Employee management & motivation Page 1

EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
2. INTRODUCTION
Employee retention is one of the most significant factors
in the field of human asset the bond. Capable and faithful
employees are a base for effective organization, and hence
bolding them is essential. Preparing new workers is tedious
and requires more assets, in the way more drawn out a
representative remains with the organization, the better is
for association.
Employee motivation is the key factor to up the capacity
of an association. In the globalization stage, each
organization need to continue itself in a furiously far used
market. Representatives are the fundamental elements to
show the business objectives into the real word.
Motivation has been extensively researched. In the mid
twentieth century the foremost significant motivational
theories come up, namely MASLOW’s hieranrchy of need
(1943), HERZBERG’s two –factor theory(1959) and VROOM’s
expectancy theory (1964). Those researched centered on
motivation in general and employee motivation more
particularly. In the preceding years different definitions of
motivation were defined, Herzberg (1959) defined
employee motivation as performing a work related action
because you want to.

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 Normally it is agreed that employee motivation can be
distinguished in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (staw
1976) staw indicates that one indicates of the first efforts to
make that distinction was Herzberg’s two factor theory.
Never the less, the discourse on intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation is more from latter years (Amabile, 1993 and
Deci & Ryan 2000). The discourse on how intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation can enhance employee performance
(ramlall 2008, 128).
Managers are continually challenged to motivate a
workforce to do two things. The first challenged is to
motivate employee to work toward helping achieve goals.
The second is to motivated employee to work toward
achieving their personal goals.

Meeting the needs and achieving the goals , of the both

employer and the employee is often difficult for managers
in all types of organization. In healthcare , however, this is
often more difficult , in part as a result of the complexity of
healthcare organizations, but also as a function of the wide
array of employee who are employed by or collaboratively
with healthcare providers in delivering and paying for care.
the types of workers run the gamut from highly trained and
skill technical and clinical staff members to relatively
unskilled workers.

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 2. SURVEY 0F LITERATURE
Bartol and martin (1998) consider motivation a pawerful
tool reinforces behavior and triggers the tendency to
continue. Behaviour motivation is an internal drive to satify
an unstified need and to achieve a certain goal. It is also a
procedure that begins through a physiological or
psychological need that stimulates a performance set by an
objective.

As kallimullah (2010) suggested, a motivated employee has

his/her goals alinged with those of the organigation and
directs his/her efforts in that direction. in addition,thee
organizations are more successful ,as their employees
continuously look for ways to reach their work. Getting the
employees to reach their full potential at work under
stressful condition is a tuogh challenge, but this can be
achieve by motivating them.
On the other hand, Marry (1996) explains organization
effectiveness as the extent to which an organization fulfills
its objectives, by using certain resources and without
placing strain on its members.

The goal model defines organization effectiveness referring

to the exent to wthich an organization attains its objectives
(Zammuto, 1982), while the system resource model defines
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it in terms of the barganing power of the organization and
its ability to exploit the environment when acquiring
valuable resources(Yuchtman, 1987)
As campared to financial resources, human resources have
the capability to create competetive advantage for their
organizations.
Generly speaking, employee performance depend on a
number of factors , such as motivation ,appraisals, job
satification, traninig and development and on so, but this
paper focuses only on employee motivation, as it has been
shown influence to a singnificant degree the organizational
performance.

motivation strategies:-
The literature provides an array of strategies far managers
to use in seeking to help motivate indivuals. Some of these
seem very obvious, while others represent the “tried and
true” approaches to management. Still others represent
innvotion.

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 3.CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION
According to a motive is “sometjhing (a need or disired) that
causes a person to act.”Motivate ,in turn means “to
provide whith a motive”and motivation is defined as the act
or process of motivating.
Thus Motivation is the act or process of providing a motive
that causes a person to take some actoin. In most cases
motivation comes need that lead to behavior that result in
some type of reward when the need is fulfilled. This
definition raises a couple of basic questions.

3.1 Who Motivates employees?

While reward may serve as incentives and those who
bestow reward may seek to use them as motivators ,the
real motivation to act comes from whithin the individual.
Managers do exert a significant amount of influence over
their employees, but they do not have the power to force a
person to act.
They can work provide vrious types of incentives in an
effort to influence an employee in any number of ways ,
such as by changing job description, rerranging work
schedules, improving working conditions,reconfiguring
teams,and a host of other activities, as will be discussed
later in this chapter. While these may have an impact on an
employee’s level of motivation and willngness to act , when
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all is said and done ,it is the employee’s decision to take
action or not. In discussing management and motivation, it
will be important to continually remember the roles of
manager and employees in the proccess of motivation.

