constructed for the benefit of one situation do not

create a problem elsewhere. Design and maintenance

requirements for wells are considered in Chapter 3.
There is a danger of gas (methane or deoxidised air)
from relief wells in basements and the more general
Hydrostatic problems of gas are discussed in Chapter 7.
water
pressure
6.3.1 Buoyancy and flooding
The basement must not float: the factored downward
forces must exceed the factored buoyancy forces.
No flow
Specifications from experienced underground railway
clients such as Mass Transit Railway Corporations in
Hong Kong, Singapore and London include clauses
formulated on the lines shown in Table 6.1 (with
specified minimum material densities tabulated
appropriate to the site’s location).
Hydrostatic
These authorities also, prudently, require the
threshold to their underground basements (stations) to
Water be not less than 1.0m above local ground level, to
pressure
guard against flooding of their entire network from
one source of water ingress: no apertures below this
Flow
level are permitted.

6.3.2 Water pressure on foundations

In addition to countering buoyancy, foundations
should be designed for the most onerous of suitable
load cases, ‘normalised’ by dividing by an appropriate
Hydrostatic
allowable overstress factor, see for example Table 6.2.
In this example, normal groundwater level is
Water assumed to be 2m below finished ground level, and
pressure Permeable construction loading (load case 5) includes the (semi-
layer
top-down open) roof slab with 10kPa construction
surcharge. Tension in the foundations may arise from
Fig 6.3 Examples of reduction in effective some load cases.
stress due to water flow
6.4 The influence of excavation on
strength and bearing capacity
The ability of a soil to sustain loads without
unacceptable displacements depends on its effective
strength parameters cʹ and ϕʹ and the effective stresses
σv′ = σh′
σv′ acting on it. The ground beneath a basement may be
subject to some important changes of effective stress,
which will affect the performance of both shallow and
deep foundations (see Section 1.3.1).
A The construction of a basement usually involves
ilure removing overburden pressure, some of which may
ive fa
Pass subsequently be replaced by the weight of the
B
structure. If the effective stress in the ground is
σh′ reduced, its strength will also decrease, but this effect
may be delayed in clay soils. The immediate effect of
removing overburden pressure is to reduce the
Fig 6.4 Effective stress path for a soil element vertical total stress and, as drainage occurs, this will
as progressive excavation takes place eventually reduce vertical effective stress.

70 Chapter Six IStructE Design and construction of deep basements including cut-and-cover structures
 Table 6.1 Example partial factors of safety for buoyancy calculation
Downward forces Upward forces
D U
Condition Partial factor of Partial factor of Partial factor of safety
safety on weights safety on friction either on water density
(γm ) ( γm ) or on displacement (γf)
(i.e. on sides, piles, anchors)

During construction Steel 1.00 2.0 1.01

Concrete 1.03
In service Steel 1.03 3.0 1.05
Concrete 1.05
Extreme event Steel 1.01 2.5 1.03
(flooding to 1m Concrete 1.04
above ground level)
Criterion
(for each condition) Σ(D/γm ) > Σ(U*γf )

Note: The 2% difference between the densities of fresh and sea water should be noted. If the
centre of (factored) buoyancy does not reasonably closely correspond in plan to the centre of
(factored) gravity, the eccentricity should be accounted for.

Table 6.2 Example allowable overstress factors for a 20m deep basement

Load case Design condition Allowable overstress

factor

1 Flood water at normal groundwater level +4m 1.0

2 Groundwater at normal groundwater level -1m 1.0

3 Groundwater at normal groundwater level -6m 1.25

4 Groundwater below underside of lowest base slab 1.4

5 During construction 1.0

The resulting changes in horizontal effective
stress are more complicated and are illustrated in
Figure 6.4 which shows the effective stress path
followed by an element of soil near the toe of an
embedded retaining wall as excavation takes place
under drained conditions. Initially, as overburden is
removed, the vertical effective stress reduces more
rapidly than the horizontal effective stress and the
effective stress path approaches the passive failure
line. Once the passive stress limit is reached, further
reductions in vertical effective stress result in much
larger reduction in horizontal effective stress as the
effective stress path moves along the passive failure
line towards the origin. During this stage there may be
a significant reduction in strength. Recent research on
stiff clays has indicated that, even in this situation, the
clay may retain more strength than was previously
expected6.4. There is, however, some evidence that
this effect may be diminished if fluctuating loads or
water pressures disturb the ground.
In the presence of high water pressures, the
effective stresses beneath an excavation may reduce
significantly. In the CIRIA study of central
London6.3, for example, it is suggested that around
the base of piles in the situation shown in Figure 6.5
the effective stresses could become negligibly small.
If it occurred, it would lead to an almost total loss of
bearing capacity. But this is an extreme case and
there is evidence that a substantial reduction in
overburden pressure (e.g. 50%) may lead to quite
small changes in the ability of the ground to carry
load from piles6.5-6.6.

IStructE Design and construction of deep basements including cut-and-cover structures Chapter Six
71