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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES
Compact Quasi-Static PEEC Modeling
of Electromagnetic Problems With
Finite-Sized Dielectrics
Yang Jiang , Member, IEEE, and Richard Xian-Ke Gao , Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract— In this article, a compact partial element equivalent
circuit (c-PEEC) model is presented for characterizing the
electromagnetic (EM) problems with finite-sized piecewise homo-
geneous dielectrics. Unlike in conventional PEEC models where
dielectrics are described by massive subcircuits, the proposed
c-PEEC model addresses the composite conductor-dielectric
problems via circuit elements resident on conductors only.
Novel null-field boundary integral equations (n-BIEs) are for-
mulated based on the surface equivalent principle and quasi-
static assumption. The elimination of the magnetic field-related
equivalent sources avoids the low-frequency breakdown problem
caused by the weak EM coupling at low frequencies and improves
the accuracy by inhibiting the numerical errors in discretizing
magnetic sources. The computational cost is significantly reduced
compared with the conventional models. Furthermore, the concise
configuration of the c-PEEC model extends the model-order
reduction (MOR) algorithms for fundamental homogeneous
models to heterogeneous integration. Three numerical examples
including a resonator, a radio frequency (RF) embedded passive
circuit, and an interconnection problem, are studied to validate
the stability, efficiency, and accuracy of the c-PEEC model.
A micro-modeling circuit is obtained from the c-PEEC model
to demonstrate its compatibility with the MOR algorithms.
Index Terms— Dielectrics, heterogeneous integration, integral
equations, model order reduction (MOR), partial element equiv-
alent circuit (PEEC) method.
I. I NTRODUCTION
W ITH the ever and rapid increase of data rate, circuit
complexity, and device density in electronic integration
and packaging, the signal integrity (SI) and power integrity
(PI) of high-speed heterogeneous integrated circuits (ICs)
become an imperative and challenging issue especially at the
design stage [1]. Numerous methods have been explored in the
past decades to address the large-scale electromagnetic (EM)
modeling problems, which can be mainly categorized into
two groups, the differential equation methods [2], [3] and the
integral equation methods [4]. The integral equation methods
exhibit superior efficiency for modeling the problems involv-
ing conductors in free space as compared to the differential
Manuscript received 20 November 2022; accepted 7 December 2022.
(Corresponding author: Richard Xian-Ke Gao.)
The authors are with the Electronics and Photonics Department, Insti-
tute of High Performance Computing, Agency for Science, Technology
and Research (A∗STAR), Singapore 138632 (e-mail: jiang_yang@ihpc.
a-star.edu.sg; gaoxk@ihpc.a-star.edu.sg).
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at
https://doi.org/10.1109/TMTT.2022.3229824.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TMTT.2022.3229824
0018-9480 © 2022 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
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1
equation methods. Because unknowns from the background
space are not required in the integral equation methods, the
number of unknowns is thus significantly reduced. However,
for heterogeneous problems involving finite-sized dielectrics,
additional equivalent sources are needed to describe the
dielectrics in the conventional integral equation methods,
resulting in exponential increase of the computation effort
for electrically large problems. The denser impedance matrix
will incur a dramatic hike in the computational overhead.
An integral equation method that is capable of modeling
EM problems involving piecewise homogenous dielectrics,
meanwhile, has less unknowns is highly desirable.
The partial element equivalent circuit (PEEC) [5], [6], [7]
method is a well-developed integral equation method and
has been widely used for SI and PI analysis [8], [9], [10].
The PEEC method is recognized for its unique capability
of describing general EM problems with physically mean-
ingful equivalent circuits that can be efficiently solved by
conventional SPICE-like circuit solvers in both the frequency-
and time-domain simulations. Generally, The PEEC method
interprets Maxwell equations in a physical domain as Kirch-
hoff’s voltage law (KVL) equations in a circuit domain. The
loop equations are weaved by Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
equations from the current continuity relation, leading to an
equivalent circuit containing mesh-related resistive, inductive,
and capacitive elements. In most of the PEEC models, induc-
tive couplings present magnetic coupling caused by currents,
capacitive couplings reveal the electric coupling induced by
charges, and resistors account for energy dissipation in terms
of heating or radiation.
For heterogeneous integration problems involving arbitrary-
shaped dielectrics, conventional PEEC models [11], [12], [13],
[14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21] describe dielectrics
with additional subcircuits carrying equivalent electric and/or
magnetic currents, which elevates the model order and circuit
complexity. The rigorous equivalent circuits in full wave
PEEC models [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16] explicitly
describe the complex EM behavior with accurate solutions.
However, the frequency-dependent circuit elements or the
retardation circuits aggravate the difficulty in obtaining and
solving the equivalent models. For problems with negligible
radiation phenomena and small electrical dimensions, quasi-
static PEEC models [17], [18], [19], [20], [21] that can capture
the dominant EM behavior with constant circuit elements are
preferred, because the quasi-static PEEC model is convenient
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2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES
