be taken.
➢The angular momentum law thus states that an external torque must be
applied for a certain time interval in order to effect a change in the
moment of momentum of the fluid particle.
2
Velocity Diagrams
➢The rotor shown in cross section in Figure 2.1 will have fluid flowing
in the annulus bounded by a-b-c-d-a.
➢Although fluid velocity varies radially from a to b, it is assumed to
have a single value, being an average velocity over the entire
annular section a-b, namely, the velocity, V1 at point 1.
➢ Similarly, at the rotor exit, the velocity V2 is taken as the average
of the velocity along c-d.
➢Points 1 and 2 lie on the line 1 -2 which denotes an element of a
stream surface which exactly divides the flow into two equal
parts.
➢Figure 2.2 shows a velocity diagram at point 1. The blade, or
vane, linear velocity is calculated for any point on the blade at a
radial distance, r from the axis A-A of rotation as U = Nr (2.1)
➢The angular speed (in rad/s) of the rotor is denoted by N.
➢Therefore, for point 1, U1 = Nr1 (2.2)
3
Figure 2.1. Turbo machine rotor
➢The relative velocity, W of the fluid, with respect to the moving
vane, is added vectorially to the blade velocity, U to obtain the
absolute fluid velocity, V.
➢The relation can be expressed by 𝑉 = 𝑊 + 𝑈 2.3
➢The graphical representation of the addition of U1 to W1 is shown
in Figure 2.2. The corresponding velocity diagram at the rotor
outlet is shown in Figure 2.3.
4
Conservation of Mass
➢The mass flow rate, 𝑚ሶ through the rotor is calculated by multiplying the flow
velocity, Vf by the area (normal) to the flow passage and by the fluid density
(Vf A ρ).
➢For example, assuming that Vf is parallel to the rotor axis at the rotor inlet, the
flow is out of the surface of a cylinder formed by the vane height.
➢ 𝑚ሶ = 2𝜌1 𝜋𝑟1 ℎ1 𝑉𝑓1 (2.4)
➢When the flow direction is at an angle to the rotor axis, a more complicated
expression is obtained, but the same principle applies.
➢The general form of (2.4), applying to any station in the flow passage, is
➢𝑚ሶ = ρ𝑉𝑓 𝐴 (2.5)
➢where A is the area normal to the flow direction. Equation (2.5), is a
statement of conservation of mass i.e., the mass flow rate is the same at all
stations.
➢It is assumed that each velocity on the central streamline of the flow
passage depicted in Figure 2.1 is the average value for the entire flow area
at the position considered.
➢The actual flow has a variable velocity across the passage.
➢ The variation can, of course, be handled mathematically through the use of
the integral form
➢m=∫A ρ Vm dA (2.6)
➢The latter form also allows for possible variations in density associated with
temperature, pressure, or concentration gradients
5
Energy Equation
➢The principle of conservation of mass expressed in (2.5), must
be supplemented by a steady-flow energy equation which
expresses the conservation of energy.
➢The usual forms of energy per unit mass, which must be
accounted for in a turbo machine, are potential energy, zg,
internal energy, e, flow work p/ρ, kinetic energy, V2/2, heat
transfer, q and work, w.
➢A word statement of the energy equation is the following:
Energy at section 1 + heat transfer = energy at section 2 + work done
between 1 and 2

➢In equation form, this is written as

𝑝1 𝑉1 2 𝑝2 𝑉2 2
➢𝑧1 𝑔 + 𝑒1 + + 2 + 𝑞 = 𝑧2 𝑔 + 𝑒2 + + 2 + 𝑤 (2.7)
𝜌1 𝜌2
➢Frequently, the internal energy is combined with the flow work
to form the enthalpy, h. The equation is then
𝑉12 𝑉22
➢𝑧1 𝑔 + h1 + 2
+ 𝑞 = 𝑧2 𝑔 + h2 + 2
+ w (2.8)

6
Energy Equation Continue
➢Usually, in turbo machinery applications the potential energy and the
heat transfer terms are neglected, and the specific work is denoted by E
and called transfer energy, with the result
𝑉12 𝑉22
h1 + = h2 + + E (2.9)
2 2
➢In gas turbine or compressor applications, the enthalpy and the kinetic
energy are combined to form the total enthalpy ho. Thus (2.9) becomes
ho1= ho2 +E (2.10)
➢Compressors and pump increase ho so that ho2 > ho1, and the energy
transfer E is negative.
➢On the other hand, turbines decrease ho, and E is positive.
➢The work per unit mass calculated from (2.10) is also termed the head,
especially in pump or hydraulic turbine applications.
➢No work is done in the nozzle and there is conservation of total enthalpy,
ho1 = ho2.
➢ However, in the rotor, total relative enthalpy is conserved, hoR is a
constant and
ho1R = ho2R.

