Photo-electric effect

When ultraviolet (UV) light is incident on a metal surface in a vacuum, it emits charged particles (Hertz
1887), which were later shown to be electrons by J.J. Thomson (1899).
The phenomenon of electrons being emitted from a metal surface when struck by incident
electromagnetic radiation of certain frequency is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are
referred to as photoelectrons. The effect is also termed the Hertz Effect in honor of its discoverer, although
the term has generally fallen out of use.

Experimental results of photoelectric emission

(i) The time lag between the incidence radiation and emission of a photoelectron is very small, less
than 10−9 s.
(ii) For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident radiation below which no
photoelectrons can be emitted. This frequency is called the threshold frequency or critical frequency,
f 0 . The energy corresponding to this threshold frequency is the minimum energy required to eject
a photoelectron from the surface.
This minimum energy is the characteristic of the material which is called work function, W0 or .
W0 = hf 0
(iii) For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the number of photoelectrons ejected is
directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
(iv) Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron is
independent of the intensity of the incident light but depends on the frequency, v of the incident
light.
(v) The photoelectron emission can be stopped by applying the voltage in a reverse way. This reverse
voltage required to stop the photoelectron emission is called the stopping potential. This is
independent of the intensity but increases with increase in the frequency of incident radiation.

Einstein’ s explanation of photoelectric effect

The above experimental results were at odds with Maxwell’ s wave theory of light, which predicted
that the energy would be proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
In 1905, Einstein solved this paradox by describing light as composed of discrete quanta, now called
photons, rather than continuous waves.
Based upon Planck’ s theory of blackbody radiation, Einstein theorized that the energy in each
quantum of light was equal to the frequency multiplied by a constant, called Planck’ s constant. A
photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the
observed effect.
Einstein came up the following explanation
Einstein’ s interpretation (1905)
Light comes in packets of energy (photons). An electron absorbs a single photon to leave the material
Energy of incident photon = Energy needed to remove an electron+Kinetic energy of the emitted
electron
Algebraically,
hf = W0 + K .Emax
Where h is Planck’ s constant, f is the frequency of the incident photon, W0 = hf 0 is the work
1 2
function where f 0 is the threshold frequency, K .E max = mv is the maximum kinetic energy of
2
ejected electrons, m is the rest mass of the ejected electron, and v is the speed of the ejected electron.
Since an emitted electron cannot have negative kinetic energy, the equation implies that if the photon’ s
energy E = hf is less than the work function W0 = hf 0 , no electron will be emitted.

Example 1
Radiation of a certain wavelength causes electrons with a maximum kinetic energy of 0.68 eV to be
ejected from a metal whose work function is 2.75 eV. What will be the maximum kinetic energy (in eV)
with which this same radiation ejects electrons from another metal whose work function is 2.17 eV?
Solution
In the first case, the energy of the incident photon is given as,
E = W0 + K .E Max
hf = W0 + K .E Max = 2.75eV + 0.68eV = 3.43eV
In the second case,
K .E Max = hf − W0
K .E Max = 3.43eV − 2.17eV = 1.26eV

Example 2
Threshold wavelength, 0 of photoelectric emission in tungsten is 2300 Å. what wavelength of light must be
used in order for electrons with a maximum energy of 1.5eV to be ejected.
E = K .E + W0
hc hc
= 1.5eV +
 0
hc (6.63  10 −34 )(3.0  108 m / s )
= 1.5eV +
 (1.6  10 −19 )(2300  10 −10 )
 = 2.88  10 −26 m
Compton Effect
The interaction between electrons and high energy photons results in the electron being given part of
the energy and a photon containing the remaining energy being emitted in a different direction from
the original, so that the overall momentum of the system is conserved.

Compton scattering is the decrease in energy (increase in wavelength) of an X-ray or gamma ray photon,
when it interacts with matter. It describes an event where an incident X-ray makes a collision with
some stationary particle. The Compton Effect states that the energy lost by the photon (represented by
a wavelength increase) is directly proportional to the cosine of its scattering angle.

The effect is important because it demonstrates that light cannot be explained purely as a wave
phenomenon. Light must behave as if it consists of particles in order to explain the Compton scattering.

The amount by which the wavelength increases is called the Compton shift. The Compton Effect was
observed in 1923 by Arthur Compton who got the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery.

This relationship is given by the Compton scattering equation:

  − 0 =
h
(1 − cos ) or  f − i =
h
(1 − cos )
me c me c
Where 0 is the wavelength of the photon before scattering.
  is the wavelength of the photon after scattering
me is the mass of the electron
  is the angle by which the photon’ s heading changes
h is the Planck’ s constant
c is the speed of light
h
c = = 2.43  10 −12 m is the Compton wavelength
me c
The figure below show how such a Compton scattering is represented, with an X-ray photon striking
an electron at rest and the photon scattered away from its original direction of motion while the electron
receives an impulse and begins to move.
In the collision the photon may be regarded as having lost an amount of energy that is the same as the
kinetic energy T gained by the electron. If the initial photon has the frequency v associated with it, the
scattered photon has the lower frequency v  , where
Loss in photon energy = gain electron energy
hv − hv  = T (2.9)
From the previous chapter on relativistic expression for total energy, we recall that;
E = m02 c 4 + p 2 c 2
So that, for a photon considered to have no rest mass, its total energy is;
E = pc
And since
E = hv
For a photon, its momentum is
E
p=
c
hv
 p= (2.10)
c
Thus
Initial momentum = final momentum
hv hv 
+0= cos  + p cos  (2.11)
c c
And perpendicular to this direction
Initial momentum = final momentum
hv 
0= sin  − p sin  (2.12)
c
The first step is to multiply Eqs. (2.11) and (2.12) by c and re-write them as;
pc cos  = hv − hv  cos 
pc sin  = hv  sin 
By squaring each of these equations
p 2 c 2 cos 2  = (hv ) − 2(hv )(hv ) cos  + (hv ) cos 2 
2 2

p 2 c 2 sin 2  = (hv ) sin 2 

2

And adding the new ones together, the angle  is eliminated, leaving;
p 2 c 2 = (hv ) − 2(hv )(hv ) cos  + (hv )
2 2
(2.13)
Next we equate the two expressions for the total energy of a particle from previous chapter
E = T + m0 c 2
E = m02 c 4 + p 2 c 2
To give
(T + m c )
0
2 2
= m02 c 4 + p 2 c 2
p 2 c 2 = T 2 + 2m0 c 2 T
Since from Eqs. (2.9)
T = hv − hv 
We have
p 2 c 2 = (hv − hv ) + 2m0 c 2 (hv − hv ) = (hv ) + (hv ) − 2(hv )(hv ) + 2m0 c 2 (hv − hv )
2 2 2

 p 2 c 2 = (hv ) + (hv ) − 2(hv )(hv ) + 2m0 c 2 (hv − hv )

2 2
(2.14)
Substituting this value of p c in Eqs. (2.13), we finally obtain
2 2

(hv )2 + (hv )2 − 2(hv )(hv ) + 2m0 c 2 (hv − hv ) = (hv )2 − 2(hv )(hv ) cos  + (hv )2
Further, simplifying above equation gives;
2m 0 c 2 (hv − hv ) = 2(hv )(hv )(1 − cos  ) (2.15)
Expressing this expression in terms of wavelength rather than frequency. Divide Eq. (2.15) by 2h 2 c 2 to obtain;
m0 c  v v   v v 
 − = (1 − cos  ) (2.16)
h c c  c c
v 1 v 1
And so, since = and = we have,
c  c 
m0 c  1 1  (1 − cos  )
 − =
h      

  −  =
h
(1 − cos  ) (2.16) Compton Effect
m0 c
Example
In a Compton scattering experiment, the incident X-rays have a wavelength of 0.2685 nm and the scattered X-
rays have a wavelength of 0.2703 nm. Calculate the angle, θ through which the X-rays scattered? Use the Compton
h
formula,   − 0 = (1 − cos )
me c
Solution
me c
(  − 0 ) = (1 − cos )
h
mc
cos  = 1 − e (  − 0 ) = 1 −
( )(
9.1  10 −31 3  10 8 me c )
(0.2703 − 0.2685)
h 6.623  10 −34
( (
 = cos −1 1 − 4.12  1011  0.18  10 −11 ))
 = cos −1 (1 − (0.7416))
 = cos −1 (0.2584) = 75.02 
Physical significance of Compton effect
(i) It proves the particle nature of X-rays.
(ii) Energy exchange between X-ray photon and electron during collision occur as though it is particle-
particle collision.
Wave particle duality of matter
Albert Einstein’ s analysis of the photoelectric effect in 1905 demonstrated that light possessed particle
like properties, and this was further confirmed with the discovery of the Compton scattering in 1923.