to be implemented in SPICE-like solvers or other commercial
software. In [21], a quasi-static surface-PEEC (QS-PEEC)
model for dielectrics with finite size was proposed based on a
novel boundary integral equation (BIE) formulation, in which
the scattering electric fields are approximated by a function
of electric charges and currents only under the quasi-static
assumption. The insignificant contribution from the magnetic
charges is eliminated in the summation of dedicated electric
field integral equations (EFIEs). As a result, the size of
subcircuit describing dielectric is notably reduced as compared
to the traditional full-wave surface-PEEC (S-PEEC) model.
However, the asymmetry in circuit topology can cause passiv-
ity issues in the transient analysis due to numerical errors, and
the computation effort for solving dielectric-related subcircuits
in large-scale integration problems remains prohibitive.
To improve the efficiency of PEEC model, numerous model
order reduction (MOR) algorithms [22], [22], [23], [24], [26]
have been developed for the fundamental PEEC model for
conductors in free space. The MOR algorithm in [26] derives a
passive physically meaningful micro-modeling circuit with one
order reduction in circuit size. However, the configurations of
the conventional PEEC models for dielectrics are generally too
complicated to incorporate with the existing MOR algorithms.
In this article, a compact PEEC (c-PEEC) model is proposed
for the problems involving irregular-shaped piecewise homo-
geneous dielectrics. A novel null-field BIE (n-BIE) is formu-
lated by enforcing the summation of the tangential or normal
components of respective EFIEs to be 0. With the quasi-static
assumption, only bounded electric charges are employed in
the n-BIE formulation to describe the impact of dielectrics on
the conductor boundary. The impact is subsequently presented
as a function of charges and currents on the conductor.
Consequently, the impact of dielectrics is “absorbed” by the
circuit elements on conductors. Hence, the c-PEEC model is
capable to delineate composite conductor-dielectric problems
with distributed resistors, inductors, capacitors, and couplings
associated with the conducting components only.
The c-PEEC model overperforms the existing PEEC models
in the following aspects. First, the c-PEEC model greatly
diminishes the overall computation cost with fewer unknowns.
Second, compared with conventional methods of the surface
equivalent principle, the c-PEEC model possesses superior
accuracy by circumventing the numerical errors in the dis-
cretization process of the magnetic equivalent sources. Third,
the model achieves excellent stability by avoiding the use
of weak EM couplings at low frequencies when formulating
the n-BIEs. Last, the circuit configuration of c-PEEC model
is the same as the fundamental PEEC model for multiple
conductors in free space. Therefore, the MOR algorithms for
fundamental PEEC model can be directly extended to solve
the heterogeneous problems via the c-PEEC model.
This article is organized as follows. In Section II, the
n-BIE is presented and discussed. Section III introduces the
procedure of eliminating the electric charges on dielectrics.
A clear circuit interpretation related to the currents and charges
on conductor surfaces is elucidated in Section IV. The influ-
ence of finite-sized dielectrics is represented by the modified
inductive and capacitive elements on conductors. In Section V,
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Fig. 1. Illustration of a typical EM problem that consists of conductors and
dielectrics with diverse permittivity, including (a) original problem, and the
equivalent subproblem where the true fields are retained in (b) background
environment, (c) dielectric 1, and (d) dielectric 2.
three numerical examples are studied to demonstrate the
superior efficiency, accuracy, stability, and compatibility of
the proposed c-PEEC model. The Conclusion is given in
Section VI.
II. N ULL -F IELD B OUNDARY I NTEGRAL E QUATIONS
An n-BIE is introduced in this section for the c-PEEC
model. The surface equivalent principle is employed to create
homogeneous subproblems. The summation of the normal
and/or tangential components of electric fields in the null
field region in the subproblems is enforced to be 0 on every
boundary. Only the sources from electric fields are utilized in
the new n-BIE by applying the quasi-static approximation to
Green’s function.
Without loss of generality, a typical EM problem shown in
Fig. 1(a) is deployed as an example, which involves two con-
ductors (C0 , C1 ) and two dielectrics (D1 , D2 ) with permittivity
(ε1 , ε 2 ) in an environment with permittivity ε0 . Assume that
the conductor C0 is fully exposed in the environment, C1 is
embedded in the dielectric D1 , D1 and D2 are the independent
to each other. The dielectric surfaces SD = {S D1 , S D2 } and the
conductor surfaces SC = {SC0 , SC1 } separate the original space
into three regions {V0 , V1 , V2 }, which are occupied by the
background environment, dielectrics D1 and D2 , as illustrated
by the respective colors in Fig. 1(a).
The surface equivalence principle states that, by impressing
the equivalent currents on a closed boundary to enforce the
interior fields being zeros, the external fields can be sustained
as the true fields in the original problem. As shown in
Fig. 1(b)–(d), three subproblems are defined from the original
problem, in which the equivalent sources generate true fields
inside Vi (i = 0, 1, and 2) and null fields elsewhere. The null
field region is presented by blank and the true field region
retains the original color. Denote the boundary that separates
the true and null filed region as Si = {S Di ∪ SCi }. In the
i th subproblem (i = 0, 1, and 2), the electric surface current
density Ji and the magnetic surface current density M  i are
defined on SCi and SDi by the magnetic field H and the electric
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JIANG AND GAO: COMPACT QUASI-STATIC PEEC MODELING OF EM PROBLEMS WITH FINITE-SIZED DIELECTRICS 3