7
Momentum Equation
➢Consider the general two-dimensional case depicted in Fig. 2.4.
➢ A differential element located a distance r from the origin is acted
upon by a force dF. the force may be due to fluid moving through a
turbine, for example, while the differential element might be a part of
the rotor.
➢The component of the force acting perpendicular to r is dFu, where Fu
denotes a tangential force.
➢The moment exerted on the differential element is dTs, found from
dTs = r dFu (2.11)
where CV and CS refer to integration over control volume and control
surface respectively, or, in differential form,

where Vu is the tangential velocity of fluid at radius r. Combining

Equations 2.11 and 2.12 gives the following for the differential moment
(r.dFu):
8
Momentum Equation
➢The total torque is determined by integration:

➢The term Ts represents the sum of all externally applied

moments or torques due to pressure forces, gravity,
viscous forces, and so on.
➢The first term on the right-hand side is the rate at which
angular momentum is stored in the control volume.
➢The second term represents the net rate out (out minus
in) of angular momentum from the control volume.
➢From Figure 2.4, we see that 𝑉𝑢 = 𝑉 sin 𝜃. Equation 2.13
can therefore be written as

9
 Fig. 2.4 Force acting on a differential element at a fixed
distance from the origin

➢We can generalize this result into a vector form that is applicable
to the three-dimensional case:

➢For steady flow, equation 2.14 becomes:

1
0
➢It is customary to take Vu as positive when it is in the direction of rotation.
➢The normal velocities Vf are assumed to be average flow velocities.
➢The continuity equation for the control volume is
Or 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉𝑓2 − 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑓1 = 0
➢For an incompressible fluid, 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 and the continuity equation becomes
𝐴2 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝐴1 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑄 (2.15)
➢Applying the steady-flow angular momentum equation, we get

= 𝑟2 𝑉𝑢2 𝜌2 𝑄2 − 𝑟1 𝑉𝑢1 𝜌1 𝑄1
➢Combining with equation 2.15, we get, Ts = ρQ r2 Vu2 − r1 Vu1
➢Neglecting all forces other than those between the fluid and the rotor,
we can say that the magnitude of the moment of forces on the fluid in
the control volume equals the negative of the torque T applied to the
rotor shaft by the fluid.
➢Thus Ts = ρQ r1 Vu1 − r2 Vu2

1
1
 ➢Turbo machine power is torque times the rotational speed N in
radians per second. Thus power, P can be expressed as P = 𝑚ሶ
(Vu1U1 – Vu2U2) (2.16)
➢Here we note that the blade speed, U has been substituted for
Nr, with U1 = Nr1 and U2 = Nr2.
➢To obtain the energy transfer E per unit mass corresponding to
that in (2.7) through (2.10), we simply divide by the mass rate of
flow, 𝑚. ሶ
➢Thus, the energy transfer per unit mass from fluid to rotor, or vice
versa, is given by E = Vu1U1 – Vu2U2 (2.17)
➢The latter relation is the Euler turbine equation, but it is applied to
all types of turbo machines, including pumps and compressors.
➢Therefore, three basic equations exist for analysis of flow
characteristics.
➢ These are the continuity equation, the energy equation and the
momentum equation.
1
2
➢The momentum equation has one main advantage over the
energy equation.
➢In the momentum analysis, the resultant force is a function of
the entry and exit conditions.
➢Thus, the internal changes in the flow due to friction and
turbulence are only taken into account in the exit conditions.
➢The basic fact of neglecting the internal effects of the flow
becomes a very useful tool in the analysis of flow through the
Turbo machinery since the internal details of the flow in such
machinery are difficult to visualize and analyse.

1
3
Applications
➢Let us apply the above relations to a number of common turbo
machines, namely, the axial-flow impulse turbine, the axial-flow
compressor, the centrifugal pump, and the hydraulic turbine.
➢Impulse Turbine
➢Impulse turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid jet.
➢The resulting impulse turns the rotor and leaves the fluid flow with
diminished kinetic energy.
➢When the entire enthalpy drop occurs in the nozzles, there can be no
change in the relative velocity of the fluid passing through the rotor
blade passages.
➢ Neglecting friction in the passage, then there will also be no change in
pressure or specific volume across the rotor blades, and the continuity
equation then requires that the area at right angles to the direction of
the flow to be the same at inlet and outlet.
➢Flow in the impulse turbine is generally in the axial direction, and the
blade velocity is the same at the entrance and exit of the rotor.