3.2 Is Everybody motivated?

As manager , we often assume that employees are
motivated or will respond to inducements from managers.
While this is perhaps a logical and rational approach from
manager perspective , it is critical to understand that this is
not always the case.
While the majority of employees do, in fact, want to do a
good job and are motivated by any number of factors ,
other may not share that same drive or high level
motivation.
Those folks may merely be putting in time and may be more
motivated by other things , such as family , school ,
hobbies , or interests. Keeping this in mind is useful in
helping managers understand employee behaviors that
seem to be counter-productive,
3.3 What are Reward?
Reward can take two forms. They can be either
intrinsic/internal rewards or extrinsic/external ones.

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Intrinsic rewards : are derived from whithin the individual.
For ahealthcare employee this could means taking pride
and feeling good abour a job well done (providing excellent
patient care).
Extrinsic rewards : pertain to rewards that are given by
another person , such as a helthcare organization giving
binuses to teams of workers when quality and patient
satifaction are demonstrated to be exceptionnal.

The word motivate is frequently used in the context of

management as atransitive verb: motivation is by
implication something done by one person or group to
onther. A further implication of this usage is that the
motivated parties need to be induced to perform some
action or expend adegree of effort which they would not
otherwise wish to do. That this is an issue of vital
importance to the prosperity of commercial organization is
emphasized by LAWER(1973):
“Those individual behaviors that are crucial in determinings
the effectiveness of organization are, almost without
exception, volutary motivated behaviour”.
Motivation concern that “psychological processes that
cause the arousal,direction and persistence of
behavior”(Ilgen and Klein,n1998). Whilst there is general
agreement in the literature about these three components

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of motivation (Korman 1974,Kanfer 1990), the nature and
place of motivation in a work-related context been the
subject of long and developing study.

Theories have been propounded,tested and surperseded at

a pace which has left organizational practice often several
steps behind the researchers. The following pages will
attempt to document the main themes and the most widely
recognigezed theories. Employee motivation has always
been a central problem for leaders and managers.
Unmotivated employees are likely to spend little or not
effort in their jobs, aviod the workplace as much as
possible, exit the organization if given the opportunity and
produce low quality work.
On the other hand, employee who feel motivated to work
are likely to be persistent, creative and productive, turning
out high quality work that they willingly undertake.
There has been a lot of research done on motivation by
many scholars , but the behavior of groups of people to try
to find out why it is that every employee of a company does
not perform at their best has been comparatively
unresearched. Employees very well and use difrent tactics
to motivate each of them based on their personal wants
and need.

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 4. TYPES AND THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
TYPES OF MOTIVATION:-
1. Intrinsic motivation
2. Extrinsic motivation
3. Positive motivation
4. Negative motivation
5. Reword-based /Incentive motivation
6. Fear-based motivation
7. Achievement-based motivation

1. Intrinsic Motivation:-
Intrinsic motivation is a type of
motivation in which an individual is being motivated by
internal desire.
For examples, let’s say an individual named Bob has
define himself an objective to start shedding pound and
getting more beneficial. How about we likewise envision
that Bob’s motivation to seek after this way of wellness
and feel more joyful with his appearance. Since bob’s
craving to change originates from insides, his inspiration
is intrinsic.

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 2. Extrinsic Motivation:-
Extrinsic motivation on the other
hand, is a type of motivation in which an individual is
being motivated by external desires.
Instead of being inspired by the need to look better and
feel more beneficial, suppose that bob’s was feeling
pressure from his significant other to thin down and
improve physical make up with the goal that she would
be more pulled in to him. Since this weight originates all
things considered this is an example of extrinsic
motivation.

3. Positive Motivation:-
In real sense, motivation means
positive motivation. Positive motivation is initiates
individual to do work in the most ideal way and to
improve their presentation. Under this better offices and
prizes are accommodated their better execution. Such
reward and offices might be money related and non-
monetary.

4. Negative motivation:-
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 Negative motivation aims at
controlling the negative endeavors of the work and tries
to make a feeling of dread for the laborer. Which he need
to languish over absence of good execution. It defend on
the idea that if a laborer flops in accomplishing the ideal
outcome, he ought to be rebuffed.
MINOR FORMS OF MOTIVATION-
All types of motivation are going to fall into one of
the two categories above. Now that we have covered
these motivational type and provide you with some
examples here are minor forms of motivation that are
capable of making big impact in your life!

5. Reword-Based Motivation or Incentive Motivation :-

Reward based or incentive motivation is
types of motivation that is utilized when you or others
know that they will be a reward once a certain goal is
achieved. Since there will be something to anticipate
toward the of an errand, individuals will regularly turn
out to be increasingly resolved to oversee the
undertaking with the goal that they can get whatever it is
that has been guaranteed. The better the prize, the more
grounded the inspiration will be!