field E as
Ji = n i × H and M
 i = E × ni (1)
where ni is the unit vector normal to Si pointing to Vi . For
completeness, define SC2 = ∅ and SD0 = {SD1 ∪ S D2 }. The
electric and magnetic surface charge densities ρi and σi are
given by the current continuity equations
j ωρi + ∇ · Ji = 0 and j ωσi + ∇ · M
 i = 0. (2) Fig. 2. Illustration of the observation and source points with respect to the
true and null field region with (a) 3-D view and (b) profile view.
In the i th subproblem, the permittivity of the null region
can be manipulated as εi , for example, which is the same
as the true field region, to establish a homogeneous space. In every subproblem, the E- and H -fields in the null field
Thus, the electric and magnetic fields Ei and Hi in each of region are selected to formulate the BIEs with coefficients α
the homogeneous subproblems can be represented by the well- and β. The coefficients are presented by three categories
known EFIE and magnetic field integral equation (MFIE) as according to the selected boundary Si and fields ( E j , H j ),
follows: namely the outer, inner, and other coefficients. When the
    
1 observation point is on Si , the outer coefficients weight the
 
r ) = E i (r ) + ei (
E i ( inc
r ) − j ωμ0 G i r, r Ji r ds  fields from the 0th subproblem, where the true field is in
 2    
1 the background environment. The inner coefficients carry the
− P ∇G i r, r ρi r ds  fields from the i th subproblem that has the true field inside Si .
εi 
    The other coefficients are related to the fields in the remaining
− P ∇G i r, r × M  i r ds  (3) subproblems, where the fields constantly equal to 0 on Si
     according to the surface equivalent principle. In (9) and (10),
1
Hi ( r ) − j ωεr G i r, r M
r ) = Hiinc(r ) + hi (  i r ds  the operator F (v ) = ni × v or ni · v denotes either to use the
 2
1     tangential or normal components of the boundary fields.
− P ∇G i r, r σi r ds  Different formulas may lead to differences in system unkno-
μ 0 wns and stability [28]. Three representative formulations,
   
+P ∇G i r, r × Ji r ds  (4) Poggio–Miller–Chang–Harrington–Wu–Tsai (PMCHWT) for-
mulation [29], Müller formulation [30], and the BIEs for
where ω is the angular frequency. G i is the full-wave Green’s the QS-PEEC model [21] are selected for comparison. The
function in a homogeneous space with permittivity εi characteristics of the respective formulations are summarized
   √    
    in Table I. The PMCHWT formulation is established by
G i r, r = exp − j ω εi μ0 r − r  4π r − r . (5)
forcing the tangential components of the E- and H -fields
Eiinc and Hiinc are the incident electric and magnetic fields in the 0th and i th subproblems to be equal, and is one
inside region Vi , r and r are the coordinates of source of the most widely used formulations for the composite
and observation points, respectively. P denotes the Cauchy dielectric/conductor problem. Low-frequency breakdown issue
principal value of integrals that extract Sδ from integral domain is reported in PMCHWT-based system, which degrades the
  system performance in near-zero frequency and limits the
   
P F r ds  = lim F r ds  . (6) application in multiscale integration modeling [31], [32], [33].
δ→0
S S−Sδ The causes of the low-frequency breakdown issue can be sum-
As illustrated in Fig. 2, Sδ is an infinite small circle centered marized as: 1) loss of scalar potentials at low frequency due to
at rp . e and h are the local source-induced fields which limited machine precision and 2) weak coupling between the
represent the integrals of |r − r |−2 type singularities over Sδ . electric and magnetic fields at near-zero frequencies. Conven-
When r+ and r− approach rp on Si from the true and null tionally, these two problems can be addressed via: 1) the sepa-
field regions, respectively, the e and h are given as [27] rated potential integral equation (SPIE) method [34], [35] and
   
  2) incorporation of extra testing and base functions, e.g., the
 i rp
ei r± = ± ni ρi rp εi + n i × M (7) Müller formulations [36] and eddy-current formulation [37].
 ±   
   The PEEC models addressed the first problem by interpreting
hi r = ± ni σi rp μ0 − ni × Ji rp . (8)
the scalar potentials as independent unknowns in the circuit
Numerous BIEs are formulated with diverse constraints, domain, which is consistent with the SPIE methods. Recently,
which can be summarized by the following system: a novel BIE formulation [21] is proposed for the QS-PEEC
⎡ ⎤ model, in which the fields from the noncontact subproblems
 −  −  are first employed (α j , β j
= 0) in the BIEs, vanishing the
F E ⎣αi Ei r + α0 E0 r + α j E j (r )⎦ = 0 (9)
insignificant contribution from magnetic charges under quasi-
j
=0,i
⎡ ⎤ static assumption. However, the impact of weak coupling
 −  −  between the electric and magnetic fields at low frequencies is
F H ⎣βi Hi r + β0 H0 r + β j H j (r )⎦ = 0. (10) inevitable as long as both the equivalent magnetic and electric
j
=0,i sources are utilized in developing the BIEs.

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4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES

TABLE I
C OMPARISON OF THE F ORMULATIONS OF S ELECTED BIEs

In this work, we proposed a new n-BIE formulation that uses The quasi-static assumption is applied to the field integral
the tangential electric fields on the conductor surface and the equations by assuming an instant reaction between the source
normal electric fields on dielectric surface. In the n-BIE, only and the observation points, which indicates that the exponen-
electric currents and charges play dominantly, the magnetic tial term in the full-wave Green’s function ω(u 0 εi )1/2  1.
sources are insignificant and naturally vanish under the quasi- Consequently, the quasi-static Green’s function is obtained
static assumption. As a result, the weak coupling between which neglects the characteristic εi in the different
E- and H -fields will not affect the model performance at low subproblems
frequencies.    
In the null-field region of each subproblem, according to G i r, r ≈ Ḡ r, r = 1/4π|r − r |. (17)
the surface equivalent principle: 1) the normal component of
electric field close to dielectric surface and 2) the tangential Substitute (17) into (3), the summation of electric fields in the
component of electric field on conductor surface are 0, which null field region can be written as follows in an integral form.
are When the observation point is on Si
   
E i r−  = 0, r ∈ SD j , i, j = 0, 1, 2 (11) 
2
      2

  nor E i r− = e0 r− + ei r− − j ωμ0 Ḡ Ji ds 

Ei r−  = 0, r ∈ SC j , i, j = 0, 1, 2, j
= i. (12) i=0 i=0
tan  2 2
In the true field region, assume that the conductors are 1  i ds  .
−P ∇ Ḡρi ds  −P ∇ Ḡ × M
perfect electric conductors (PEC), the tangential electric field i=0
ε i i=0
on conductor surface is 0
 