1
4
➢Figure 2.5 shows a typical blade cross section and the
corresponding velocity diagram.
➢Steam or hot gas leaves a nozzle with a velocity V1 at a nozzle
angle, α, measured from the axial direction, and enters the region
between the blades with relative velocity W1.
➢Here, α is the angle made by the absolute inlet velocity V1 with
respect to the axial direction and more direct information is
obtained if E is given in terms of the blade angles.
➢ Ideally, no pressure drop occurs in the blade passage, and the
relative velocity W2 is equal in magnitude to W1.
➢This is what is meant by the term impulse turbine, also called a
zero-reaction, turbine.
➢The absolute velocity V2 at the blade-passage exit is much
reduced and is typically less than half of V1.
➢This energy, transferred from the fluid to the rotor, is found from
(2.17) by making the substitutions Vul = V1sin α, Vu2 = V2 sin α2 , and
U1 = U2 = U. Thus, Nr1=Nr2.
1
5
➢Using E = U1Vu1 – U2Vu2,
➢ E = U(Vu1 – Vu2) = U[(U+Wu1)-(U-Wu2)] =
U(Wu1+Wu2) =2UWu, Figure 2.5 Velocity diagram for an
impulse turbine
where Wu = ½(Wu1+Wu2)
and using E with the various energy components,
➢ E=1/2(V12-V22)=1/2[(U+Wu)2+Va2-(U-Wu)2-Va2] = 2UWu
➢Or using the velocity diagram with the flow angles,
➢The law of cosines applied to the two triangles in Figure 2.5 yields two
equations, which when subtracted contains the right-hand side of
(2.18).
➢Substitution into (2.18) yields
➢E = U (V1 sin α1 – V2 sin α2) (2.18)
➢E = ½ (V12 –V22 +W22 - W12) (2.19)
1
6
➢Since W1 = W2, it is clear that E is really the difference in kinetic
energy of the fluid, namely, E= ½ (V12-V22)
➢Maximizing energy transfer means minimizing V2, or requiring that
V2 has only an axial component, i.e., α2 = 0.

➢With reference to additional figures of the impulse stage and

corresponding velocity diagram, the expression for the work by
the stage and the diagram efficiency can be found as follows,
where 𝛽1 and 𝛽2 are the inlet and exit blade angles:
➢Given that 𝑊2 = 𝑊1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽2 = 𝛽1 the work done reduces to
∆𝑊𝑤 = 𝑊1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽1 + 𝑊2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽2
∆𝑊𝑤 = 2𝑊1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽1
➢But 𝑊1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽1 = 𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1 − 𝑈
1
7
➢And hence
W = mU∆Wu =2mU(V1cosα1-U) (2.20)
➢With an impulse stage the only energy available to the rotor blades
𝑚𝑉12 Τ2.
➢The diagram efficiency (defined as the ratio of work calculated from
the velocity diagram to the energy available to the rotor blades) is
therefore
2𝑚𝑈(𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1 −𝑈) 4𝑈 𝑈
𝜂𝑑 = 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1 − (2.21)
𝑚𝑉12 𝑉1 𝑉1
2
➢The ratio𝑈Τ𝑉1 is called the “blade speed ratio” (note that the same
definition applies to hydraulic turbines).
➢Equation (2.21) indicates that W increases with nozzle outlet angle α1.
Reduction in α1 will imply a reduced axial (flow) velocity Vf1 =V1Sinα1 and
hence a corresponding increase in annulus area if the same mass flow is
to be passed through the stage.
➢This will imply increase in the nozzle area over which the fluid flows and
hence increase in nozzle friction loss. For these reasons practical values
of α1 lie in the range of 15 and 30 degrees.
➢If α1 is assumed to be fixed, Equation (2.21), can be differentiated with
respect to 𝑈Τ𝑉1
𝑑 𝜂𝑑 𝑈
➢Thus: 𝑑 𝑈Τ𝑉1
= 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1 − 8 𝑉
1 1
8
 𝑈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1
➢Equating to zero for maximum 𝜂𝑑 gives 𝑉1
= 2
(2.22)
➢And, (ηd) = Cos2α1 (2.23)
➢Similarly, by substituting 𝑉1 cos 𝛼1 = 2U from Equation (2.22) in (2.23),
the work at optimum speed ratio is 𝑊𝑘 = 2𝑚𝑈 2 (2.24)
➢ The plot, 𝜂𝑑 against 𝑈Τ𝑉1 is shown in Fig 2.6.
➢Irrespective of how the blade speed is determined, once it is fixed,
Equation (2.22) can be used to determine 𝑉1 and hence the stage
enthalpy drop or number of stages for a given overall enthalpy drop.
➢This procedure is illustrated in Worked Example 1 at the end of this
Chapter