The wave-particle duality is the concept that all matter and energy exhibits both wave-like and particle-
like properties. This duality addresses the inadequacy of classical concepts like ‘ particle’ and
‘ wave’ in fully describing the behavior of small-scale objects. This confusion over particle versus
wave properties was eventually resolved with the advent and establishment of quantum mechanics in
the first half of the 20th century.
Evidence for wave-particle duality
(a) Photoelectric effect
(b) Compton effect
(c) Electron diffraction
(d) Interference of matter-waves

Heisenberg’ s uncertainty principle

Classical physics
Measurement uncertainty is due to limitations of the measurement apparatus. There is no limit in
principle to how accurate a measurement can be made
Quantum Mechanics
There is a fundamental limit to the accuracy of a measurement determined by the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle. If a measurement of position is made with precision Δx and a simultaneous
measurement of linear momentum is made with precision Δp, then the product of the two uncertainties
h
can never be less than .
4
h
xp 
2
Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to determine the position and momentum
with absolute precision.
h
Since =
2
Thus, the Heisenberg Uncertainty relation between position and momentum:
h
xp x 
2 • 2
Momentum position uncertainty

xp 
2
Energy time uncertainty

Et 
2
Problem
Write down the two fundamental inequalities of the Heisenberg’ s Uncertainty Principle. A
measurement establishes the position of a proton with an accuracy of  10
−11
m , Find the uncertainty in
the proton position 1.0 s later. (Assume v  c ).
Solution
Let us call the uncertainty in the proton’ s position x0 at the time t = 0.

The uncertainty in its momentum at this time is therefore p  .
2x0
- Since v << c, the momentum uncertainty is p  (mv) = m0 v
p 
- And the uncertainty in the proton’ s velocity is v   .
m0 2m0 x0
- The distance x of the proton covers in the time t cannot be known more accurately than
t
x  tv  . Hence x is inversely proportional to x0 : the more we know about the
2m0 x0
proton’ s position at t = 0 the less we know about its later position at t.
(1.054  10 −34 Js)(1.00 s )
The value of x at t = 1.00 s is x  = 3.15  103 m. This is 3.15 km.
2(1.672  10 kg )(1.00  10 m)
− 27 −11

De Broglie waves
In 1924, Louis de Broglie formulated the de Broglie hypothesis, claiming that all matter has a wavelike
nature and the wavelength  of a moving particle of momentum p is given by:
h
=
p
where h is Planck’ s constant.
For photons,
E hf h
p= = =
c c 
Which says that the wavelength of light is related to its momentum, making the same comparison for
matter we find,
h h
= =
p mv
Example 1
Find the De Broglie wave lengths of
(i) A 46-g ball with a velocity of 30 m/s
(ii) An electron with a velocity of 107 m/s
Solution
(i) Since v  c , we can let m = m0 . Hence
h
=
mv
 6.63  10 −34 J .s
=
(0.046kg )(30m / s )
 = 4.8  10 −34 m
The wavelength of the golf ball is so small compared with its dimensions that we would not expect to
find any wave aspects in its behaviour.
(ii) Again v << c, so with m = mo = 9.110-31 kg, we have
h
=
mv
6.63  10 −34 J .s
=
( )(
9.11  10 −31 kg 10 7 m / s )
 = 7.3  10 m −11

The dimensions of atoms are comparable with the radius of the hydrogen atom r = 5.3  10
−11
m.
Example 2
Find the de Broglie wavelength of a dust particle with a mass of 10 −15 kg and a velocity of 1 mm / s .
Solution
Since v  c , we can let m = m0 . Hence,
h 6.63  10 −34 J .s
= = = 6.6  10 −16 m
−15
( −3
mv 10 kg 10 m / s )( )
Example 3
Find the kinetic energy and group velocity of an electron with de Broglie wavelength of 0.2 nm.
h
From De Broglie wavelength,  =
p
h 6.63  10 −34
p= = = 3.315  10 −24 kgm / s
Momentum,  0.2  10 −9

K .E =
p2
=
(
3.315  10 − 24 )2

= 6.038  10 −18 J
−31
Kinetic energy, 2 m 2  9.1  10
p 3.315  10 −24
 group = = −31
= 3642857.143 = 3.64  10 6 m / s
Group velocity, m 9.1 10

Example 4
Show that the De Broglie wavelength of a particle of rest mass m0 and kinetic energy, K is given by
hc
=
K ( K + 2m0 c 2 )
Hence, calculate the wavelength of an electron of kinetic energy 1 MeV. What will be the value of λ if
K  m0 c 2 ?
Solution
E = m0 c 2 + K
E = m02 c 4 + p 2 c 2
m02 c 4 + p 2 c 2 = (m0 c 2 + K ) 2
K 2 + 2 m0 c 2 K
p=
c2
h h
= =
p K 2 + 2 m0 c 2 K
c2
h.c
=
K (K + 2m0 c 2 )
81.9  10 −15
For an electron mc = 9.1  10  (3.0  10 ) joule = eV = 0.51  10 6 eV = 0.51MeV for
2 −31 8 2

1.6  10 −19

hc hc
K= 1 MeV,  = =
1(1 + (2  0.51)) 2.02
6.623  10 −34  3  108
= m
2.02  1.6  10 −19  10 6
0
 = 8.78  10 −13 m = 8.78  10 −3 A
If K  2m0 c then K + 2m0 c = 2m0 c
2 2 2

h.c h
= =
(2m c K )
0
2
2 m0 K

Phase velocity, group velocity and particle velocity

(a) Phase velocity
The phase velocity of a wave is the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space. it is the
speed at which the phase of any one frequency component of the wave travels. For such a component,
any given phase of the wave (for example, the crest) will appear to travel at the phase velocity.

The phase speed is given in terms of the wavelength  and period T as


v phase = (11)
T
Or, equivalently, in terms of the wave’ s angular frequency  and wavenumber k ;

v phase = (12)
k
In quantum mechanics, particles also behave as waves with complex phases. By the de Broglie
hypothesis, we see that
E

v phase = = 
k p

E
 v phase = (13)
p
 (b) Group velocity
The group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the variations in the shape of the wave’ s
amplitude (known as the modulation or envelope of the wave) propagate through space.

For example, imagine what happens if you throw a stone into the middle of a very still pond. When
the stone hits the surface of the water, a circular pattern of waves appears. It soon turns into a circular
ring of waves with a quiescent center. The ever expanding ring of waves is the group, within which
one can discern individual wavelets of differing wavelengths traveling at different speeds.
The longer waves travel faster than the group as a whole, but they die out as they approach the leading
edge. The shorter waves travel slower and they die out as they emerge from the trailing boundary of
the group.
The expression for the group velocity is obtained using the concept of superposition of two almost
similar waves.