(18)
Ei r+  = 0, r ∈ SC j , i = 0, 1, 2, j = i. (13)
tan The incident electric field is assumed to be 0 everywhere
Considering the tangential electric field is continuous on except the excitation point; thus, E inc is omitted. For sim-
the boundary of PEC in the true field region, we move the plicity, the arguments (r , r ) of Ḡ are omitted, and the argu-
observation points across the PEC boundary from r + to r − ments of the observation and source points are represented
for the simplicity of the formula, which is by with and without an apostrophe for short hereinafter,
    e.g., Ji (r  ) = Ji , ρi (r ) = ρi .
Ei r−  = Ei r+  = 0, r ∈ SC j , i = 0, 1, 2, j = i.
tan tan Considering n0 = − n i on the dielectric surfaces SDi , the
(14) equivalent sources in the i th subproblem are opposite to those
The first kind of equations in the n-BIEs are formulated by in the 0th subproblem on the same boundary, which are
taking the summation of tangential electric fields from every
J0 = − Ji , M
0 = −Mi (19)
subproblem on the conductor surfaces in both the true and null
field regions to be 0, which is processed by summing up (12) ρ0 = −∇ · J0 / j ω = −∇ · Ji / j ω = −ρi . (20)
and (14) over i on the same observation points
 Substituting the sources on the dielectric surfaces in the
2
 −  i th subproblem by those in the 0th subproblem in (18), the
Ei r  = 0, r ∈ SC . (15)
 n-BIEs in (15) and (16) can be recast in the following form
i=0 tan with simple manipulation:
The second kind of equations is achieved by enforcing the On the conductor surfaces
summation of normal electric fields on the same observation 
point in the null field region to be 0. Taking the summation  r ) − ∇
(r )
− j ω A( = 0. (21)
tan
of (11) over i , it leads to
 On the dielectric surfaces
 2
 −  

E i r  = 0, r ∈ SD . (16)
  r ) − ∇
(
− j ω A(  r)
r ) − ( =0 (22)
i=0 nor nor

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JIANG AND GAO: COMPACT QUASI-STATIC PEEC MODELING OF EM PROBLEMS WITH FINITE-SIZED DIELECTRICS 5

in which the magnetic vector potential A(  r ), the electric scalar also applicable to the n-BIE. The surfaces of dielectrics and
potentials
(r ), and the function of local source-induced fields conductors are discretized by the rectangular meshes whose
on dielectric surfaces ( r ) are given by maximum edge length lmax < 0.1λmin , λmin is the minimum
  2  1  wavelength within the frequency of interest. Each rectangular
 r ) = μ0
A(   
Ḡ Ji ds = μ0 Ḡ Ji ds  (23) mesh unit cell is defined as a charge cell C Q that holds a
SC ∪S D i=0 i=0 SCi discretized charge Q C on conductor or Q D on dielectric. Every
 2 adjacent pair of charge cells on a conductor form a current
1

(
r) = P Ḡρi ds  cell C I carrying the conducting current I C . Assume that the
SC ∪S D i=0 εi number of charge cells on conductor and dielectric are NC
1 
  2    and N D , a set of current cells with the amount of MC will
ρ 1 1
=P Ḡ i ds  + P Ḡ − ρ  ds  be generated accordingly. The equivalent sources in the field
SCi εi S Di ε0 εi 0
i=0 i=1 domain are replaced by the corresponding variables in the
(24) circuit domain from such a discretization procedure as follows:
    
 r ) = − e0 r− + ei r−
(

NC 
ND
 0 + n 0 ρ0 (ε0 + εi )/2ε0 εi .
= n 0 × M (25) ρC (r ) = f kC (r )Q Ck , ρ D (r ) = f kD (r )Q kD (26)
k=1 k=1
The last integrand, which is the summation of electric vector
0 
MC
potentials in (18), vanishes by combining the terms of M J(r ) = bm (r )ImC (27)

and − Mi with (17) and (19). It can be concluded that the m=1
contribution of magnetic currents in the summation of EFIE
is negligible under quasi-static assumption, which is consistent where Q Ck and Q kD represent the charges in the kth charge cell
with the statement in [21]. As only the normal component of on conductor and dielectric surfaces, respectively. ImC denotes
electric field on dielectric surface is deployed in the system, the surface current on the mth current cell on conductor.
the magnetic current-induced local fields which are tangential The impulse basis functions bm and f k carrying currents and
to the dielectric surface will not be taken in the n-BIEs. The charges are defined as
unknowns in the dedicated equations are conducting current 
vm /wm , r ∈ CmI
density JC and free charge density ρC on the conductor surface bm (r ) = (28)
and bounded charge density on the dielectric surface ρ D . 0, otherwise
 Q
1/Ak , r ∈ Ck C( D)
III. D IELECTRIC -F REE D ISCRETIZED E QUATIONS f kC(D) (r ) = (29)
0, otherwise
For most of the EM problems, the equivalent sources on
dielectric surfaces are not the primary concern, which suggests where vm is a unit vector that defines the direction of the
that it is not necessary to solve the equivalent sources on tangential current on the mth current cell CmI , wm is the edge
the dielectric surfaces. In fact, only the conducting current length of the mth charge cell which is orthogonal to vm , and
densities JC and the charge densities ρC on conductor sur- Ak is the area of the kth charge cell CkQ C on conductor surface
face are the essential quantities to get the device response. or CkQ D on dielectric surface.
Moreover, the discretization of the equivalent sources on To establish the discretized equations from the n-BIEs
dielectrics will inevitably introduce numerical errors. In the on conductor surface (21) and dielectric surface (22), the
proposed n-BIE, it can be noticed that the dielectrics affect equivalent sources will be first substituted with (26) and (27).
the BIEs on conductor surface through the surface charge Subsequently, Garlerkin matching is applied using the follow-
density ρ D . If ρ D can be written as a function of JC and ρC , ing relation:
the potential
(r ) can be represented by JC and ρC only. The   
new formula of the potential
(r ) will form a simultaneous a , f = a · fds. (30)
equation system for the c-PEEC model that only considers the
free charges and the conducting currents on conducting bodies. Vector a is a placeholder for the testing function, f stands for
In this section, the electric scalar potential will be formulated the vectors to be matched in the discretized integral equations.
as a function of JC and ρC by solving (22) numerically.
First, discretization and matching are applied to the
A. Discretized Equation From Conductor Surface
n-BIEs. From (22), the bounded charge density on dielectric
surface ρ D can be presented as a function of conductor related On the conductor surface, the tangential electric fields
JC and ρC . Consequently, the terms involving the dielectric should equal to 0. The testing functions for (21) are selected
bounded charge in (21) will be formulated as a function of JC from the basis functions for the current cells, which are
and ρC , leading to a new dielectric-free discretized equation a ∈ {bn |n = 1, 2, . . . , MC }, resulting in the following MC
system that only employs JC and ρC as unknowns. dedicated equations:
The rectangular mesh with the impulse basis [5] is adopted MC  
 