1
9
Velocity-compounded impulse stage (A
Curtis Stage)
➢Sometimes it is desirable to carry out a large enthalpy drop in one stage,
in which case the fluid velocities are very high and, due to the blade
speed limitation, the blade speed ratio 𝑈Τ𝑉1 would be low and the work
output consequently a low fraction of the available enthalpy drop.
➢The work output can be increased by “velocity compounding”, even
though still using a low blade speed ratio.
➢ The method is illustrated in Fig 2.7 which shows a “two-row velocity-
compounded stage”.
➢The flow through the nozzle and the first rotor is similar to that for a simple
impulse stage except that the values U/V1 and V2 are comparatively
higher.
➢The row of fixed guided vanes (referred to as Curtis blades) only serves
to deflect the flow from the first rotor and does not cause any further
expansion of the flow.
➢Therefore assuming no losses in moving through the guided vanes, 𝑉3 =
𝑉2 .
➢The blade is made symmetrical so that the outlet angle 𝛼3 equals the
inlet angle 𝛼2 and the blade heights at inlet and outlet will then be the
same to give equal flow areas.
➢ From the geometry of the velocity triangles it is possible to determine 𝑉3
and 𝛽3
2
0
 The velocity diagrams are then determined, and the work done is (subscripts 1 and
2 refer to the 1st and 2nd rotors)
➢It is easy to show that for a given 𝛼1
the diagram efficiency is maximum
Wk = mU(∆Ww1 + ∆Ww2) (2.25) when
𝑈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1
= (2.26)
𝑉
1 4
➢The leaving velocity 𝑉4 is then axial.
It can also be shown that with this
optimum value of 𝑈Τ𝑉1 , 𝜂𝑑 is the
same as for the simple impulse
stage 𝜂𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1 but the work
2
done becomes
Wk = 6mU2 + 2mU2 = 8mU2 (2.27)
➢Thus, for any given blade speed, a
two row stage can utilize 4 times
the enthalpy drop for a simple
stage without any reduction in
diagram efficiency.
➢Note however that in practice as a
result of high velocities in the nozzle
and first rotor row, friction losses
may be higher there.
➢ Worked example 2 illustrates the
important benefit of using the Curtis
stage.
2
1
Reaction Stage
➢In the reaction turbine, a number of fixed and moving blades are
assembled alternatively inside the casing.
➢The fixed blades act as nozzles for each stage, and are attached to the
turbine casing, while the moving blades are fixed with the rotor.
➢The variation of pressure and velocity through the reaction turbine shows
a drop in pressure throughout the stage.
➢The fluid is expanded by the ring of fixed blades and then directed to the
ring of moving blades.
➢The fluid leaving the first stage enters the second ring of fixed blades and
then directed to the second ring of moving blades, where further
expansion of fluid takes place.
➢This continues till the pressure drops to the exhaust pressure.
➢The drop in pressure causes the velocity to increase.
➢As a result the relative velocity at exit is greater than the relative velocity
at inlet.
➢The degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of enthalpy drop in rotor
2
blades to the enthalpy drop in the stage.
2
➢The degree of reaction can have any value including negative values, zero
and positive values for a given machine. Zero reaction is an important value
and characterizes a particular design of many types of turbo machine.
➢Before considering the special case of Rn = 50%, it is convenient to derive a
general expression for Rn in terms of the main variables.
➢This is most easily done when the velocities at inlet and outlet of the stage are
equal and when the axial velocity remains constant throughout the stage.
➢Both these conditions are commonly used in reaction designs because they
enable the same blade shapes to be used in successive designs.
➢Since the velocities are to be the same at inlet and outlet of the stage, the
energy equation, per unit mass, reduces to 𝑤𝑘 = ℎ0 − ℎ2

2
3
 Fig. 2.8 The variation of pressure and velocity through the reaction turbine
➢From Equation (2.17) and using the nomenclature of Fig 2.8.
ℎ0 −ℎ2 = 𝑈∆𝑊𝑤 = 𝑈𝑉𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽2
➢Also, applying the energy equation to the flow relative to the
rotor blades (Equation 2.9)
1 2 2
1 2
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 𝑊2 − 𝑊1 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛽2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛽1
2 2
1
= 𝑉𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛽2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛽1
2
➢It follows that
𝑉𝑎
Rn = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽1 (2.29)
2𝑈
2
4
➢Putting Λ = 0 in Equation (2.28) yields the impulse stage with 𝛽1 =
𝛽2 and putting Λ = 0.5 we have the reaction stage with
𝑈
➢ = cot β2-cot β1 (2.30)
𝑉𝑎
➢From the geometry of the velocity triangles, we also have the
following equation
➢𝑈 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽1 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽2
➢Comparing the last equation with Equation (2.29), we get
➢𝛼1 = 𝛽2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼2 = 𝛽1
➢Also from the initial assumption that 𝑉2 = 𝑉0 and 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼0 , it
follows that 𝛼2 = 𝛼0
➢If Rn=0 there is no change of static head or pressure in the rotor
and such a machine is called an impulse turbo machine
➢It should be noted that in the general case where the fluid enters
and leaves the rotor at different radii, an impulse machine may
result from having a change of static head in one direction
contributed by the centrifugal effect and an equal change in
the other direction contributed by the change of relative velocity
2
5
➢It is noted that zero reaction stage is not the same thing as an impulse
stage; in the latter case there is, by definition, no pressure drop through
the rotor.
➢The Mollier diagram for an impulse stage should be shown where it is
seen that the enthalpy increases through the rotor.
➢The implication is clear: the reaction is negative for the impulse turbine
stage when account is taken of the irreversibility.
➢Evidently, for a 50% reaction design, the nozzles and blades have the
same shape, and the velocity diagram is symmetrical as shown in Fig 2.8.
➢ (Since the blades also act as nozzles in a reaction design, the term
nozzle is sometimes dropped and the stage is said to consist of a row of
stator blades followed by a row of rotor blades).
➢The optimum blade speed ratio for the reaction
stage can be found as follows.
➢From the symmetry of Fig 2.9a, ∆𝑊𝑤 = 2𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1 − 𝑈
➢And therefore, per unit mas of flow,
wk = U∆Wu = U(2V1cosα1-U) (2.31)
➢Since there is enthalpy drop in the rotor blades, the energy available to
the rotor blades per unit mass of flow is,
2
6
𝑉12 𝑊12 − 𝑊22 1
+ = 𝑉12 − 𝑊12
2 2 2
➢Since 𝑊2 = 𝑉1 (symmetry)
➢Furthermore, by the cosine law, 𝑊12 = 𝑉12 − 𝑈 2 − 2𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1
1
➢And therefore as the energy available is 𝑉12 − 𝑈 2 + 2𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1
2
𝑈 𝑈
2𝑈(2𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1 −𝑈) 2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1 −
(2.32)
𝑉1 𝑉1
➢ 𝜂𝑑 = = 𝑈 2 𝑈 2
(𝑉12 −𝑈 2 +2𝑉1 𝑈 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1 ) 1− +2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1
𝑉1 𝑉1

