2 Ground movement
2.1 Introduction
Movements are caused by various mechanisms:
• Ground ‘disturbance’ during installation of
in-situ walls such as that due to vibration,
loss of ground or heave.
• Movement due to vertical loading or
unloading of the ground below the
basement.
• Movement resulting from reduction of
lateral pressure from the inner face of the
retaining structure, due to bulk excavation or
the installation of large bored piles within
the excavation.
• Movement in the props supporting a wall
(e.g. because of temperature changes,
shrinkage or loss of support).
• Movement due to changes in groundwater
conditions.
water
flow
• Movement due to poor workmanship, such
as over-excavation, loose props and badly
installed walls.
Fig 2.1 Triggers of ground movement
IStructE Design and construction of deep basements including cut-and-cover structures
The ground will always move when a basement is
constructed. This can cause damage to surrounding
structures, roads and services depending on their
sensitivity and the magnitude and distribution of the
movement. Detailed observations of ground
movement are often made2.1-2.5. However, the amount
and extent of movement can be controlled by choice
of method of construction and by maintaining an
adequate standard of workmanship. The choice of
method of construction depends on what might be
affected by ground movement, e.g. buildings inside or
outside the basement, services, tunnels, etc., and their
tolerance to movement (see Figure 2.1)
The calculation of ground movements is not
straightforward because of the complexity of the
problem, and much experience is required to make
any sensible use of complex analyses when they are
warranted. Optimum use must therefore be made of
precedent.
2.2 Causes of movement when excavating
2.2.1 General
Each soil (or rock) type has its own problems, and
regional experience is of paramount importance.
Methods of coping with these problems economically
and safely have evolved and it is unwise to step
outside the bounds of experience without full
justification and careful observation of performance.
Some of the more frequently encountered soil
conditions are listed in the following sections along
with an outline of the associated problems.
2.2.2 Clays
When constructing a basement in a low permeability
material (clay), movements will be time-dependent.
Initially, the clay will respond in an undrained fashion
with no volume change. The movements will be
essentially the result of shear distortion and will be
accompanied by a change in porewater pressure. As
time goes by, the clay will begin to drain, causing a
general volumetric expansion when the clay has been
unloaded, or compression when it has been loaded.
Eventually, when these porewater pressures have
dissipated, the clay will have reached a fully drained
state and movement will cease apart from possible
small creep movements.
During drainage, the strength of the clay changes.
This is because, in the case of expansion, water is
Chapter Two
21
 drawn into the clay, softening it and reducing its
strength. Thus, for example, in front of a wall in stiff
clay following excavation, the clay will gradually (a)
expand and soften following the relief of the
overburden pressure. The consequent loss of resistance
may dominate the wall during this ‘drainage’ stage,
especially with cantilever walls. The relative
magnitudes of undrained and drained movements, and
the rate at which the latter develop, depend on the
nature of the clay and can be significantly affected by (b) Saturated H
the presence of high-permeability layers within the unit weight
soil. However, because of the time taken to construct a γ Undrained
basement, it is inevitable that some drainage will strength
occur. Assessing the importance of these issues is a cu
matter of a detailed knowledge of the soil profile,
experience and study of case histories.
(c)
Soft clays
Special problems arise when excavation takes place
within soft clays, because the reduction of vertical
pressure inside the excavation decreases the ability of the
soil below the level of excavation to sustain the vertical
pressure applied by the soil outside, i.e. an undrained
bearing capacity failure can take place (see Figure 2.2a).
In soft clay, the depth to which excavation can (d)
proceed before such failure starts may be small, and
so large ground movements may develop. This will
generally start when the base stability number, N =
γΗ/cu, exceeds around 3-4 (for detailed guidance see
reference 2.6). Uncontrolled deformation is likely for
N = 6 - 7 (see Figure 2.2b).
Since this movement occurs below the level of
(e)
excavation, horizontal props alone cannot eliminate it.
It has to be controlled by ensuring that:
• the wall itself prevents movement by being
sufficiently stiff,
• the wall is adequately embedded below the
deforming zone (by keying the wall into a stronger
stratum) (see Figure 2.2c), or
Fig 2.2 Movements in soft clay
• in-situ props are cast below excavation level using
diaphragm walling techniques, jet grouting, or Large surface settlements may occur outside the
tunnel struts (see Section 4.5.1). excavation owing to consolidation after excavation
because of changes in groundwater conditions (see
The effects of ‘yield’ of ground beneath an Figure 2.2e).
excavation are not restricted to excavation in soft
clays. They can also occur in any soil if Stiff clays
excavation is deep enough, or more commonly if Stiff clays are generally good materials in which, to
base failure occurs because of uplift pressures work provided that the effects of drainage are limited
from water in permeable strata beneath clay layers by the application of support or loads. Particular
(see Section 2.2.4). problems related to this area include:
Driving sheet piles may cause large ground • Movement of unsupported (cantilever) walls due
vibrations at considerable distances from the to drainage of soil in front of the wall. This can
excavation (see Figure 2.2d). occur rapidly if the ground is not protected from

22 Chapter Two IStructE Design and construction of deep basements including cut-and-cover structures