in this section for general illustration. It should be mentioned j ωμ0   C 
Ḡ bn · bm Im ds ds = − bn · ∇
(r )ds.
that other conventional numerical approaches, like the trian- m=1 SC SC SC
gular mesh scheme with Rao–Wilton–Gaussian basis [38], are (31)

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6 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES

 
 = b∇
+
(∇·
  and finite 1
With the vector identity ∇·(b
) b) Ckl = P f kD flC n 0 · ∇ Ḡds  ds (40)
difference approximation, the right-hand side (RHS) of (31) ε
   
S D SC
can be regarded as the difference of average electric potentials 1 1
klD = −  P f kD fl D n0 · ∇ Ḡds  ds (41)
between the two adjacent charge cells Cn+ QC
and Cn−QC
[5] ε0 ε
    SD SD
 (ε0 + εi )/2 AkD εi ε0 , k = l
− bn · ∇
(
r )ds = − ∇ · bn
( r ) ds +
(r )∇ · bn ds kl = (42)
0, otherwise.
SC
 SC
 SC

≈ C
f n+
(r )ds − C
fn−
(r )ds. (32) With simple matrix operation on (38), the vector of dielec-
SC SC tric charge QD is expressed by the following system utilizing
Substitute (32) into (31) and replace the potentials with (24), the conducting current and charge:
the MC discretized equations on conductor surface can thus  D     
Q = j ω[][T] IC +[] C QC (43)
be expressed in a matrix form as follows:
        where
j ω[L] IC = [A]T PC QC + PD QD (33)    −1
[] = − D − [] . (44)
where A is a connectivity matrix with the rank NC × M C
that describes the connecting relation between charge cells and It should be mentioned that the matrix  is invertible
current cells. The entry Anm is 1 or −1 if the mth current flows because the diagonal elements, which are the weights of
out of or into the nth charge cell, otherwise is 0. IC , QC , and local source-induced fields , are much greater than the
QD are the vectors of conducting currents, the free charges off-diagonal elements of Cauchy principal integral in D .
on conductor, and the bounded charges on dielectric, whose The rank of  equals to N D , which is 25% at maximum of
ranks are MC , NC , and N D . The entries L nm , PklC , and PklD in the system matrix rank in conventional methods (N C + MC +
L, PC , and PD are given by 2N D + 2M D ). Compared to directly solving the conventional
  models, the computational effort to achieve  is insignificant,
L nm = μ0 Ḡ bn · bm ds  ds (34) especially in large-scale integration problems. Furthermore,
 
SC SC
the proposed c-PEEC model requires only one-time inversion
1
PklC =  P f kC flC Ḡds  ds (35) to get , which is equivalent to reducing the order of n-BIE
ε
   
SC SC based system from N D + NC + MC to NC + MC in both
1 1
PklD = −  P fkD flC Ḡds  ds (36) frequency and time domain simulations.
ε0 ε SC S D Taking the benefit from (43), the dielectric bounded
in which ε is the permittivity of the dielectric where the charge QD can be replaced by a function of IC and QC
lth charge cell is located. From (33), it can be noticed that in (33), which leads to the following dielectric-free discretized
the influence of dielectrics in the discretized equation is equations for the proposed c-PEEC model
from the bounded charge QD , which verifies the statement     
j ω [L] − [A]T PD [][T] IC
afore-given.       
= [A]T PC + PD [] C QC . (45)
B. Discretized Equation From Dielectric Surface
It is worth to note that, unlike conventional surface equiv-
Matching on the second group of the n-BIEs, of which alent principle models that require subsystems to describe
the normal components of electric fields on the null-field all finite-sized materials, the impact of dielectrics in (45)
side of dielectric surface are 0, is proceeded by applying naturally vanishes when ε → ε0 , since PD defined by (36)
n 0 f kD |k = 1, 2, . . . , N D } to (22) on every dielectric
a ∈ { goes to 0. Thus, the model is continuous when the dielectric’s
charge cell CkQ D . Following N D discretized integral equations permittivity is close to free space. The continuity in the
are obtained after the matching process resultant circuit serves as a side-proof for a better physical
MC   insight into the proposed model. The stability of the proposed
− j ωμ0 Ḡ f kD n0 · bm ds  ds ImC model will be verified in the section of Numerical Examples

m=1 S D SC
 by examining the condition numbers of circuit matrices of the
 r )ds = 0. (37) c-PEEC model and the conventional SEP-based PEEC model.
− f k n0 · ∇
(r )ds −
D
fkD n0 · (
SD SD
IV. C IRCUIT D OMAIN I NTERPRETATION
The N D discretized equations from dielectrics can be presented
in the following matrix form In this section, the c-PEEC model will be established from
          the dielectric-free discretized equation (45). The left-hand side
j ω[T] IC + C QC + D QD +[] QD = 0 (38) (LHS) of (45) is the product of a current vector and an
where the ranks of weight matrices T, C , D , and  are impedance matrix whose value is proportional to j ω. The
N D × MC , N D × N C , N D × N D , and N D × N D , respectively. results can be regarded as a vector VL that describes the
The entries Tkm , Ckl , klD , and kl in the corresponding weight voltages through inductors and the couplings through every
matrices are given by current cell. A modified inductive matrix L̄ involving the
  influence of dielectrics is given by
Tkm = μ0 Ḡ fkD n0 · bm ds  ds (39)    
SD SC L̄ = [L] − [A]T PD [][T]. (46)