➢Differentiating Equation (2.32) with respect to𝑈Τ𝑉1 and equating to zero gives the
optimum blade speed ratio as
𝑈
= cos α1 (2.33)
𝑉1

➢When the optimum blade ratio is used, the velocity diagram appears in Fig 2.8(b).
➢Substituting (2.29) in (2.27) and (2.28) gives wk=mU2 and
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼1
𝜂𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼1
➢Illustrated in Fig 2.10 is the variation of 𝜂𝑑 with 𝑈Τ𝑉1 for the three types of stages
described.

2
7
Degree of Reaction
➢Usually, the total pressure drop across the stage is divided between the nozzles and
blades.
➢The division is usually expressed, not in terms of pressure drops, but in terms of
corresponding enthalpy drops.
➢The criterion used to describe it is the Degree of Reaction, Rn.
➢The general expression for the Degree of Reaction Rn is given in the following equation.
ℎ1 − ℎ2
Rn =
ℎ0 − ℎ2
➢Where (h1-h2) is the enthalpy drop in rotor blades and (h0-h2) is the stage enthalpy drop.
➢ The most common values of Rn are 0 and 50%.
ℎ1 −ℎ2
Rn = (2.34)
ℎ0 −ℎ2
➢Where (h1-h2) is the enthalpy drop in rotor blades and (h0-h2) is the stage enthalpy
drop.
➢The most common value of Λ used are 0 and 0.5 (or 0 and 50%).
➢When Rn = 0, all the stage pressure drop occurs in the nozzles and the stage is referred
to as an Impulse stage (recall example of the Pelton wheel which is an impulse turbine
with all the pressure drop occurring in the fixed nozzle)
➢In a 50% reaction design, the pressure ratios across the nozzles and blades are
approximately equal.
➢This is simply referred to as Reaction stage and only this value of Rn = 50 is considered in
the course.

2
8
➢Now considering the flow at mean radius of the annulus,
➢The fluid enters the nozzle with velocity V0 at which P0 and is expanded to P1 (see Fig
2.8).
➢The fluid exits the nozzle with a velocity V1 which is also the absolute velocity at rotor
blades inlet, making angle α1 with the tangential direction.
➢W1 is the relative velocity of the fluid to the moving blade at the blade inlet and makes
an angle β1 with the tangential direction.
➢Assuming smooth fluid entry into the blade passage, then β1 will be equal to blade inlet
angle.
➢At the blade outlet, corresponding values are V2 at α2 and W2 at β2 with the exit
tangential direction.
➢Applying Equation (2.32) to the expansion in the nozzle assuming adiabatic flow and
negligible change in elevation (wk = 0 since no work is done)
𝑉1 2 −𝑉2 2
𝑤𝐾 = 𝑈1 𝑉𝑢1 − 𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 + (2.35)
2
𝑉1 2 −𝑉0 2
Thus ℎ1 − ℎ2 =
2
➢Similarly, applying the energy equation to the flow relative to the rotor blades (wk = 0
relative to the blades) gives
1
(𝑊22 − 𝑊12 ) = h1 – h2 (2.33)
2

