GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

1st Grading - Second Semester

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is a model used to explain the behavior of
matter. It is based on a series of postulates.

Kinetic energy - energy in motion

 Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion.

 The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.
 There is space between particles. The amount of space in between particles is
related to the substance's state of matter.
 Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes
sufficiently.
 There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces. The
strength of these forces increase as particles get closer together.

INTERmolecular forces
- forces that exist between molecules.
- weaker
- determine the physical properties of molecules

1. Dipole-dipole forces
- occur when the partially positively charged part of a molecule interacts
with the partially negatively charged part of the neighboring molecule.
- strongest intermolecular force of attraction

2. Hydrogen bonding
- is a special kind of dipole-dipole interaction
-occurs specifically between a hydrogen atom bonded to either an oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine atom.
 - a relatively strong force of attraction between molecules, and
considerable energy is required to break hydrogen bonds.

HYDROGEN JUST WANNA HAVE FON

the partially positive end of hydrogen is attracted to the partially negative end of
the oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine of another molecule.

3. Ion-dipole
- The ions and the oppositely charged ends of the polar water molecules
overcome the attraction between ions themselves.
- Each ion becomes separated and water molecules cluster around it.
- Commonly found in solutions
- a cation attracts the partially negative end of a neutral polar molecule.

4. London dispersion forces

- weakest
- exist between all types of molecules
- The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger the London dispersion
forces are.

INTRAmolecular forces
- are the forces that hold atoms together within a molecule.
- are relatively weaker than intermolecular forces.
- van der Waals forces - intermolecular forces of attraction in a pure
substance

1. Ionic bond
- formed by the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms.
- generates two oppositely charged ions.
2. Covalent bond
- formed between atoms that have similar electronegativities—the affinity
or desire for electrons

Non-Polar Covalent Bond Polar Covalent Bond

 Formed between same atoms or  Formed when atoms of slightly
atoms with very similar different electronegativities share
electronegativities. electrons

 The difference in electronegativity  The difference in electronegativity

between bonded atoms is less than between bonded atoms is between
0.5 0.5 and 1.9

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND THEIR MOLECULAR FORCES

Cohesion Adhesion
 Intermolecular attraction between  Attraction between UNLIKE
LIKE molecules molecules

 Between the molecules in a liquid  Between the molecules and the

surface of another substance

1. Surface tension
- the measure of the elactic force in the surface of a liquid
- allows needles and paper clips to float in water if placed carefully on the
surface.
- strong intermolecular forces = high surface tension
- tend to pull the molecules into the liquid and cause the surface to tighten like
an elastic film or “skin”.
- measured in dynes/cm
2. Capillary action
- the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be drawn into small
openings such as those between grains of a rock.
- The narrower the tube, the higher the liquid will reach.
- the result of cohesive and adhesive forces.

3. Viscosity
- stronger molecular force = higher liquid viscosity
- strong intermolecular force = low vapor pressure
- high viscosity = low speed
- high viscosity = stronger IMF = lower temperature
- UNIT: poise (P)

Greater cohesive force - convex

Lesser cohersive forces - concave

VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS

Vapor - gas phase above a substance that exists as solid or liquid at 25 degrees
Celsius and 1 atm

# of molecules that go into the gaseous state = number of molecules that condense
back
Rate of condensation = rate of evaporation

The gas in the container is in EQUILIBRIUM with the liquid

No net change occurs
Molecules still are changing
EQUILIBRIUM VAPOR PRESSURE
- pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium with a liquid in a closed
container at a given temperature.

Higher # of gaseous particles = higher pressure

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
- solid in which the constituent particles have an orderly arrangement.

Crystal lattices (unit cell) - smallest repeating pattern of crystalline solid

Types of Crystalline Solids

1. Metallic Crystals
2. Ionic Crystals

3. Molecular Crystals
4. Covalent Network Crystals
Polymorphism - molecules or ions that can assume more than one stable
arrangement in the solid state
Allotropes - different molecular forms or various crystal modification of a
polymorphous element

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
- solid that does not always adopt the same form.
- have a random orientation of particles (randomly arranged)
- soften first and melt little by little

PHASE DIAGRAM
- a graphic summary of the physical state of a substance as a function of
temperature and pressure in a closed system.

High pressure + low temperature = solid phase

Low pressure + high temperature = gas phase
High temperature + high pressure = supercritical fluid
HEATING CURVE
- a graph showing the temperature of a substance plotted against the amount
of energy it absorbed.

Freezing - liquid to solid

Melting - solid to liquid
Condensation - gas to liquid
Vaporization - liquid to gas

COOLING CURVE
- shows how the temperature changes as a substance is cooled down.

3Ps: Plateau, Phase Change, Potential Energy Change.

Solution - homogenous mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent

Concentration of a solution:
- a macroscopic property
- represents the amount of solute dissolved in a unit amount of solvent or of
solution
- can be expressed in a variety of ways (qualitatively and quantitatively).

QUALITATIVE EXPRESSIONS OF CONCENTRATION

 Dilute - a solution that contains a small proportion of solute relative to solvent

 Concentrated - a solution that contains a large proportion of solute relative to
solvent.

SEMI-QUANTITATIVE EXPRESSIONS OF CONCENTRATION

 Unsaturated - more solute will dissolve

 Saturated - no more solute will dissolve
QUANTITATIVE EXPRESSIONS OF CONCENTRATIONS

 Percent Composition (by mass)

 Molarity (M) - the number of moles of solute in exactly 1 liter of a solution.
 Molality (m) - the number of moles of solute in exactly 1 kilogram of solvent
 Mole Fraction - X of a component to the total number of moles of all
components in the solution.

STOICHIOMETRY
- a section of chemistry that involves using relationships between
reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction to determine desired
quantitative data.
Stoikheim - element; metron - measure

 Aqueous means dissolved in water, it is written as (aq). The solvent is water.

 Aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water.
Example, a solution of table salt or sodium chloride or known as salt solution.
 Solute is the substance that gets dissolved
 Solution a mixture of solute and solvent (Types: gas - gas, gas - liquid, gas –
solid, liquid – liquid, liquid – solid, liquid – gas, solid – solid, solid – liquid, and
solid - gas).
 Solvent is the liquid that dissolves solute
 Concentration means, how much solute is dissolved per volume of solution.
 Molarity (M) is expressed as the number moles of solute PER LITER of
solution. Its unit is mol/L.
 Molality (m) is expressed as the number moles of solute PER KILOGRAM of
solution. Its unit is mol/kg or molal.
 Mole is the SI unit of amount of substance of a specified elementary entity. Its
magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the Avogadro constant to be
exactly 6.022 x 1023