Let the two waves be given by;

y1 = A cos(t − kx )
y 2 = A cos( +  )t − (k + k )x
When the two waves superimpose, we get
y = y1 + y 2
y = A cos(t − kx ) + A cos( +  )t − (k + k )x
Using trigonometric relation;
 +    −  
cos  + cos  = 2 cos  cos 
 2   2 
We get,
 t − kx + ( +  )t − (k + k )x    t − kx − ( +  )t − (k + k )x  
y = 2 A cos  cos 
 2   2 

 (2 +  )t − (2k + k )x   t − kx 

y = 2 A cos  cos 
 2   2 
Since  is too small compared to 2 , we can write;
2 +   2
Now using this in the above equation and re-arranging the terms, we end up with;
 t − kx   (2 )t − (2k )x 
y = 2 A cos  cos 
 2   2 
Further simplifying it, gives;
 t − kx 
y = 2 A cos  cos(t − kx )
 2 
 t − kx 
Identifying 2 A cos  as the constant of the superposed wave, we can write,
 2 
 t − kx 
2 A cos  = cons tan t
 2 
 t − kx 
i.e.   = cons tan t
 2 

t − kx = cons tan t

 t 
x=  + cons tan t
 k 
Differentiating the above equation with respect to t , we get the Group velocity,
dx 
 group = =
dt k
Under the limiting condition, we get;
d
 group = (14)
dk
This is the defining equation of group velocity. In a dispersive medium, the phase velocity varies with
frequency and is not necessarily the same as the group velocity of the wave.
Particle velocity
The particle velocity is the velocity  of a particle in a medium as it transmits a wave. For a particle of
mass m possessing a linear momentum, p , the particle velocity is given by;
p
 particle = (15)
m
In many cases this is a longitudinal wave of pressure as with sound, but it can also be a transverse wave as with
the vibration of a taut string. When applied to a sound wave through a medium of air, particle velocity would be
physical speed of an air molecule as it moves back and forth in the direction the sound wave is travelling as it
passes. Particle velocity should not be confused with the speed of the wave as it passes through the medium, i.e.
in the case of a sound wave, particle velocity is not the same as the speed of sound.

6.1 Relation between group velocity and phase velocity

The group velocity of a matter wave is given by
d
 group =
dk
Whereas phase velocity is given by

 phase =
k
From the definition of phase velocity, we can write
 =  phase k
Substituting this in the expression for group velocity, we get
d ( phase k )
 group =
dk
Differentiating using the product rule, we get
d phase
 group =  phase + k
dk
We rewrite this in the following form
d phase d
 group =  phase + k
d dk
Since
2
k=

we have
dk − 2
= 2
d 
Plugging these two equations into the  group expression, we get

 2  d phase  − 2 
 group =  phase +    
   d  2 
Further simplifying,
d phase
 group =  phase −  (16)
d
Relation between group velocity and particle velocity
The group velocity of a matter wave is given by;
d
 group =
dk
Where
2
 = 2f = 2v and k =

From Planck’ s equation E = hf = hv , we can write
E
v=
h
And from de Broglie wavelength, we can write;
h
=
p
Using the above equations, we rewrite the expressions for  and k ;
E
 = 2
h
And
p
k = 2
h
Now, differentiating the expressions for  and k , we get;
 2
d = dE
h
And
2
dk = dp
h
Substituting the expressions d and dk into the  group equation gives
 2 
 dE 
 group =  
h
 2 
 dp 
 h 
dE
That is;  group =
dp
Since we are dealing with matter waves, E can be the kinetic energy of a particle in a wave motion.
Using the relation
p2
E=
2m
And differentiating it with respect to p gives;
dE d  p2  2 p
=  =
dp dp  2m  2m
p
So  group =
m
The right hand side is nothing but the particle velocity  particle . Therefore,
 group =  particle (17)
Relation between phase velocity and particle velocity
The phase velocity of a matter wave is given by

 phase =
k
Where
2
 = 2f = 2v and k=

From Planck’ s equation E = hf = hv , we can write
E
v=
h
And from de Broglie wavelength, we can write;
h
=
p
Using the above equations, we rewrite the expressions for  and k ;
E
 = 2
h
And
p
k = 2
h
Now substituting these into the expression for  phase , we get;
 E
2
 phase = h
p
2
h
That is,
E
  phase =
p
From Einstein’ s mass energy equivalence relation, we have
E = mc 2
And from the definition of linear momentum of a particle, we have
p = mv particle
Using E and p expressions in equation of v phase , we get
mc 2
v phase =
mv particle
c2
Or v phase =
v particle
Which gives us
v phase  v particle = c 2 (18)
Since v group = v particle , we can also write
v phase  v group = c 2 (19)
Example
The angular frequency and wave number of the de Broglie waves associated with a body of rest mass
m0 moving with a velocity v are  and k . Starting with the expression for  and k , Show that the
group velocity u becomes the De Broglie velocity, v .
Solution

(a) The phase velocity is W =
k
d
And the group velocity, u =
dk
The angular frequency  and the wave number k of the De-Broglie waves associated with a body of rest
mass moving with a velocity v is,
mc 2 2m 0 c 2
 = 2f = 2 = Since E = hf = mc
2

h v2
h 1− 2
c
And the wave number,
2 2mv 2m0 v
k= = =
 h v2
h 1− 2
c
 2m0 c 2
v2
 h 1−
W = = c2
k 2m0 v
v2
h 1−
c2
c2
The phase velocity therefore is, W =
v
The group velocity u of the De Broglie waves associated with the body is
d
d dv
u= =
dk dk
dv
 
 
d d  2m0 c 2  = 2m0 v
But = and
dv dv   3
v2
 h1 − v 
2
 h 1− 2
2

 c   c 
2

 
  
 
dk d   2m0 v  2m0 
=  = 
dv dv   v2 
3

 h 1 −   v 2 
2

  c 2  h1 − c 2  
   
d 2m0 v 2m0
u = = 3
 3
dk
 v2 2  v2 2
h1 − 2  h1 − 2 
 c   c 
u=v
Rutherford scattering of alpha particles.
Scattering experiments helps in the study of matter too small to be observed directly. There’ s a
relationship between the impact parameter b and the scattering angle .

When b is small, r is small. The Coulomb force is large θ can be large and the particle can be repelled
backward.
 Z1 Z 2 e 2 
b= cot
8 0 K 2
where
K = 12 mv 02
Example
A 5 MeV alpha particle approaches a gold nucleus with an impact parameter of 2.6  10 −13 m . Through what
angle will it be scattered.

4 0 Kb

cot =
2 Ze 2
 4  3.14  8.85  10 −12  5.0  10 6  2.6  10 −13
cot =
2 79  1.6  10 −19

cot = 11.432
2
2 1
tan = = 0.08747
 11.432
 = 9.98
Atomic models
Scientists’ models of the atom have dramatically changed over the last 200 years. In that relatively
short time, the atomic model has gone from being compared to lawn-bowling balls (Dalton’ s model)
to plum pudding (Thomson’ s model) to a planetary system (Rutherford’ s and Bohr’ s models).
Today’ s quantum mechanical model is best described mathematically, attributing both wave-like
properties and particle-like properties to electrons.
(a) Dalton’ s Model (1808)
In the early 1800s, the English Chemist John Dalton performed a number of experiments that eventually
led to the acceptance of the idea of atoms.
Dalton’ s Theory
− He deduced that all elements are composed of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible
particles.
− Atoms of the same element are exactly alike whereas Atoms of different elements are different.
− Compounds are formed by the joining of atoms of two or more elements.
This theory became one of the foundations of modern chemistry.
(b) J. J. Thomson’ s Plum Pudding Model(1904)
In 1897, the English scientist J.J. Thomson provided the first hint that an atom is made of smaller
particles. He proposed a model of the atom that is sometimes called the “ Plum Pudding” model.
− Atoms were made from a lump of positively charged matter embedded with negatively charged
electrons scattered about, like raisins in a Christmas pudding.
J.J. Thompson’ s plum pudding model consists of a sphere of positive charge with electrons embedded inside.
Electrons are embedded within spherically distributed positive charge (so called “plum pudding” model). This
model would explain that most of the mass was positive charge and that the atom was electrically neutral.
- The Thompson model was abandoned in 1911 when Rutherford bombarded a thin metal foil
with a stream of positively charged alpha particles.
Problems with Thomson’ s Model
□ How does the atom emit radiation?
□ This model soon came into conflict with experiments by Rutherford
(c) Rutherford Model(1911)
In this model, the positive charge and mass of the atom are concentrated densely at the center called
the nucleus. The electrons are distributed some distance away. Most of the volume of atom is empty
space.