2
9
➢Usually, if this is multi-stage turbine, V2 will be made equal to V0 and α2
equal to α0 as the fluid then passes on to another similar stage.
➢By equation 2.2, and referring to the combined velocity triangles in Fig
2.8(b), work done for mass flow rate m is
wk = mU(Vu1 – Vu2) = mU(∆Vu) = mU(∆Wu) (2.34)
➢Since for the axial flow, 𝑈1 = 𝑈2 = 𝑈 = 𝜔𝑟 = 𝑁𝑟
➢Also, for an axial flow stage, the areas A1 and A2 are normal to the axial
direction and consequently gives
Ra = m(V1a – V2a) + (P1A1 – P2A2) (2.35)
➢where Ra is the axial force that the fluid exerts on the rotor which is
equal and opposite to the vector sum of the pressure and friction forces
which the rotor passage exert on the fluid.
➢In impulse turbine, p1 equals p2 if A1 and A2 are equal, the thrust due to
the hydrostatic pressure term is zero which reduces the size of thrust
bearing required to support the rotor.
➢ To reduce the thrust in multi-stage reaction turbines, the fluid is
sometimes introduced at the midpoint of the casting and allowed to
expand in opposite directions; the turbine is then referred to as “double
flow turbine”.
3
0
➢Applying the energy equation between sections 1 and 2 in Fig 2.2
gives
𝑚 2
𝑚 ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉12 + 𝑊𝑘 = 0
2
➢As no work is done in the nozzle, Wk represents the work output in
the stage. Eliminating the enthalpy term using the equation 2.33
gives
𝑚
𝑊𝑘 = 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 + 𝑊22 − 𝑊12 (2.36)
2
➢The above equation can be shown to be identical with Equation
(2.34) by considering the geometry of the velocity triangles in Fig
2.8(b) applying the law of cosines,
𝑉12 = 𝑊12 + 𝑈 2 − 2𝑊1 𝑈𝑐𝑜𝑠 180 − 𝛽1 = 𝑊12 + 𝑈 2 + 𝑊1 𝑈𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽1
But, 𝑉22 = 𝑊22 + 𝑈 2 − 𝑊1 𝑈𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽2
➢Subtracting the second equation from the first
𝑉12 − 𝑉22 = 𝑊1𝑊 − 𝑊22 + 2𝑈 𝑊1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽1 + 𝑊2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽2
➢But, ∆𝑊𝑤 = 𝑊1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽1 + 𝑊2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽2
𝑚
➢And therefore, 𝑊𝑘 = 𝑚𝑈∆𝑊𝑤 = 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 + 𝑊22 − 𝑊12
3
2
1
➢The above expression for the output work shows that the work
done per stage increases with the blade speed U.
➢ However, centrifugal stresses in the rotating parts put a limit on
the maximum permissible blade speed.
➢The maximum permissible blade speed is also influenced by the
temperature of the working fluid, the strength of the heat-
resisting alloys available, and the life required of the turbine
blade.
➢Designing for large enthalpy drop per stage in order to limit the
number of stages risks that only a smaller fraction of the large
enthalpy drop is actually converted to work while a larger
fraction remains as kinetic energy in the stream exiting the rotor.
➢ Furthermore, high fluid velocities lead to large friction losses.

3
2
Losses in multi-stage turbines, efficiencies and
reheat factor
(i) Multi-stage turbine and internal losses
➢The overall enthalpy drop across a turbine, particularly in steam turbine
plant, is usually great enough to require the use of a large number of
stages in series (as many as fifty stages).
➢From the above treatment, the order of work output per stage is as
follows:
➢Two-row impulse (Curtis stage) 8𝑚𝑈 2
➢Simple impulse 2𝑚𝑈 2
➢Reaction 𝑚𝑈 2
➢It will appear from the above order that use of the 2-row impulse stage
will offer the advantage of lesser number of stages because it has the
highest output work per stage.
➢On the other hand, this does not take into account the losses in the
turbines.
➢The losses in a turbine may be divided into two groups, “internal losses”
and “external losses”.
➢The external losses cover bearing friction and power required to drive
3 auxiliaries and is about similar for the various turbines.
3
➢The internal losses are thus the major group to consider and comprises
(a) blading losses and (b) leakage losses.
➢Blading losses arise from fluid friction in the nozzles and rotor blades which
result in the actual enthalpy drop being less than the isentropic enthalpy
drop.
➢Leakage losses arise from fluid that leak via clearance space between
moving and stationary parts which performs no useful work and since
they involve a form of throttling, they contribute to the irreversible
increase of entropy which occurs during expansion.

(ii) Stage efficiency, Overall efficiency and Reheat factor

➢The internal work done during the expansion of unit mass of flow from
state (1) to state (2) is
1 2
𝑤𝑘 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 + 𝑉1 − 𝑉22
2
➢In a multi-stage turbine, the inter-stage velocities are equal or nearly so;
thus the simplification; 𝑤𝑘 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 = ∆ℎ
➢The internal work is maximum when the expansion between the given
pressures are isentropic: 𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠 = ∆ℎ2𝑠
➢Defining the efficiency always as 𝑤Τ𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 , we arrive at the following
definitions of the isentropic efficiency of a stage, 𝜂𝑠 and overall isentropic
efficiency of a turbine, 𝜂0 :
𝛥ℎ 𝛥ℎ
𝜂𝑠 = 𝛥ℎ and 𝜂0 = 𝛥ℎ 0 (2.37)
3 𝑠 0,𝑠
4
➢To show that 𝜂0 > 𝜂𝑠 , consider, for simplicity a four-stage turbine with each
stage having the same efficiency, Fig 2.11.
➢The dotted curve indicates the average state of the fluid during the actual
expansion; in steam turbines practice it is called the “line of condition”.
➢The total work 𝛥ℎ0 can be expressed either in terms of the overall isentropic
enthalpy drop as 𝜂0 𝛥ℎ0,𝑠 or in terms of the isentropic stage enthalpy drop as
➢𝜂𝑠 ∆ℎ1,𝑠 + ∆ℎ2,𝑠 + ∆ℎ3,𝑠 + ∆ℎ4,𝑠 = 𝜂𝑠 σ ∆ℎ𝑠
➢Equating these expressions we have
𝛴𝛥ℎ
➢η0 = ηs 𝛥ℎ 𝑠 = ηsR (2.38)
0,𝑠

