564 Principles of Engineering Physics 1 Photoelectric Effect:

Photoelectric effect is defined as the phenomenon

of emission of electrons from the surface of
certain substances, mainly metals when light
shorter wavelength is incident on them.

Figure 7.2 Experimental arrangements for the study of photoelectric effect. When a light of
suitable frequency is incident on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted and move
towards the anode depending upon its voltage. The voltage of the cathode and anode
can be varied by the rheostat. Voltage and currents are measured at the required point.
The stopping potential V0 is the negative voltage of the anode which stops the emission of
electrons from the cathode surface. The work function w0 of the metal surface is defined
as the minimum energy required to pull an electron out of the metal surface at 0 K
temperature

Experimental results are represented graphically in Fig. 7.3.

 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 565

Figure 7.3 Experimental results of photoelectric effect. (a) Variation of photoelectric current with
anode potential, (b) Variation of photoelectric current with intensity of incident light,
(c) Variation of photoelectric current with anode potential for different frequencies of the
incident light. (d) Variation of stopping potential V0 with frequency of the incident light

Laws of photoelectric effect

i. Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.
ii. Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
iii. Photoelectric current is independent of frequency of incident light.
iv. Stopping potential depends upon the frequency but is independent of intensity.
v. Maximum speed of emitted electrons depends upon the frequency but independent
of the intensity of incident light.
vi. The emission of electrons stops below a certain minimum frequency known as the
threshold frequency.
vii. Saturation current is independent of frequency.

Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect

Einstein explained the photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory. The
energy of an incident photon hn is utilized in digging out the electron (w0) and giving the
566 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 1 
electron some speed v  kinetic energy = mv 2  . Hence, applying the law of conservation
of energy, we have  2 

1
hν
= me v 2 + w0 , me = mass of the electron (7.19)
2
If the frequency of the incident light v0is such that it just digs out the electron, then we have

hν 0 = w0 (7.20)

With this value of w0, Eq. (7.19) becomes

1 2
hν
= mv + hν 0
2

1 2
or = h(ν −ν 0 )
mv (7.21)
2

Calculation of stopping potential V0

To neutralize the kinetic energy of the emitted electron by applying a negative potential V0
to the anode, we must have

1 2
mv = eV0 (7.22)
2

Putting Eq. (7.22) into Eq. (7.19), we get

ν eV0 + w0
h=

h w
or =
V0 ν − 0 (y = mx + c) (7.23)
e e

This equation has been plotted in Fig. 7.3(d)

Calculation of threshold frequency u0

In the plot of stopping potential V0 and frequency v [see Fig. 7.3(d)], according to Eq. (7.23),
w
the negative Y-intercept will be − 0 . If we divide this intercept (by taking only magnitude)
by h, we have e

w0
e = w0
h eh
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 567

Putting the value of w0 from Eq. (7.20) into this equation, we get

Y − intercept hν 0
= = ν0
h h

Y − intercept in V0  ν plot
or ν0 =
h

Calculation of work function w0

In the plot of stopping potential V0 and frequency v [see Fig. 7.3(d)], according to Eq. (7.23)
w
the negative Y-intercept will be − 0 . If we multiply this intercept (by taking only
magnitude) by e, we have e

w0
×e =w0
e

Hence, we have

w0 = (Y − intercept in V0  ν plot ) × e

Calculation of Planck’s constant h

According to Eq. (7.23), the slope of the plot of stopping potential V0 and frequency v is
(h/e) [see Fig. 7.3(d)]. If we multiply this slope with e, the charge of the electron, we will
obtain the value of h, the Planck’s constant. Mathematically,

h = (Slope of the V0  ν plot) × e

Example 7.6
The photoelectric threshold wavelength for a metal is 4400 Å. What will be the maximum
energy of photoelectrons emitted from this metal surface when it is irradiated by a radiation
of 4000 Å?
Solution
The data given are

l0 = 4400 Å

l = 4000 Å
568 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, the maximum kinetic energy of the

photoelectrons is given by

 λ −λ 
Emax =hν − hν 0 =hc  0 
 λ0 λ 

Putting the data given in the question into this equation, we have

 4400 × 10−10 − 4000 × 10−10 

= 6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 
Emax −10 −10 
J
 4400 × 10 × 4000 × 10 
What is Compton Effect?
−20 Compton effect is defined as the effect that is observed when x-rays or gamma rays
=4.52 × 10 J =0.28eV are scattered on a material with an increase in wavelength. Arthur Compton studied
this effect in the year 1923. During the study, Compton found that wavelength is not
dependent on the intensity of incident radiation. It is dependent on the angle of
scattering and on the wavelength of the incident beam. Put formula with explanation
7.4.3 Compton effect

