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Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
Dublin, 1987. Rotterdam, Balkema, 1989,
p269-274.
3.17 Troughton V M. Groundwater control by
pressure relief and recharge. Groundwater
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Proceedings of the Ninth European
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International Association of Engineering
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Dolezalova M, and Horeni A. Dewatering and
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Proceedings of the Eleventh International
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Chapter Three
43
 4 Methods and type of construction
4.1 Introduction
This report addresses both deep basement and cut-
and-cover construction. The techniques share some
design and construction matters but the depths and
spans of cut-and-cover works often require
consideration of large design moments and
buoyancy forces. Cut-and-cover construction for
metro construction, station boxes and entrance
sections to road tunnels is often below trafficked
streets. Existing services there, sometimes
uncharted, can seriously increase construction time
and cost. Horizontal alignment of road and metro
tunnels built by cut-and-cover may also be adversely
constrained by the alignment of existing roads and
work sites.
Deep excavations for basements and cut-and-
cover structures require secure earth and groundwater
retention in the temporary, construction and
permanent support phases. There are several wall
construction techniques for each of these
requirements but application depends initially on the
method of substructure construction, of which there
are five categories:
• open excavation where the face of the excavation
is unsupported
• open excavation where the face of the excavation
is supported by nailing or similar techniques to
allow steepened batters in the temporary state
• bottom-up excavation where the excavation face
is temporarily supported laterally as excavation
proceeds
• top-down excavation where the permanent works,
walls, floors and roof are used to give lateral
support at the periphery of the excavation in both
temporary and permanent states
• semi-top-down construction with
❍ minimal temporary works (e.g. plunge
columns only)
❍ maximum opening sizes in the permanent
works for ease of excavation.
4.2 Methods of construction
4.2.1 Construction in open excavation
This is applicable where the site has room to
accommodate soil batters, unlikely on most urban
sites. Assessing the slope stability of these batters will
turn on an evaluation of soil strengths and
groundwater conditions and a risk assessment of the
consequences of slope failure. A dewatering system
44 Chapter Four IStructE Design and construction of deep basements including cut-and-cover structures
may be needed to depress the groundwater levels
locally for the construction period; some settlement of
the surrounding ground may result. Figure 4.1 shows
a slope designed for medium-term stability with
protection applied to the slope surface to reduce the
adverse effects of weathering.
Face of slope
protected
Slope designed for
medium term stability
Fig 4.1 Construction in open excavation
4.2.2 Construction within soil slopes of
increased inclination
A reduced plan area for that required for open plan
excavation may lead to the adoption of toe walls using
crib walls, gabion walls or nailed slopes. Nails
installed by drilling and grouting or pneumatically
using steel or carbon fibre nails may appear costly but
may prove to be a feasible solution when comparison
is made with methods that provide lateral support to a
vertical excavation.
4.2.3 Bottom-up excavation
Bottom-up excavation is the traditional alternative to
open excavation and some examples are given in
Figure 4.2. Removal of as much spoil as possible by
quick and economic methods by direct access is
achieved in excavations of moderate depth although
deeper excavations may be constrained by access
ramp dimensions. The elements of support for
bottom-up construction are:
• temporary and permanent retaining walls
• temporary support to retaining walls. This can
include soil berms, horizontal props and rakers or
soil and rock anchors.