Rutherford’ s Gold Foil Experiment

Rutherford’ s experiment Involved firing a stream of tiny positively charged particles at a thin sheet
of gold foil (2000 atoms thick)
 - Most of the positively charged particles passed right through the gold atoms in the sheet of gold
foil without changing course at all, but a few are scattered in a backward direction.
- If electrons were distributed uniformly, particles would pass straight through an atom.
- Rutherford proposed an atom that is open space with positive charge concentrated in a very
dense nucleus. Some of the positively charged “ bullets,” however, did bounce away from the
gold sheet as if they had hit something solid. He knew that positive charges repel positive
charges.
- Positive charge in the center of the atom with almost all mass concentrated within this positive
charge – nuclei
- Electrons - negative charge- are attracted to the nucleus about which they orbit (just as planets
orbit the sun due to attractive 1/r2 force).
Difficulties with the Rutherford Model
(i) Since electron travels in a circular orbit, it is constantly accelerated (even though its speed is constant.)
Thus, the electron emits EM radiation, which carries away energy. The energy of the atoms is
reduced. Thus the atom has a lower potential energy and moves closer to the nucleus
(ii) Another problem is that the spectrum of the emitted EM radiation would be continuous.
(d) Bohr Model (1913)
In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposed an improvement. In his model, he placed each
electron in a specific energy level.
□ According to Bohr’ s atomic model, electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much
like planets circle the sun. These orbits, or energy levels, are located at certain distances from
the nucleus.
Problem : Distinguish between J.J Thompson’ s model and Rutherford’ s model of the atom.
Solution
Thompson proposed that the atom was simply a positively charged lumb of matter with electrons
embedded in it as shown below

Rutherford suggested that the atom was composed of a tiny positively charged nucleus with electrons
some distant away as shown as shown below

Positively charge and mass of the atom are concentrated densely at the center called the nucleus. The
electrons are distributed some distance away. Most of the volume of atom is empty space.
Quantum numbers
(a) Principal Quantum Number (n)
Specifies the energy of an electron and the size of the orbital. All orbitals that have the same value of n
are said to be in the same shell or level.
The principal quantum number can take values of n = 1, 2, 3… ∞
□ For a hydrogen atom with n=1, the electron is in its ground state;
□ If the electron is in the n=2 orbital, it is in an excited state.
□ The total number of orbitals for a given n value is n2.
(b) Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
This is the secondary quantum number that divide the shells into smaller groups of orbitals called
subshells (sub-levels). It specifies the shape of an orbital with a particular principal quantum number.
Can take values of l = 0, ..., n-1.
A letter code is used to identify l to avoid confusion with n.
l 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……
Letter s p d f g h ……
□ The subshell with n=2 and l=1 is the 2p subshell;
□ If n=3 and l=0, it is the 3s subshell, and so on.
□ The value of l also has a slight effect on the energy of the subshell; the energy of the subshell
increases with l (s < p < d < f).
(c) Magnetic Quantum Number (ml):
Specifies the orientation in space of an orbital of a given energy (n) and shape (l). This number divides
the subshell into individual orbitals which hold the electrons;
Can take values of ml = -l, ..., 0, ..., +l.
There are 2l+1 orbitals in each subshell. Thus the s subshell has only one orbital, the p subshell has three
orbitals, and so on.
(d) Spin Quantum Number (ms):
Specifies the orientation of the spin axis of an electron. An electron can spin in only one of two
directions (sometimes called up and down).
Can take values of ms = +½ or -½.
Permissible values of Quantum Numbers for Atomic Orbitals
n l ml Subshell Number of orbitals Number of
notation in the subshell electrons
(orbital name)
1 0 0 1s 1 2
2 0 0 2s 1 2
1 -1, 0, +1 2p 3 6
3 0 0 3s 1 2
1 -1, 0, +1 3p 3 6
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 3d 5 10
4 0 0 4s 1 2
1 -1, 0, +1 4p 3 6
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 4d 5 10
 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, 4f 7 14
+3

Pauli Exclusion Principle

Only one electron in an atom can exist in a given quantum state. Pauli exclusion principle states that
no two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers i.e each atomic electron must have a
different set of quantum numbers n, l, ml, and ms.
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have identical values for all
four of their quantum numbers. What this means is that no more than two electrons can occupy the same
orbital, and that two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins.
Example 1
For a quantum number n=2, write down the corresponding values for the orbital quantum number, 
and magnetic quantum number, m .
Solution
Orbital quantum numbers, l = 0, 1,.....(n − 1)
For n=2 we have, l = 0, 1
Magnetic quantum numbers, ml = 0,  1,  2.....  l
For n=2 we have, ml = 0,−1, + 1
Example 2
For a quantum number n=3, write down the corresponding values for the orbital quantum number,  and magnetic
quantum number, m .
Orbital quantum numbers,
l = 0,1,.....(n − 1)
For n=3 we have, l = 0,1, 2
Magnetic quantum numbers,
ml = 0,1,2.....  l
For n=3 we have, ml = −1, − 2, 0,1, 2

Ground state
Principal Quantum level n = 1 is closest to the nucleus of the atom and of lowest energy. When the
electron occupies the level of lowest energy, the atom is said to be in its ground state. An atom can have
only one ground state.

Excited state
If the electron occupies one of the higher energy levels then the atom is in an excited state. An atom
has many excited states.
In Bohr’ s model, only certain orbits are stable. The electron is never found between these stable orbits.
Instead, the electron is said to jump instantly from one orbit to another without ever being between
orbits. An electron radiates energy when it jumps from an outer orbit to an inner one.
Problem
Calculate the energy of a photon that is emitted when a Hydrogen atom changes from energy state n=3
to n=2.

ΔE = Efinal - Einitial
= (-3.40 eV – (-1.51 eV)
= -1.89 eV
A photon of –1.89 eV energy is emitted by the hydrogen atom in changing from n=3 to n=2.This
corresponds to the red line on the hydrogen spectrum.

Emission and absorption spectra

Objects continually emit and absorb electromagnetic radiation.
(a) Spectrum: characteristic pattern of wavelengths absorbed or emitted by a substance.
(b) Emission Spectrum: spontaneous emission of radiation from an excited atom or molecule.
Emission is the ability of a substance to give off light, when it interacts with heat. Emission spectra is
seen when a gas, for example, is heated. The electrons of its atoms are excited and can eventually
change its energy level. This situation being unstable, the electron finally returns to the initial state and
emits a well-defined photon.
An emission spectrum, consist of bright emission lines in a dark background i.,e. light is separated into
characteristic wavelengths.
(c) Absorption spectrum
Absorption is the opposite of emission, where energy, light or radiation is absorbed by the electrons
of a particular matter. In an absorption spectra the source of light is not the gas. An exterior source of
light emits towards the gas you're using; given that the energy levels are quantified on the atoms of the
gas, the electrons of the atoms will be excited only when a photon of precise energy (corresponding to
the energy difference between the electron's level and another one on the atom) arrives.
In an absorption spectrum, a gas absorbs certain wave lengths, which identify the element.

An absorption line is a sharp dip in a (continuum) spectrum. An emission line is a sharp spike in a
spectrum. Both phenomena are caused by the interaction of photons with atoms. Each atoms imprints
a distinct set of lines in a spectrum.
An absorption spectra consist of a bright ribbon of rainbow colors crossed with dark absorption
lines.
The precise pattern of emission/absorption lines tells us about the mix of elements as well as
temperature and density
(d) Line Spectrum: spectrum containing only certain wavelengths. Line spectra result from the
emission of radiation from an excited atom.

Balmer: hydrogen has a line spectrum in the visible region with wavelengths of 656.3 nm, 486.1 nm,
434.0 nm, 410.1 nm.

Bohr’ s Theory of the Hydrogen atom

In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposed an improvement of the structure of the atom. In his
model, he placed each electron in a specific energy level.
According to Bohr’ s atomic model, electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much like
planets circle the sun. These orbits, or energy levels, are located at certain distances from the nucleus.
Bohr postulates of the hydrogen atom
Postulate 1
Electrons revolves around the nucleus only in certain "allowed orbits" and while in these orbits they
do not emit radiations.
The total energy, E of the system is given by,
E = K .E + P.E = E K . E + U
1 2 e2
E= mv + −
2 4 0 r
The condition for a stable orbit is Fc = Fe, i.e.,
mv 2 e2
: =
r 4 0 r 2
The electron velocity is therefore found to be;
e
v=
4 0 mr
e
We substitute for v = in the expression for total energy to get
4 0 mr
1 e2 e2 e2
E= m +− =−
2 4 0 rm 4 0 r 8 0 r
e2
Total energy, E = −
8 0 r
Quantization of the orbital radius
The orbital electron wavelength (de Broglie concept) is given by,
h h h 4 0 rm h 4 0 r
= = = =
p mv m e e m
We assume that the motion of the electron in the hydrogen atom is analogous to the vibrations of a
wire loop. We know that, in a wire loop, the loop's circumference is an integer number of the
wavelength of the resonant mode. Therefore, we assume that an electron can circle a nucleus only if its
orbit contains an integer number of the de Broglie wavelength.