The photoelectric effect shows that the energy of an electromagnetic wave is absorbed
and emitted in discrete quanta. The Compton effect gives compelling evidence of the
corpuscular nature of radiation. The effect was first conceptualized theoretically and
demonstrated experimentally by A. H. Compton in the year 1923.
Compton used X-rays from molybdenum with energy of approximately 20 keV. On
entering the scattering material such an X-ray interacts with atomic electrons. These
electrons can be considered essentially free for the X-rays because the energy of the
incident X-rays is much more than the energy of the electrons of 10 eV. The electric field
of the incident electromagnetic wave causes these electrons to oscillate with the frequency
of the X-rays. An electron that oscillates in simple harmonic motion will radiate like an
electric dipole. The frequency of the oscillations is therefore initially equal to the frequency
of the incident X-rays. The incident electromagnetic wave carries momentum (E/c) since
for a massless particle E = pc, where E is energy of the incident wave. Since the X-ray gives
some of its energy to the electron, it loses momentum. This momentum is imparted to the
electron, which recoils in the direction of propagation of the incident wave. As the electron
recedes from the source of X-ray, it no longer sees the original frequency but a lower
frequency due to Doppler effect. The electron then re-radiates with this lower frequency.
This classical argument leads to the conclusion that the frequencies of the scattered
X-rays should have a continuous range of values. When the target electron is still in rest,
the frequency of the scattered radiation observed in the laboratory frame should be that of
incident X-rays. The frequency should then decrease continuously to a final value.
The conclusion of the Compton experiment is in direct contradiction with this
conclusion drawn from classical argument. Rather than what was theorized by the classical
theory, the X-rays scattered by electrons at a particular angle are found to have just one
sharply defined frequency lower than that of the incident X-rays. This fact shows that
scattering is not a gradual process during which electron gains momentum at a continuous
rate; the interaction of X-rays and electrons is instantaneous.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 569

The fact that the X-ray transfers its energy and momentum instantaneously in one packet
suggests that the scattering process can be treated as a collision between two particles – a
photon and an electron. Such instantaneous transfer does indeed occur in a two-particle
collision.
Figure 7.4 shows the diagram of the Compton experiment.

Figure 7.4 Diagram of Compton scattering. An X-ray photon strikes the electron at rest. After
collision,the incident photon and electron are scattered along the
 directions shown in the
figure. k 0 is the momentum
 of the incident X-ray photon, k is the momentum of the
scattered X-ray photon, p is the momentum of the scattered electron

An X-ray photon strikes an electron assumed to be initially at rest in the laboratory

coordinate system and is scattered away from its original direction of motion, while the
electron receives some impulse and begins to move. We can think of the photon as losing
an amount of energy in the collision that is the same as the kinetic energy gained by the
scattered electron, although actually, separate photons are involved. If the incident photon
has frequency n and the scattered photon has frequency n ¢, then we must have n ¢ < n. (Why?).
The total relativistic energy E of the moving electron is given by

=E m02 c 4 + ( pc)2 (7.24)

or p2 c=
2
E 2 − m02 c 4 (7.25)

Hence, the total relativistic energy E of the electron at rest will be m0c2

k 0 = Momentum of the incident X-ray photon.
 2π
k 0 = Propagation vector of the incident photon with magnitude , λ0 being the
wavelength of the incident photon. λ0

k = Momentum of the scattered X-ray photon.
570 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 2π
k = Propagation vector of the scattered photon with magnitude , λ being the
wavelength of the scattered photon. λ0

According to the law of conservation of momentum, we have

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
  
or k=0 k + p (7.26)

 
or 2 k02 + 2 k 2 − 22 k 0 ⋅ k =p2

 
or ( )
2 c 2 k02 + k 2 − 2k 0 ⋅ k =
p2 c 2

Putting the value of p2c2 from Eq. (7.25) into this equation, we get
 
( )
2 c 2 k02 + k 2 − 2k 0 ⋅ k = E 2 − m02 c 4 (7.27)
 
The energy of the incident X-ray photon will be k 0 c since the momentum is k 0 .
 