➢σ ∆ℎ𝑠 is called the “cumulative enthalpy drop” and is obviously greater than
𝛥ℎ0,𝑠 as the vertical height between any pair of constant pressure lines
increases with increase of entropy.
➢The ratio R of the cumulative enthalpy drop to the isentropic enthalpy drop is
called the “reheat factor” and it is always greater than unity.
➢The implication is that except the last stage, the internal losses in any stage
are partially recoverable in subsequent stages due to “reheating” effect of
friction.

3
5
Axial-Flow Compressor
➢An axial-flow compressor blade and velocity diagram are shown in
Figure 2.12. The fluid is deflected only slightly by the moving blade
compared with the turbine-blade deflection.
➢Another difference is that the pressure rises in the flow direction both
in the stator and in the rotor.
➢Pressure rise is related to enthalpy rise, and the latter is dependent on
the deflection of the fluid by the moving blade.
➢ From equation 2.33, h1 – h0 = ½(W02 – W12)
(2.39)
➢ which is interpreted as in enthalpy rise
associated with a loss of relative kinetic
energy in the blade passages.
➢ The associated pressure ratio is easily
obtained from the enthalpy rise through
the use of a polytropic exponent n.
➢ Manipulate P=ρRT and P/ρn =k to obtain
the thermodynamic relations
3
6
T2/T1=(ρ2/ρ1)n-1=(P2/P1)(n-1)/n.
➢Using the perfect gas relation,
➢∆h = Cp ∆T, we obtain,
from which the pressure ratio, and hence the pressure rise, may be
determined.
➢ It is observed that pressure rise depends on the change of relative
velocity, which is directly related to the compressor blade shape, i.e,
to the angle of deflection of the fluid.
➢Energy transfer is also related to the deflection angle, since the
application of equation 2.3 and figure 2.12 gives Vu1 = U-Wu1 and Vu2
= U- Wu2.
➢Thus Vu1 – Vu2 = (U-Wu1) – (U-Wu2) and
E = U (Vu1 – Vu2) = U (Wu2 – Wu1) (2.41)
➢Figure 2.13 shows that the difference in the
tangential components of the relative velocity
is proportional to thedeflection angle θ = β1 – β2.
Figure 2.13 Tangential
components of relative
3 velocity.
7
➢A typical compressor velocity diagram is constructed by
making V1 = W2 and V2 = W1.
➢Referring to Figure 2.12, it is seen that the triangles would be
symmetrical about the common altitude (Va).
➢Such symmetry, whether in a turbine or compressor diagram,
results in
Rn = 1/2, as determined from equation 2.31.
➢This condition is also termed a 50 percent reaction.
➢Physically this means that 50 percent of the compression (or
enthalpy rise) takes place in the rotor of the compressor and
50 percent in the stator.
➢This degree of reaction is optimum for minimization of
aerodynamic drag losses in rotor and stator blades in both
turbines and compressors.

3
8
Centrifugal Pump
➢The centrifugal pump is and has been an extremely important machine
to humans, and one would think it is theoretically complex.
➢ However, it is extremely simple to analyze.
➢It was discussed in Chapter 1 and is illustrated in Figure 2.14.
➢The inner and outer radii r1 and r2 define the inlet and outlet of the
control volume.
➢ Fluid, assumed incompressible, enters at station 1 with a purely radial
velocity V1, which implies that Vul = 0.
➢The impeller imparts angular momentum to the fluid so that it exits at
station 2 with radial and tangential velocity components.
➢ Note that U2 > U1 since r2 > r1 and the angular speed is constant.
➢The energy transfer E, or the head H (gH = -E), is calculated from E=Vu1U1-
Vu2U2, as
gH = -E = U2Vu2 (2.42)
𝑈−𝑈𝑢2
➢From the figure 2.15 above, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽2 =
𝑉𝑚2
➢Thus, Vu2 = U2 – Vm2 tan β2 (2.43)
➢The meridional component or the flow velocity Vf2 is the volume flow rate
3
Q divided by the flow area 2πr2b2, and U2 = Nr2.
9
➢The head is thus expressed as
𝑁𝑟2 − 𝑄Τ2𝜋𝑟2 𝑏2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽2
𝐻 = 𝑁𝑟2 (2.44), where b2 = impeller tip width.
𝑔
➢An important performance curve, the head-capacity curve, for a centrifugal
pump is constructed by plotting H as a function of Q.
➢Equation (2.44) expresses relationship analytically and provides an ideal
head-capacity curve for comparison with actual curves.
➢Since β2 is usually about 65°, the theoretical relation indicate decreasing
head with increasing flow rate, a situation realized in practice.
➢This equation indicates that H goes up to the square of N; which also agrees
with experience
➢It is interesting to note that an actual pump impeller
can be measured and the measurements used to
predict its expected flow rate.