Thus, the condition for orbital stability is,

n = 2r with n = 1, 2, 3, ..................
The integer n is called the quantum number of the orbit.
 h 4 0 r
Substituting for  = in the above equation gives the radii of the orbits as;
e m
h 2 0
rn = n 2 with n = 1, 2, 3, ..................
me 2
The radius of the innermost orbit is called the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom and is denoted by a 0
:
h 2 0
a 0 = r1 = = 5.3  10 −11 m
me 2

Here, we have used the parameters e = 1.6  10 −19 C ,  0 = 8.85  10 −12 F / m , m0 = 9.1  10 −31 kg and
h = 6.6  10 −34 J .s
The other radii are given in terms of a 0 by the formula;
rn = n 2 a 0 n = 1, 2, 3, .................. Quantization in orbit
Quantization in energy
e2
From E = −
8 0 r
h 2 0
Substitute for r = n 2 to obtain;
me 2
e2
E=−
 n 2 h 2 0 
8 0   2 

 me e 
me 4
E = Ek + E p = − 2 2 2 (n = 1, 2, 3, .........)
8 0 n h
Where m is the mass of the electron
e is the charge of the electron
r is the radius of the orbit
Thus for a particular energy level we have,
me 4
En = − Quantization in energy
8 02 n 2 h 2
Substituting for the values of e, m, and h gives;
1 − 13.6
E n = −13.6 2 eV or E n = eV
n n2
For n=1 we have the energy of the Ground state given as;
− 13.6
E1 = eV = −13.6 eV
12
Postulate 2
For circular motion, the allowed orbits are determined by the quantum condition that the angular
h
momentum ( L = me vr ) is n where  = ; h is Planck's constant and n can take positive integral
2
values.
For circular orbits, the position vector of the electron r is always perpendicular to its linear momentum
p. The angular momentum L = r  p has magnitude L = rp = me vr in this case. Thus Bohr's postulate of
quantized angular momentum is equivalent to;
me vr = n, n = 1,2,3...
Angular momentum is quantized
h
L = pr = n = n
2
h
But p =

h h
r=n
 2
Thus, nn = 2rn
Also L = pr
r
L= h

Therefore, Ln = n Quantization of angular momentum
Postulate 3
Energy changes can only occur from one energy level to another and not between levels. The energy
c
change E 2 − E1 = hf = h , where f is the frequency of the radiation emitted by the energy change from

a high (E 2 ) to a lower (E 1 ) value. This change produces an emission spectra. At high temperature,
hydrogen produces ultraviolet, visible and infrared emission spectra.

me 4
En = −
8 02 n 2 h 2

me 4
E1 = − = −13.6 eV
8 02 (1) h 2
2

E
En = n
n2
E − 13.6
Thus, E 2 = 1 = = 3.4 eV
22 4
Energy levels and transition for atomic hydrogen
me 4
En = − 2 2 2
8 0 n h
The ground state minimum energy E corresponds to n=1 if En is the energy value of a higher level
corresponding to n=n1 then
me 4  me 4  me 4 1 1 
E n − E1 = − −  −  = 2 2  2 − 2
8 02 n 2 h 2  8 02 n 2 h 2  8 0 h 1 n 
me 4  1 1 
 E n − E1 = 2 2  2 − 2  n = 2, 3, 4, ............
8 0 h  1 n 
Therefore
c me 4  1 
h = 2 2 1 − 2 
 8 0 h  n 
1 me 4  1 
And = 2 3 1 − 2 
 8 0 ch  n 
This may be written as
1  1 
= R 1 − 2 
  n 
me 4
Where R = 2 3 =
( ) (
9.1  10 −31 kg  1.6  10 −19 C )4

= 1.097  10 −7 is a constant called the

8 0 ch (
8  8.85  10 −12 2
) ( ) (
−
 3  10 m / s  6.623  10 J .s
8 34
)
Rydberg constant.
1  1
The equation = R1 − 2  represents the spectral transition of hydrogen known as the LYMAN series
  n 
whose lines are in the ultraviolet and each is associated with a transition involving the level n=1
The BALMER series which are in the visible involves transitions to the level with n=2 and as a
consequence smaller energy differences are involved.
1  1 1 
= R 2 − 2  n = 3, 4, 5, ............
 2 n 

The PASCHEN series which are in the infrared involves transitions to the level with n=3 and even
much smaller energy differences are involved.
1  1 1 
= R 2 − 2  n = 4, 5, 6, ............
 3 n 
Similarly, for the hydrogen spectrum we have other series
Brackett series
1  1 1 
= R 2 − 2  n = 5, 6, 7, ............
 4 n 
Pfund series
1  1 1 
= R 2 − 2  n = 6, 7, 8, ............
 5 n 
Successes of the Bohr model
(i) Unlike Rutherford’ s model, Bohr’ s model predicts that the atom is stable (which it is)
(ii) Bohr’ s model also accurately predicted the ionization energy of 13.6 eV for hydrogen
(iii) It also gave an explanation for the mysterious absorption and emission spectra of hydrogen
(iv) Though it has now been replaced by a fully quantum mechanical model, Bohr’ s model is
still often used as an introductory model of the atom, primarily due to its simplicity
Deficiencies of the Bohr Model
(i) The Bohr model predicted an angular momentum for the ground state of hydrogen atom.
However, experiment showed L=0. This violated the uncertainty principle.
Question 1
What is the essential difference between the Rutherford’ s model and the Bohr's model?
Answer
Rutherford's model is a classical model, in which EM wave will be radiated causing the atom to collapse. In
contrast, the Bohr’ s model is a semi classical model in which quantization of the atomic orbit happens.
Question 2
If an electron is in a stationary state of an atom, is the electron at rest? If not, what does this term mean?
Answer:
No, the electron is not at rest. It is in an allowed orbit called the stationary state. When an electron is in a
stationary state, it does not radiate any electromagnetic energy (although it moves in a circular orbit) and so its
total energy remains constant.
Example
The figure below show energy level diagram of element X. What is the ionization energy of element X?

Solution
The ionization energy of element X is |E1| = 4 eV.
Example 2
The electron in a hydrogen atom at rest makes a transition from the n=2 energy state to the n=1 ground
state. Find the wavelength, frequency and energy (eV) of the emitted photon.
Solution
1  1 1  1 1  3R
= R 2 − 2  = R 2 − 2  =
 n  1 2  4
 f ni 
4 4
= = = 1.215  10 −7 m = 121.5 nm
3R 3(1.097  10 7 m −1 )
Because c = f , the frequency of the photon is
3.0  10 8 m / s
c
f = = = 2.47  1015 Hz
 1.215  10 −7 m
The energy of the photon is given by E=hf, so
E = hf = (4.136  10 −15 eV .s )(2.47  1015 Hz ) = 10.2 eV
Example 3
A hydrogen atom is in its ground state (n=1). Using the Bohr Theory of the atom, calculate the orbital
speed and kinetic of the electron.
Solution
mv 2 e2
=
r 4 0 r 2
We have;
Kee2
v1 =
me r1
1
Ke =
4 0
Where is the coulomb constant.

Where r1 = (n ) a 0 = 0.00529 nm = 5.29  10 −11 m

2

v =
(8.99  10 N .m / C )(1.6  10 C )
9 2 2 −19 2

= 2.2  10 6 m / s
1
(9.11  10 kg )(5.29  10 m)
− 31 −11

K == m v = (9.11  10 kg )(2.2  10 )
1 1 − 31 2
1
2
e 1
6
m/s = 2.18  10 −18 J = 13.6 eV
2 2

Quantized Energy States

The electrons in free atoms will be found in only certain discrete energy states. These sharp energy
states are associated with the orbits or shells of electrons in an atom, e.g., a hydrogen atom. One of the
implications of these quantized energy states is that only certain photon energies are allowed when
electrons jump down from higher levels to lower levels, producing the hydrogen spectrum. The Bohr
model successfully predicted the energies for the hydrogen atom.