The energy of the scattered X-ray photon will be kc since the momentum is k .
According to the law of conservation of energy, we have
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision

or k0 c + m0 c 2 =kc + E (7.28)

or c ( k0 − k ) =E − m0 c 2 (7.29)

Squaring both sides of Eq. (7.29), we get

( )
2 c 2 k02 + k 2 − 2k0 k = E 2 + m02 c 4 − 2m0 c 2 E (7.30)

Subtracting Eq. (7.30) from Eq. (7.27), we get

 
( ) (
2 k0 k − k 0 ⋅ k= m0 E − m0 c 2 )
Putting the value of E − m0 c 2 from Eq. (7.29) into this equation, we obtain
 
(
2 k0 k − k =
0 ⋅k )
m0 c ( k0 − k ) (7.31)
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 571

  mc
or k0 k − k=
0 ⋅k
0
( k0 − k ) (7.32)

 
The angle between k 0 , the propagation vector of the incident photon and k, the
propagation vector of the scattered photon as shown in Fig. 7.4 is q. Hence,
 
k0 ⋅ k =k0 k cos θ (7.33)

 
Putting the value of k 0 ⋅ k from Eq. (7.33) into Eq. (7.32), we get

mc
k0 k − k0 k cos θ = 0 ( k0 − k )


m0 c  λ λ0 
or θ
1 − cos=  − 
  2π 2π 

2π 
or λ − λ=
0 (1 − cos θ ) (7.34)
m0 c

or λ − λ0 = λC (1 − cos θ ) (7.35)

2π  h
where λc
= = (7.36)
m0 c m0 c

2π  h
λC
= = is called the Compton wavelength of the scattering particle. For an
m0 c m0 c
electron, lC = .2426 × 10–12 meter = 2.426 × 10–2 Å. Equations (7.34) or (7.35) give the
change in wavelengths between the incident radiation and the scattered radiation. The
change in wavelengths l – l0 between the incident radiation and the scattered radiation is
called Compton shift. Equation (7.35) shows that the Compton shift is maximum when the
scattered photon goes in the opposite direction to the incident photon and is zero when the
scattered photon goes in the same direction as the incident photon.
From Eq. (7.35), the wavelength of the scattered photon is

λ=λ0 + λC (1 − cos θ ) (7.37)

ν0
or ν= (7.38)
1 + ( λCν 0 c ) (1 − cos θ )
572 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Equation (7.38) shows that the wavelength of the scattered photon depends upon the
scattering angle q. Experiment shows that this equation is correct. Figure 7.5 shows the
effect of the scattering angle q on the Compton shift l – l0. The important theoretical fact
is that it was obtained by considering light quantum or photon as a particle. It constitutes
strong evidence in favour of the quantum theory of radiation. If the Compton effect has
true features of a two-particle collision, then it must be possible to observe the scattered
photon and recoiling electron simultaneously. It was experimentally verified by Bothe and
Geiger in the year 1925.
The Compton effect shows clearly that photons behave like particles when they collide
with electrons. It is also true that light exhibits interference phenomenon, which can only
be explained by the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation. In such phenomena, light
behaves like a wave. This dual wave–particle nature of electromagnetic radiation is an
experimental fact.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 573

Figure 7.5 Plot of relative intensity versus wavelength. Effect of scattering angle q on the change
in wavelength between the incident photon and the scattered photon is clearly visible

Example 7.7
X-rays of wavelength 0.71 Å are scattered from a target. Calculate the wavelength of the X-rays
scattered through 45° and the maximum wavelength present in the scattered X-rays.
Solution
The data given are

l0 = 0.71 Å

q = 45°
574 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The wavelength of the X-rays scattered through 45° will be

l = 0.71 Å + 2.426 × 10–2 Å (1 – cos 45) = 0.717 Å

The maximum wavelength present in the scattered X-rays will be

l = 0.71 Å + 2.426 × 10–2 Å (1 – cos 180) = 0.758 Å

Example 7.8
X-rays of wavelength 1.54 Å are scattered from a target. Calculate the energy of the X-rays
photon scattered through 60°
Solution
The data given are

l = 1.54 Å

q = 60°

The wavelength of the X-rays scattered through 60° will be

l = 1.54 Å+ 2.426 × 10–2 Å (1 – cos 60) = 1.55 Å

The energy of the scattered photon will be obtained from equation

hc
=
E = 8015 eV
λ

NOT REQUIRED
7.4.4 Pair production

In photoelectric effect, the incident photon gives off all its energy to the electron and in
the Compton effect, the incident photon gives off part of its energy to the electron. Matter
can be converted to energy [E = Dmc2]; can energy be converted to matter? That should
be; because nature loves symmetry. Indeed the conversion of energy into matter exists
in nature. This phenomenon is called pair production. Pair production is defined as a
phenomenon in which a gamma ray photon [high energy photon] while passing near a
nucleus is converted fully to an electron and a positron. A positron [positive electron] is
a particle having mass equal to that of an electron and charge equal to that of a proton.
It is the antiparticle of an electron. Symbolically, pair production phenomenon can be
written as

γ -ray photon 

in the vicinity of a nucleus
→ electron e − + positron e +