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JIANG AND GAO: COMPACT QUASI-STATIC PEEC MODELING OF EM PROBLEMS WITH FINITE-SIZED DIELECTRICS 7

TABLE II
C OMPARISON OF C IRCUIT M ODEL O RDERS AND MNA M ATRIX R ANKS

The configuration of c-PEEC is exactly the same as the

Fig. 3. Circuit topology of the c-PEEC model for EM problems with
conductors and dielectrics, where the rectangular cells in the dashed line are
charge cells.
Referring to the connectivity matrix A, the RHS of (45)
is interpreted as the difference of potential  on every two
adjacent charge cells. The potential vector  is determined by
a modified potential coefficient matrix P̄ and the free charge
induced displacement currents IQ , where IQ = j ωQC , which
can be expressed as
1   Q 
[
] = P̄ I (47) frequency and time domain analysis.
jω
in which
   C   D  C 
P̄ = P + P []
. (48) QS-PEEC model in the modified node analysis (MNA) [41] are
With the modified inductive matrix L̄ and capacitive matrix P̄,
(45) can be rephrased as
  
j ω L̄ IC = [A]T [
]. (49) effective for large-scale heterogeneous integration problems.
The MC equations in (49) indicate that, on every current
cell, the voltage due to the self and mutual inductances equals
the potential difference between two adjacent charge cells,
which can be considered KVL equations in a circuit domain.
Another relation to establish the c-PEEC model is from the
current continuity equation on every charge cell. It can be
summarized in a matrix form as
     
[A] IC = − j ω QC = − IQ (50)
which depicts that the total conducting currents flowing out
of charge cells are equal to the displacement currents flowing
into the corresponding cell, which follows KCL.
As illustrated in Fig. 3, the configuration of the c-PEEC
model can be concluded as follows. First, every current cell
defines a branch in a circuit domain that carries conducting
currents IC with the modified inductors and couplings L̄. The
couplings exist among every pair of current cells. Second, each
charge cell introduces a node on the end of the conducting
current branch. The node potentials  are defined by the
displacement currents IQ flowing from the node to the ground
at infinity and the modified potential coefficients P̄. For the
conductors with finite conductivity, resistors should be added
to the branches on the conductor surface to account for
conduction loss [39], [40].
fundamental PEEC model that describes multiconductors in
free space [5]. Compared with the free space PEEC model,
the modified terms in the inductive and potential coefficient
matrices of the c-PEEC model demonstrate the disturbances
from the inhomogeneous media. The influence of dielectric is
absorbed by the equivalent inductors, capacitors, and couplings
of the circuit elements related to conductors. The distributive
expression of the impact of finite-sized dielectric material
provides a unique view to understand how the EM behavior of
devices is influenced by the nonideal environment. It should
be mentioned that the values of the resultant circuit elements
are frequency-invariant which is more efficient for both the
Assuming N D charge cells introduce M D current cells on
dielectrics, the dimensions of the system matrices of the
c-PEEC model, the full-wave S-PEEC model, and the
shown in Table II. Compared with the S-PEEC and QS-PEEC
models, the unknowns from the dielectric are significantly
reduced in the c-PEEC model, which will be particularly
It should be mentioned that preprocessing is required in the
c-PEEC model, including inverting the matrix to obtain (44)
and updating the inductive matrix (46) and potential coefficient
matrix (48). In general, matrix inversion and multiplication
require the computational load of order O(n 3 ), where n is
the rank of the matrix. The computation overhead of the
preprocessing is O(N D2 log N D ) + O(MC3 ) + O(NC3 ), where
updating the circuit matrix can be accelerated by multithread
parallel computing. The overall computational effort of the
c-PEEC model is much less than that of traditional PEEC
models whose system matrices are at least O(n 2QS log n QS )
in practice, especially when frequency or time swapping is
required. Furthermore, the order of c-PEEC model can be
further reduced by applying the MOR algorithms [26] for
achieving a unique micro-modeling circuit for general EM
problems involving dielectrics.
The c-PEEC describes a general passive model with
frequency-invariant circuit elements, which is efficient in both
time and frequency domain simulation. It is reported that the
conventional full-wave PEEC models have passivity issues
because the real part of the impedance in the potential coeffi-
cient matrix is not positive-definite [26], which indicates that
there are negative equivalent resistors on the branches from
every node to the ground. The negative resistances might cause
the node potentials to diverge in a long-duration time-domain

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8 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES

simulation. Such an issue will not be found in the c-PEEC

model because all the circuit elements are frequency-invariant
real types.
Meanwhile, the impact of the quasi-static approximation
on the c-PEEC model should be discussed. First, compared
with the full-wave generalized PEEC models [20], [42], the
radiation resistance and frequency dependency of inductors are
approximated to be 0 in the c-PEEC model. The ignorance Fig. 4. Illustration of a C-shaped resonator with a finite-sized dielectric
of radiation resistance makes the c-PEEC model inappro- segment. (a) Isometric view. (b) Top view in the x–y plane with the physical
priate for solving radiated EM problems, like an antenna. dimensions.
Second, referring to [42], the generalized self-inductance L̄ nn
is approximated by
  