X-RAYS
X-rays are short (10-10m) wavelength electromagnetic radiations.
A focused beam of electrons is accelerated towards the anode made of copper rod, in which the target
is embedded. On collision the electrons decelerate rapidly and x-rays are produced. Over 99% of the
kinetic energy of the electrons goes on producing heat. The target is a high melting point metal such as
tungsten.

Energy of electrons, E = electron ch arg e  applied voltage = eV

hc
Energy of X-rays produced E X − Rays =

 min =
( −34
)(
6.623  10 J .s 3  10 m / s
8
)
( )
1.6  10 −19  V
−6
1.24  10
  min =
V
The intensity of the x-rays increases with the number of electrons hitting the target and therefore
depends on the filament current. The penetrating power (quality) of the x-rays increases with the
operating voltage of the tube.
Uses of X-rays
(i) They are used in medicine to locate bone fractures and destroy cancer cells.
(ii) X-ray diffraction is used to determine the structure of complex organic molecules.

Example
1.24  10 −6
Show that the minimum wavelength,  min of X-rays produced from an X-ray tube is  min = ,
V
Where V is the accelerating potential. Hence, determine the shortest wavelength present in the
radiation from an X-ray machine whose accelerating potential is 10,000V.
Solution
hc
eV =

 min =
(6.623  10 −34 J .s )(3  10 8 m / s )
(1.6  10 −19 )  V
 1.24  10 −6
  min =
V
1.24  10 −6
 min = = 0.124 nm
10000

Introduction to nuclear structure

Properties of nuclei
All nuclei are composed of two types of particles: protons and neutrons. The only exception is the
ordinary hydrogen nucleus, which is a single proton. In describing the atomic nucleus, the following
quantities are used:
(i) Atomic number, Z (sometimes called the charge number), which equals the number of protons in the
nucleus.
(ii) Neutron number, N, which equals the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
(iii) Mass number, A, which equals the number of nucleons (neutrons plus protons) in the nucleus.
Exercises
1) Why are heavy nuclei unstable?
2) How many protons are in the nucleus 222
88Rn? How many neutrons? How many orbiting electrons are in the neutral atom?

(a) Nuclear forces

Nuclear forces (also known as nuclear interactions or strong nuclear forces) are the forces that act
between two or more nucleons.
Since protons have charge +1 e, they experience an electric force that tends to push them apart, but at
short range the attractive nuclear force is strong enough to overcome the electromagnetic force. The
nuclear force binds protons and neutrons (nucleons) into atomic nuclei. The nuclear force is about 10
millions times stronger than the chemical binding that holds atoms together in molecules.

The nuclear force has an essential role in storing energy that is used in nuclear power and nuclear
weapons. Work (energy) is required to bring charged protons together against their electric repulsion.
This energy is stored when the protons and neutrons are bound together by the nuclear force to form
a nucleus.
The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum total of the individual masses of the protons and neutrons.
The difference in masses is known as the mass defect, which can be expressed as an energy equivalent.
Energy is released when a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two or more lighter nuclei.
Characteristics of nuclear force
a) At short distances is stronger than the Coulomb force: we know that nuclei comprise tightly
packed protons, thus to keep these protons together the nuclear force has to beat the Coulomb
repulsion.
b) The nuclear force is short range. This is supported by the fact that interactions among e.g. two
nuclei in a molecule are only dictated by the Coulomb force and no longer by the nuclear force.
c) Not all the particles are subjected to the nuclear force (a notable exception are electrons)
 d) The nuclear force does not depend at all on the particle charge, e.g. it is the same for protons
and neutrons.
e) The nuclear force does depend on spin.
(b) Nuclear binding energy
Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to split the nucleus of an atom into its component parts.
The component parts are neutrons and protons, which are collectively referred to as nucleons. Thus,
nuclear binding energy is the energy produced when the atoms’ nucleons are bound together; which is also the
energy needed to break a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons.

Binding energy is defined as the energy equivalent of the missing mass of a nucleus. The binding
energy of nuclei is usually a positive number, since most nuclei require net energy to separate them
into individual protons and neutrons.

The mass of an atom's nucleus is usually less than the sum of the individual masses of the constituent
protons and neutrons when separated. This notable difference is a measure of the nuclear binding
energy, which is a result of forces that hold the nucleus together. The missing mass is known as the
mass defect, and represents the energy released when the nucleus is formed.

An atom has less mass than the total mass of its constituent particles. The hydrogen isotope deuterium
for instance, 12 H has one neutron and one proton in its nucleus. Thus, it is expected the mass of the
deuterium atom to be equal to the mass of proton and neutron i.e.

Mass of a proton = 1.0078u

Mass of a neutron = 1.0087u
Expected mass of 2
1 H = 2.0165u

However, the measured mass of 2

1 H is found to be 2.0141 u , which is 0.0024 u less than the combined
mass of a proton and a neutron. The missing mass of 0.0024 u corresponds to the energy given off when
a 12 H nucleus is formed from a free proton and neutron.

Energy equivalent of 1u of mass is 931MeV , the energy corresponding to the missing deuterium mass
of 0.0024u is;

0.0024u = 0.0024  931 = 2.2344 MeV

The binding energy per nucleon is obtained by dividing the binding energy by the number of nucleons
i.e.

B 2.2344 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon = = = 1.1 MeV / Nucleon
A 2nucleons
Problem 1
Find the binding energy per nucleon of Deuterium 12 H given that the measured mass of a Deuterium
nucleus is 2.0141 u
Solution

Deuterium 12 H has 1 proton and I neutron

Mass of a proton = 1.0078u
Mass of a neutron = 1.0087u
Expected mass of 2
1 H = 2.0165u

Measured mass of 12 H = 2.014u

Mass difference (2.0165 − 2.0141)u = 0.0024u
1u = 931MeV
0.0024u = 0.0024  931 = 2.2344 MeV

B 2.2344 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon = = = 1.1 MeV / Nucleon
A 2nucleons

Problem 2
Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of Uranium-235 ( 235
92 U ), if its atomic mass is 235.043943 a.m.u.

Solution.
Binding energy is the energy equivalent of the missing mass of a nucleus.
Uranium 235 92 U has 92 protons and 143 neutrons

Mass of a proton = 1.0078u

Mass of a neutron = 1.0087u
92 U = 92(1.007825u ) + 143(1.008665u ) = 236.958995 u .
Expected mass (92 protons and 143 neutrons) of 235
This is in excess of the atomic mass (measured mass) of uranium-235.

Measured mass of 23592 U = 235.043943 u

Mass difference 236.958995 u − 235.043943 u = 1.915052 u

1u = 931MeV
1.915052 u = 1.915052 u  931 = 1782.9 MeV
B 1782.9 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon = = = 7.59 MeV / nucleon
A 235 nucleons
28.3
For helium the binding energy per nucleon is = = 7.1 MeV / nucleon . The helium nucleus has a high
4
binding energy per nucleon and is more stable than some of the other nuclei close to it in the periodic
table.
Some of the binding energies per nucleon for some common elements are shown in the table below.
Element Mass of nucleons Nuclear Binding energy Binding Energy per
(u) mass (MeV nucleon
(u) (MeV)
Deuterium 2.01594 2.01355 2.23 1.12
Helium 4 4.03188 4.00151 28.29 7.07
Lithium 7 7.05649 7.01336 40.15 5.74
Beryllium 9 9.07243 9.00999 58.13 6.46
Iron 56 56.44913 55.92069 492.24 8.79
Silver 107 107.86187 106.87934 915.23 8.55
Iodine 127 128.02684 126.87544 1072.53 8.45
Lead 206 207.67109 205.92952 1622.27 7.88
Polonium 210 211.70297 209.93683 1645.16 7.83
Uranium 235 236.90849 234.99351 1783.80 7.59
Uranium 238 239.93448 238.00037 1801.63 7.57

Binding energy curve

In the periodic table of elements, the series of light elements from hydrogen up to sodium is observed
to exhibit generally increasing binding energy per nucleon as the atomic mass increases. This increase
is generated by increasing forces per nucleon in the nucleus, as each additional nucleon is attracted by
other nearby nucleons, and thus more tightly bound to the whole.