4
Figure 2.14 Centrifugal
0 pump
➢It is interesting to note that an actual pump impeller can be measured,
and the measurements used to predict expected flow rate.
➢ Figure 2.15 shows that such a prediction can be easily made from a
knowledge of β1, N, r1, and b1, since V1=Vm1 and
Q=Vm1A=2πr1b1V1=2πr1b1U1cotβ1. U1=Nr1.
➢Thus, Q=2πr12b1Ncotβ1 (2.45)
➢The enthalpy rise for a compressible fluid is determined from the
thermodynamic equation
𝑑𝑝
T ds = dh − (2.46)
𝜌
➢For isentropic ds=0. Equation (2.46) becomes dh=dP/ρ or h2-h1=(P2-P1)/ ρ
➢Equation (2.46), integrated for the ideal isentropic compression of a liquid
(for which the density is assumed constant), is
h2 – h1 = (p2 – p1)/ρ (2.47)
➢Substituting (2.47) into (2.9) gives the head to be
𝑝2 −𝑝1 𝑉22 −𝑉12
H= 𝜌𝑔
+ 2𝑔 (2.48)
➢The latter equation is useful in calculating the pressure rise across the
pump impeller. Of course, the pressure can be raised further in the casing
of the pump by reducing V2 in a passage of increasing cross-sectional
area, i.e., a diffuser.
4
1
Hydraulic Turbine
➢The radial-flow hydraulic turbine, as depicted in Figure 2.16, is the
reverse of the centrifugal pump.
➢Stations 1 and 2 are reversed, and water enters at the larger
radius r1 from a stator which controls the angle α1 at which the
water enters the rotor inlet.
➢ Ideally, the absolute velocity V2 at the exit is purely radial so that
the energy transfer is simply, E = gH = U1Vul (2.49)
➢Since Vul = Vml tan α1 and Vml = Q/A1,
𝑄
we can write the turbine head as, 𝐻 = 𝑁𝑟1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 (2.50)
2𝜋𝑟1 𝑏1 𝑔
where b1 = runner tip width.
➢The flow rate Q is given, as in (2.45), by
Q = 2πr22b2N cot β2

4 Figure 2.16 hydraulic turbines

2
Further Examples
➢ Similarities of other turbo machines to the four examples discussed above should be noted.
➢ The axial-flow reaction turbines, which include most steam and gas turbines, are like the impulse
turbine example given except that an expansion of the fluid also occurs in the rotor.
➢ This means that an enthalpy drop occurs there, and the degree of reaction Rn is greater than zero
(typically Rn = ½).
➢ It should also be noted that steam and gas turbines used to drive large loads, such as electric
generators, include many stages in series, frequently with many rotors mounted on a single shaft.
➢ The energy transfer term for each rotor (stage) must be added to obtain the total work done per
unit mass of steam or gas flowing.
➢ The turbine power is then obtained from the product of the total specific work and the mass flow of
fluid.
➢ The axial-flow compressor example indicated calculations for a single stage.
➢ Compressors usually involve many stages and the pressure ratios for each must be multiplied to
obtain the overall pressure ratio of the machine.
➢ In addition, the relations developed for the compressor stage would also apply to axial-flow
blowers, fans, and pumps.
➢ The difference is that the enthalpy rise is calculated from (2.33) for the approximately
incompressible flows assumed in these machines.
➢ The centrifugal-pump example is applicable to centrifugal compressors, blowers, and fans.
➢ The hydraulic turbine example has points of similarity with the radial-flow gas turbine. No attempt is
made, however, to cover all turbo machines in this chapter.
➢ A detailed coverage will be given to each type in subsequent chapters.
4
3
Problems
• 2.1 Construct the velocity diagram for an axial-flow gas turbine
having a
degree of reaction of 0.25 and minimum leaving kinetic energy
(V22 / 2).
• 2.2 Derive the relationship between torque and speed for an
axial-flow impulse turbine
• 2.3 Determine energy transfer E for an axial-flow turbine in terms of
blade
speed U when the degree of reaction is 0.5 and the leaving kinetic
energy is
minimal.
• 2.4 Determine energy transfer E for an impulse turbine with minimal
leaving kinetic energy in terms of blade speed U when the degree
of reaction is 0.5.
• 2.5 Sketch the head-capacity curves for centrifugal pumps having
β2 between 0° and 90°, equal to 0° and less than 0°.
4
4