μ0 1 2π 2 R  l
L̄ nn ≈ − ds ds − (51)
4πw2 Sn Sn R λ2 2
where l and w are the length and width of a current cell, λ is
the wavelength. It can be noticed that the frequency-dependent
part of self-inductance is proportional to ω2 , which deviates
the c-PEEC model from the full-wave model as frequency
increases. Such an error holds a maximum because the mesh
edge is limited to one-tenth of the wavelength at the highest
frequency of interest, which is l < 0.1λ f max . Third, the
assumption of instant traveling wave will fail the c-PEEC
model to evaluate the phase of field activated by long-distance
coupling in space. This problem is essential in the system-level Fig. 5. Comparison of magnitudes of the S-parameter evaluated by the
c-PEEC model, the S-PEEC model, and HFSS.
radiation emission modeling, which can be relieved by adding
an average phase among the couplings between components.
proposed c-PEEC model. The physical structure and corre-
V. N UMERICAL E XAMPLES sponding dimensions of the resonator are illustrated in Fig. 4.
Two identical C-shaped conducting traces in the x–y plane
To investigate the accuracy, efficiency, stability, and com-
are aligned in the z-direction. A 3 × 34 × 3.6 mm dielectric
patibility of the proposed c-PEEC model, three numerical
with relative permittivity εr = 5 is embedded between the
examples are investigated. The triangular meshes and Rao-
long arms of the folded conducting traces. The C-shaped
Wilton-Glisson (RWG) basis functions [38] are employed for
structure with finite-sized dielectric creates a resonance at
better fitting the geometries. The MNA [41] is used to analyze
around 3 GHz. The S-parameters of the resonator simulated
the PEEC models for acquiring S-parameters. The same mesh
by the proposed c-PEEC model, the S-PEEC model, and the
scheme is used by the c-PEEC model and other benchmark
commercial software HFSS are illustrated in Fig. 5. It can be
PEEC models in each example study.
noticed that the full-wave S-PEEC model suffers from a low-
First, a folded resonator with finite-sized dielectric is studied
frequency breakdown issue at a frequency below 0.3 GHz,
to demonstrate the stability and accuracy of the proposed
regarding the magnitude of S11 . Meanwhile, the proposed
c-PEEC model compared with the S-PEEC model. Fol-
c-PEEC model offers stable responses which agree with the
lowing is a low-temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) filter
HFSS results well from 0.05 to 5 GHz.
component. An example of micro-modeling circuit, namely,
The condition numbers of the MNA matrices of the c-PEEC
reduced order c-PEEC model (rc-PEEC), is given by applying
model and the S-PEEC model are examined. A system with
the MOR algorithm on the resulting c-PEEC model. The
lower condition number will be less sensitive to noise and
S-parameters obtained by the c-PEEC model and the rc-PEEC
errors. Let [C] be the MNA matrix of a PEEC model, the
model are compared with those of the QS-PEEC and commer-
condition number of C, namely, cond(C), is evaluated by
cial software to show a significant improvement in the model
the eigenvalues λW of the corresponding Hermitian matrix
efficiency. Finally, the c-PEEC model of a practical multilayer
W = C H C, which is given by
interconnection circuit with through vias is simulated to study  
the valid frequency range of the proposed method concern-  
cond(C) = cond(W) = abs λmax W /λW
min (52)
ing the quasi-static assumption. The error induced by the
quasi-static assumption is discussed based on the simulation where C H is the transpose conjugate of matrix C. λmaxW
and
results. λmin
W
are the maximum and minimum eigenvalues of
the Hermitian matrix, respectively. The condition numbers
A. Example 1: A Folded Resonator With Finite-Sized of the two PEEC models versus frequency are plotted in Fig. 6.
Dielectric The condition number of the S-PEEC model below 0.3 GHz
A simple C-shaped resonator is studied in this example is not considered because the S-PEEC model collapses due to
to show the improvement in stability and accuracy of the the weak coupling between electric and magnetic fields, which