The region of increasing binding energy is followed by a region of relative stability (saturation) in the
sequence from magnesium through Xenon. In this region, the nucleus has become large enough that
nuclear forces no longer completely extend efficiently across its width. Attractive nuclear forces in this
region, as atomic mass increases, are nearly balanced by repulsive electromagnetic forces between
protons, as the atomic number increases.
Finally, in elements heavier than Xenon, there is a decrease in binding energy per nucleon as atomic
number increases. In this region of nuclear size, electromagnetic repulsive forces are beginning to
overcome the strong nuclear force attraction.
(c) Nuclear reactions
In nuclear reactions, the nuclei, not electrons of the reactants interact with each other. They result in
the formation of new elements. This process is also called transmutation of nuclei.
The phenomenon of nuclear transmutation or nuclear reaction was discovered by Lord Rutherford in
the year 1919. He bombarded nitrogen gas with high energy alpha-particles of energy 7.7 M eV
obtained from a polonium source. He observed that nitrogen transformed into oxygen. This change
was accompanied by high energy protons:
4
2 He + 14
17 N → 178O + 11H
Nuclear reactions can also be produced by protons, deuterons, neutrons and other light nuclei. Of
these, neutrons are the best projectiles for producing nuclear reactions; being neutral particles, they do not
experience Coulomb repulsion.
Thus, even thermal neutrons (i.e. neutrons having energy 0.0253 eV) can penetrate the target nucleus
and produce a nuclear reaction.
Some typical examples of nuclear reactions produced by protons, deuterons and neutrons are:
6
3 Li + 11H → 23He + 24He produced by protons
10
5 B + 12H → 3 24 He produced by deuterons
10
5 B + n → 37Li + 24He produced by neutrons
Example 1 Complete the following nuclear reactions.
16
O + 24He → ............... + 19
Ne
(i) 8 10

(ii) 9 F + 1 H → 8 O + ........
19 1 16

Solution
16
8 O + 24He → 19
10Ne + .......01 n neutron
19
9 F +11H →168 O + ........24 He alpha particle
Example 2: A radioactive nucleus ZA X undergoes decay to form new nuclei ZA−−42Y . Give the equation representing
this decay and the type of radiation emitted.
Z X → Z − 2Y + 2 
A A− 4 4

Exercises
(a) What is a nuclear reaction?
(b) How does a nuclear reaction differ from a chemical reaction?
(c) Complete the following nuclear reaction
(i) 19
9 F + 11H →168 O + ........
(ii) 27
13 Al + 01n → ........+ 24He
(iii) 234
90 Th → 234
91 Pa + ........
(iv) 63
29 Cu + 12D → 64
30 Zn + ........

(d) Radioactivity
Radioactivity also known as radioactive decay or nuclear decay, is the process by which a nucleus of
an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing radiation. It is the process in which radiations are
emitted when an unstable nucleus disintegrates to acquire a more stable state. The disintegration is
spontaneous and most commonly involves the emission of an alpha-particle or a beta-particle. In both
alpha and beta-emissions, the parent nucleus (the emitting nucleus) undergoes a change of atomic
number and therefore becomes the nucleus of a different element. This new nucleus is called a daughter
nucleus.
It often happens that the daughter nucleus is formed when it is in the excited state so it reaches its
stable state by emitting gamma-rays.
A material that spontaneously emits this kind of radiation—which includes the emission of alpha
particles, beta particles, and gamma rays is considered radioactive.
 -particles
They consists of two protons and two neutrons, i.e. it is identical to a helium nucleus. It is the most
energetic form of radiation produced by radioactive decay. They have the least penetrating power with
a range of only a few centimeters in air. They move relatively slowly since they are relatively heavy
particles, and are thus more effective in producing ionization in the gases through which they pass. A
strong magnetic field deflects them and the direction and magnitude of the deflection suggests that α-
particles are positively charged.
When a nucleus undergoes α-decay it loses four nucleons, two of which are protons. Thus the mass
number A decreases by 4 and its atomic number Z decreases by 2.
That is;
A
Z X → ZA−−42Y + 24He
Uranium 238 decays by -particles to thorium 234
92 U → 90 + 2 He
238 234 4

Parent daughter and alpha particle

-particles
These are very fast electrons. α-particles are emitted by nuclei which have too many neutrons to be
stable. These particles are more penetrating than alpha particles, with a range of several meters in air.
They have less ionizing power than alpha particles but are easily deviated by magnetic or electric fields
due to their small mass. They have higher speeds than alpha particles. When a nucleus undergoes β-
decay its mass number A does not change but its atomic number Z increases by 1.
A
Z X → Y +
A
Z +1
0
−1 e
Carbon 14 decays by -emission to Nitrogen 14.
14
6C → 147N + −10 e

-Rays
γ-rays are electromagnetic radiations of very short wavelength. And are highly penetrating having a
range of several centimeters in lead. They have far less ionizing power compared to b particles and are
not deflected by a magnetic field
Example 1
Part of the Uranium decay series is shown below.
238
92 U ⎯⎯→
(1)
90Th ⎯⎯→ 91 Pa ⎯⎯→ 92 U ⎯⎯→ 90Th ⎯⎯→ 88 Ra
234 ( 2) 234 ( 3) 234 ( 4) 230 ( 5) 226

(i) What particle is emitted at each decay?

(ii) List the pairs of isotopes in the series.
Example 2
A radioactive source emits two types of radiation R and S as shown in the diagram below.

Identify radiation R and S.

Example 3: Explain the main differences among alpha, beta, and gamma rays.
Types of radioactivity
(i) Natural radioactivity
Nuclear reactions which occur spontaneously are said to be examples of natural radioactivity.
There are three naturally occurring radioactive series among the elements in the periodic table. These
are known as
(i) The Uranium series,
(ii) The Actinium series and
(iii) The Thorium series,
Each named after the element at which the series start (except the actinium series which starts with a
different uranium isotope). Each series decays through a number of unstable nuclei by means of alpha
and beta emission, until each series end on a different stable isotope of lead.

(ii) Artificial radioactivity

Not all nuclear reactions are spontaneous. These reactions occur when stable isotopes are bombarded
with particles such as neutrons. This method of inducing a nuclear reaction to proceed is termed
artificial radioactivity. This meant new nuclear reactions, which wouldn't have been viewed
spontaneously, could now be observed.

Since about 1940, a set of new elements with atomic numbers over 92 (the atomic number of the heaviest
naturally occurring element, Uranium) have been artificially synthesized. They are called the
transuranium elements.
Decay rate equation
For an assembly of N nuclei, the number of particles dN decaying in an time interval dt is λN.
dN
= −N
dt
dN
= −dt
N
Integrate both sides to obtain;
N t
dN
N N = − 0 dt
0

ln(N ) − ln(N 0 ) = −t

  N 
ln  = −t
 N0 
Take exponents on both sides to eliminate the natural logarithm function i.e.
N
= e − t
N0
 N (t ) = N 0 e − t
Activity of a radioactive element
The activity of a radioactive nuclide is the rate at which the nuclei of its constituent atoms decay. It
corresponds to the number of counts per second a radioactive material produces.
If N is the number of nuclei present in a sample at a certain time, its activity R is given by;
dN
R=−
dt
dN
The negative sign makes R positive since is a negative quantity. The SI units of activity is
dt
1Becquerel whereby 1Becquerel (1Bq) = 1 event/s
The activity of a radioactive material can be measured with a Geiger-Mϋller (GM) tube. The GM tube
is used to count how many atoms in the material experience a radioactive decay each second. Each of
these decays is recorded in the count rate reported by the GM equipment.
The activity in a radioactive material is the number of counts per second it produces.
1 count per second (cps) = 1 Becquerel (Bq)
If a radioactive sample is monitored with a GM tube and a count rate of 1200 counts per second is
obtained, then we say that the activity of the sample is 1200Bq.

Half life
Half life of a radioactive sample is the time taken for the nuclei in the sample to decay by half. It is the
time it takes for the activity of a radioactive material to drop by half. Each different radioactive
material has its own individual half-life. It doesn’t matter if the half-life is short (<1s) or long (1,000
years).

Mean life (τ )
The time at which both R and N have been reduced to, e-1 of their initial values.
N
 = is the lifetime i.e. time when N ( ) = 0
1
 e
Every time a half-life passes, the activity of the material is halved. Experiments have shown that the
activity of a radioactive sample falls off exponentially as shown below

Example 1
The activity of a radioactive material is 1728 Bq. After 24 hours, the activity has fallen to 27 Bq. Calculate
the half-life of the radioactive material.
R = R0 e −  t
R
= e − t
R0
1  R0 
 = ln 
t  R
1  1728 
= ln 
24  27 

ln(64 ) =
1 4.1588
= = 0.173286
24 24
0.693
t1 = = 4 hours
2
0.173286
Example 2
A hospital technician is working with a radioactive source. The graph below shows the activity of the source over
a period of time.

(i) Use the graph to find the half – life of the radioactive source.
(ii) The initial activity of the radioactive source is 160kBq. Calculate the activity of the radioactive
source after four half – lives.
Question 1
The half-life of 23892U undergoing α-decay is 4.5 × 109 years. What is the activity of 1g sample of 23892U ?
T1 = 4.5  10 9 years  3.6  10 7 sec onds / year = 1.42  1017 sec onds
2

We know that 1 k mol of any isotope contains Avogadro’s number of atoms.

 1 
Hence, 1g of 23892U contains, =  −3 
 6.025  10 26 = 25.3  10 20 atoms
 238  10 
Therefore, the decay rate R is,
   0.693 
R = N = 
0.693 
N =    25.3  10 20 = 1.23  10 4 Bq

 T1   1.42  10 s 
17
 2 

R = λN
= (0.693/T1/2)N
= (0.693 x 25.3 x 1020) / (1.42 x 1017)
Therefore, R = 1.23 x 104 Bq
Exercises
1) If a nucleus has a half-life of one year, does that mean it will be completely decayed after two years?
Explain.
2) What fraction of a radioactive sample has decayed after two half-lives have elapsed?

Question 2
A scientist prepares a radioactive solution with a half-life of 36 hours. Using a GM tube, the scientist
says the liquid has a count rate of 72 kBq. What will be the activity of the solution (in Becquerels) if it
is measured again in 108 hours?

(e) Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is the process of splitting heavy nuclei into two medium sized nuclei, in which each of
the new nuclei has less binding energy per nucleon than the original nucleus.
Nuclear fission is accompanied by the emission of energy and it involves many times more energy per
atom than burning coal or oil etc.
(f) Nuclear fusion
This is the process of joining two light nuclei together to give a single nucleus. The fusion process
involves the emission of energy and it is a very effective way of obtaining energy. In fact, nuclear fusion
is the main energy source of the sun and the other stars.
In nuclear fusion, two small nuclei collide and join together (fuse) to make a larger nucleus. The most
common example is when two types of hydrogen fuse together to form helium. The bigger nucleus
created has slightly less mass than the sum of the original two nuclei. This mass is converted to energy
and released as gamma rays.
So far, scientists have not found a way to use nuclear fusion to generate electricity. This is because
fusion requires very high temperatures and pressures and so a nuclear fusion reactor is very difficult
and expensive to build.
Question 1
Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Why do most nuclei need to absorb a neutron
before undergoing nuclear fission?
Nuclear fission: process of splitting heavy nuclei into two medium sized nuclei, in which each of the new nuclei
has less binding energy per nucleon than the original nucleus.
In nuclear fission, a large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei and neutrons.
Nuclear fusion: The process of joining two light nuclei together to give a single nucleus. It also involves the
emission of energy. In nuclear fusion, two small nuclei fuse together to make a bigger nucleus.
Nuclear fission rarely happens spontaneously. Absorbing a neutron makes the nucleus unstable,
causing fission to occur.
Question 2: Explain what is meant by a “ chain reaction” in nuclear fission.
Neutrons are required to make a nucleus unstable and cause it to undergo fission. When the nucleus splits, two
or three neutrons are produced. These neutrons go on to cause more fission reactions resulting into a chain
reaction.

Nuclear reactor
The device designed to maintain a self-sustained and controlled chain reaction is called a nuclear reactor.
Nuclear reactor is thus a device to sustain controlled chain reaction.
The first nuclear reactor was constructed by Fermi and his co-workers at the university of Chicago USA.
Over the years, a large number of reactors have been built the world over primarily to meet demand
for energy. Some countries generate as much as 70% of their total energy from nuclear reactors. In India,
the contributions of nuclear energy is only about 2%, but efforts are on to increase this share. In absolute
terms, India is generating about 20,000 MW from nuclear reactors.
Classification of nuclear reactors
Nuclear reactors are usually classified according to the purpose for which they are used.
(a) Nuclear power reactor is used to produce electricity.
(b) Research reactor is used to produce radioisotopes for medical purposes, carrying out experiments
for refinements or applied research.
Nuclear reactors can also be categorized as fast and thermal, depending on the energy of neutrons
causing fission. In India, we have thermal power reactors at Tarapore, Narora, Kota, Kaiga, etc. At
Kalpakkam, we are developing a fast breeder research reactor.

Operation of nuclear reactors

Nuclear reactors have huge complex structures and great care has to be exercised in designing them.
The basic principle of a nuclear power plant is very simple and analogous to any power plant. The heat
liberated in fission is used to produce steam at high pressure and high temperature by circulating a
coolant, say water, around the fuel. In a coal fired station, coal is burnt to produce steam. Since one
fission event generates about 7 ×105 times more energy than that produced in burning one atom of
carbon, emission of greenhouse gases can be reduced substantially by switching over to nuclear energy.
The steam runs a turbine– generator system to produce electricity. In research reactors, the heat is
discharged into a river or sea. In India, they are; Bhahha Atomic Research Centre at Trombay, Mumbai
or Indira Gandhi Atomic Research Centre at Kalpakkam. The heat generated by the research reactors
at these centres is discharged into the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal, respectively.
Components of a nuclear reactor
The general features of a reactor are illustrated in the figure below.

All nuclear reactors consist of:

(i) A reactor core, where fission takes place resulting in release of energy. It has fuel rods embedded in
a moderator in a thermal reactors, and control rods to maintain the chain reaction at the desired level.
Coolant
The heat generated inside the reactor core of a reactor due to fission is removed by circulating a coolant.
The heated coolant is made to give up its heat to a secondary fluid, usually water in a heat exchanger.
This generates steam, which is used to drive turbine-generator system to produce electricity in a power
plant and discharged into a river/lake/sea in a research reactor.
Usually, heavy water or ordinary water are used as coolants and cadmium or boron are used for control
rods.
(ii) A reflector is put next to the core to stop neutron leakage from the core.
(iii) The whole assembly is placed inside a vessel, called pressure vessel. Usually, a few inches thick
stainless steel is used for this purpose.
(iv) A thick shield is provided to protect the scientists and other personnel working around the reactor
from radiations coming from the reactor core. It is usually in the form of a thick concrete wall.
(v) The entire structure is placed inside a reactor building. It is air tight and is maintained at a pressure
slightly less than the atmospheric pressure so that no air leaks out of the building.

Peaceful Applications
The most important peaceful application of nuclear energy is in the generation of electricity.
Advantages of nuclear energy
(i) One of the main advantages of nuclear power plant is that the fuel is not required to be fed into it
continuously like the gas or coal in a thermal power plant.
(ii) Further, it does not pollute the environment to the extent discharge of smoke or ash from fossil fuel/power
plants do. The fuel once loaded in a reactor runs for nearly 6 months. Because of this nuclear power
plants have been used to power huge ships and submarines.
Disadvantage of nuclear energy
The spent fuel of a reactor is highly radioactive because a large number of radio-isotopes are present in
it. India has developed its own facility to treat spent fuel and extract it from those radio-isotopes which
find uses in agriculture, medicine, industry and research. To avoid the spread of radioactive radiations from
the radioactive wastes, the radioactive wastes are generally embedded deep inside salt mines in heavy
steel cases.

Question 3: What is the role of control rods in nuclear reactors and how do they do this?
Control rods control the speed of the chain reaction. When lowered into the reactor, the rods absorb
neutrons and slow down the chain reaction. When lifted from the reactor, less neutrons are absorbed and the
chain reaction proceed faster.

Problem
In a fusion reaction
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 0 n
2 3 4 1

How much energy in joules is liberated?

Masses 12 H = 3.345  10 −27 kg
3
1 H = 5.008  10 −27 kg
4
2 He = 6.647  10 −27 kg
1
0 n = 1.675  10 −27 kg