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JIANG AND GAO: COMPACT QUASI-STATIC PEEC MODELING OF EM PROBLEMS WITH FINITE-SIZED DIELECTRICS
Fig. 6. Conditional numbers of the MNA circuit matrices of the c-PEEC
model and the S-PEEC model within the frequency of interest.
Fig. 7. Illustration of an LTCC bandpass filter [21]. (a) Isometric view.
(b) Side view in y–z plane. (c) Top view of each layer in x–y plane and its
brief physical dimensions.
can be observed in Fig. 5. At frequencies above 0.3 GHz, the
condition number of the c-PEEC model is smaller in orders
than that of the S-PEEC model, which indicates the system
matrix of c-PEEC model is more stable than the S-PEEC
model and thereby the c-PEEC model is more preferable
for iterative solvers to address very large-scale heterogeneous
problems.
B. Example 2: An LTCC Filter Component
A typical six-layer LTCC bandpass filter component shown
in Fig. 7 is studied as the second example. The thickness of
each LTCC dielectric layer is 91.44 μm. The filter consists
of three metal layers that are assumed to be infinitely thin.
The metal layers are embedded in a dielectric block with a
relative permittivity εr = 7.8. Compared with other PEEC
models that can deal with finite-sized dielectrics, the QS-PEEC
model holds the advantage of fewer unknowns with a smaller
circuit size. As a result, the QS-PEEC model is selected as
the benchmark to demonstrate the superior efficiency of the
c-PEEC model. Moreover, an rc-PEEC model is derived from
the c-PEEC model by the MOR algorithm [26], resulting in
an order reduction in the number of unknowns.
In Fig. 8, the magnitudes of S-parameters calculated by the
c-PEEC model, the rc-PEEC model, the QS-PEEC model, and
the commercial EM software ADS Momentum are compared.
It can be noticed that the c-PEEC model outperforms the
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9
Fig. 8. Comparison of the magnitudes of S-parameter evaluated by the
QS-PEEC, the c-PEEC model, the rc-PEEC model, and the Agilent ADS
Momentum.
TABLE III
C OMPARISON OF QS-PEEC, c-PEEC, AND R C -PEEC M ODELS
QS-PEEC model in terms of accuracy. The reason is that the
c-PEEC model is free from discretization error of dielectric
surface currents in the n-BIE formulation.
In this example, the surfaces of conductors and dielectrics
are divided into 1206 charge meshes. As compared in Table III,
the number of unknowns in the c-PEEC model is about half
of that in the QS-PEEC model, leading to a reduction in the
simulation time and required memory by approximately 70%.
The model order of the rc-PEEC is around 10% of the
c-PEEC model. Note that while 34 s are used in evaluating the
c-PEEC model, there are 30 more seconds to obtain
the rc-PEEC model from the c-PEEC model. However, the
computation effort for solving the rc-PEEC model is almost
negligible, which makes the rc-PEEC model highly desirable
to serve as a submodule in system-level circuit integration
simulation. As the rank of the original c-PEEC model in
this example is not large, the improvement in overall effi-
ciency by utilizing the rc-PEEC model is not significant.
More pronounced efficiency can be observed in the large-
scale integrations in which larger c-PEEC models should be
processed.
C. Example 3: A Multilayer Interconnection Circuit
To validate the performance of the c-PEEC model in
practical problems, a typical multilayer interconnection circuit
containing through via holes and a pair of differential signal
lines is studied. The physical dimensions and the excitation
method are shown in Fig. 9(a). Two layers of signal traces
are connected by a pair of via holes. The via holes and
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10
Fig. 9. Illustration of the interconnection circuit [21]. (a) Layout and
dimension of the interconnection circuit. (b) Meshing scheme of one via and
the ports definition.
Fig. 10. S-parameter magnitudes simulated by the c-PEEC model, the
QS-PEEC model, and HFSS.
a layer of power plate are embedded in a substrate with a
dielectric constant of 4.04. The conductor traces are assumed
to be infinitely thin. The thickness of the dielectric substrate
is 396.2 μm and the traces are located at the top and bottom
surfaces of the substrate. Two delta-gap voltage sources [43]
are applied at the differential ports of the traces. In the circuit
domain, the nodes on the two charge mesh cells beside the
gap are connected by a voltage source in series with a ref-
erence resistor whose value equals the port impedance. Other
dimensions and the meshing scheme of the problem are given
in Fig. 9. There are 5970 mesh cells employed to construct the
conductor and dielectric surfaces. The number of nodes in the
circuit domain of the c-PEEC model is 2544, which includes
3422 inductive branches carrying conducting currents. The
magnitudes of S-parameter simulated by the c-PEEC model,
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES
the QS-PEEC model, and HFSS are superimposed in Fig. 10.
It can be noticed that the results of the c-PEEC model have
better agreement with the results of HFSS compared with the
QS-PEEC, especially at the frequencies below 4 GHz. The
minor frequency shift is observed at the fourth resonance at the
high-frequency range because of the quasi-static assumption.
VI. C ONCLUSION
In this article, a compact quasi-static PEEC model (c-PEEC)
is presented for modeling EM problems involving composite
conductors and piecewise homogeneous dielectrics. A novel
n-BIE formulation that circumvents magnetic sources is pro-
posed. The influence of dielectric is reflected by the modified
inductive and potential coefficient matrices on conductors
in the c-PEEC model. An approach to obtain a low-order
micro-modeling circuit for general heterogeneous integrations
is investigated with the c-PEEC model. Compared to the
existing PEEC models concerning dielectrics of finite size,
the c-PEEC model leads to a significant reduction in the
circuit size. The n-BIE formula uses the potential separation
technique and electric equivalent sources only, thus avoiding
the low-frequency breakdown problems. The c-PEEC model
provides a frequency-invariant RLC-circuit for a general quasi-
static EM problem concerning dielectrics of finite size, which
will be particularly useful for packaging and interconnection
problems whose electrical sizes are relatively small. It should
be pertinent to mention that the c-PEEC model is developed
for electric dielectrics only and the counterpart model for
magnetic materials will be further explored.
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Yang Jiang (Member, IEEE) was born in Shandong,
China, in 1990. He received the B.S. and Ph.D.
degrees in electronic engineering from the Chinese
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China, in
2013 and 2019, respectively.
He is currently a Research Scientist with the
Institute of High-Performance Computing (IHPC),
A∗STAR, Singapore. His current research inter-
ests include partial element equivalent circuit
(PEEC) modeling for cutting-edge technologies,
physics-informed artificial intelligence for inverse
design and inverse scattering problems, and electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC)/electrostatic discharge (ESD) modeling.
Dr. Jiang serves as an Executive Committee Member for the IEEE Singapore
EMC Chapter. He received the Highly Recommend Paper Award of APEMC
in 2022.
Richard Xian-Ke Gao (Senior Member, IEEE)
received the B.Eng. and M.Eng. degrees from the
Huazhong University of Science and technology,
Wuhan, China, in 1985 and 1990, respectively,
and the Ph.D. degree from National University of
Singapore, Singapore, in 2004.
He is currently a Senior Scientist and the
Group Manager with the Institute of High Perfor-
mance Computing, A∗STAR, Singapore. He also
holds Visiting Professor Positions with the uni-
versities. He has authored or coauthored 120+
peer reviewed papers/articles/books on prestigious journals and confer-
ences. His current research interests include computational electromagnet-
ics EMC/EMI/electrostatic discharge (ESD) metamaterial, antenna, wireless
energy transfer, terahertz, quantum EMs, robust design, and optimization
technologies.
Dr. Gao is a member of URSI. He received various rewards, including the
Technical Achievement Award of the IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility
Society in 2019 and the Best Paper Award of APEMC in 2016. He was
elected as a Distinguished Lecturer of the IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility
Society from 2018 to 2019. He served as an Associate Editor (Guest Editor)
for the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON E LECTROMAGNETIC C OMPATIBILITY and
IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON M ICROWAVE T HEORY AND T ECHNIQUES . He was
the TPC Chair of APEMC 2020, APMC 2019, and 2018 joint IEEE EMC
and APEMC Symposium. He also served on the TPC boards and executive
positions in various international conferences. From 2010 to 2011 and 2016 to
2017, he served as the Chair for the IEEE Singapore EMC Chapter.