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 6. Fear-Based Motivation:-
The word “Fear” carries a heavy
negative meaning but when it comes to be motivation, this
is not necessarily the case. Anyone who is big on goal-
setting and achievement knows that accountability plays a
huge role in following through on goals.
At the point when you become responsible either to
somebody you care about or to be the overall population,
you make an inspiration for yourself that is established in
the dread of disappointment. This dread encourage you do
your vision with the goals that you don’t bomb before the
individuals who know about your objective. Dread based
inspiration is incredibly ground-braking as long as the
felling of dread is sufficiently able to keep you from
stopping.

7. Achievement-Based Motivation:-
Titles, position, and
roles throughout jobs and other areas of our lives are
very important to us. Those who are constantly driven to
acquire these positions and earn titles for themselves are
typically dealing with achievement-based motivation.

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DEFFERENT BETWEEN INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC
MOTIVATION:-

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Motivation can be classified as intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic or internal motivation and extrinsic or
external motivation. The two motivation differ in the
source of pressure or pleasure that boost each of them.
Amabile (1993) elaborates further, by saying the followings.
 Individual are intrinsically motivated when they seek
enjoyment, interest, satisfaction of curiosity, or
personal challenge in the work.
 Individuals are extrinsically motivated when they
engage in the work in order to obtain some goal that
is apart from the work itself (amabile 1993)

Intrinsic motivation
This type of motivation comes out from an individual
pleasure or interest in the task and it does not involve
working on activities for the sake of external rewards, it
instead necessitates the feeling of inner pleasure in the
activity itself. It can be seen as a force that involves doing
activities without external incentive. According to
Amabile (1993), individuals are intrinsically motivated
when they seek enjoyment, interest, satisfaction of
curiosity, self-expression, or personal challenge in the
work (Amabile 1993, 185-201).

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 Extrinsic motivation
It is the opposite of intrinsic motivation, it regards the
carrying out of an action in order to achieve an external
rewards. The source of extrinsic motivation is from an
individual physical environment. More job benefits,
bigger salary, incentives and job promotion are some
rewards that leads to extrinsic motivation. (Deci 1972,
217-229) describes extrinsic motivation as money and
verbal reward, mediated outside of a person, on the
other hand intrinsic motivation is mediated inside the
person. A person can be intrinsically motivated to do a
task if there is no clear reward for the task done except
the task itself or the feelings which upshot from the task.
Amabile (1993) argues that employees can either be
intrinsically or extrinsically motivated or even both.
(Amabile 1993, 185-201)

It is obvious that intrinsic and extrinsic motivators apply

differently to persons. Vroom (1964) indicates that some
employees concentrate on intrinsic outcomes while
others are centered on extrinsic outcome. According to
Story et al. (2009), individuals high in intrinsic motivation
seem to prefer challenging cognitive tasks and can self-
regulate their behaviours, so, offering rewards, settling
external goals or deadlines, will do little for them, unless
they are also high in extrinsic motivation. For employees
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 that are high in intrinsic motivation, emphasis could be
placed on the engaging nature of the task and
encouragement of self-set goals and deadlines (Story et al
2009). Furnham et al (1998) argue that introverts are
more extrinsically motivated and extraverts are more
intrinsically motivated. However, it does not only seems
that persons are differently motivated but intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation also have effect on each other. (Story
et al 2009, 391-395)

Relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation:-

The difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

is apparent, yet researchers argues that intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation also have an effect on each other.
Deci (1972) claims that in some cases extrinsic motivation
can minify intrinsic motivation. He argues that if money is
administered contingently, it minifies intrinsic
motivation. But this event will not occur if the money is
noncontingently distributed. Amabile (1993) respond to
this discussion by stating that although extrinsic
motivation can work in opposition to intrinsic motivation,
it can also have a reinforcing effect: ”once the scaffolding
of extrinsic motivation is taken care of, intrinsic
motivation can can lead to high levels of satisfaction and

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 performance”. She went further to state in her research
that both intrinsic and extrinsic values can motivate
employees to do their respective work, however intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation can have very different effects
on employees. (Amabile 1993)

In conclusion, it can be stated that employees can be

intrinsically and or extrinsically motivated to carry out
certain work (Amabile, 1993), and that extrinsic and
intrinsic motivation can reinforce each other, but in some
cases extrinsic motivators can also minify intrinsic
motivation (Deci 1972). Moreover, researchers, argue
that not all people are evenly motivated, some
employees are more intrinsically and others are more
extrinsically motivated (Furnham 1998).

Motivation in the workplace is a broadly researched

topic (Rynes 2004) earlier research has been conducted
by Maslow (1943) and Herzberg (1959), who were
innovators at their subject. Many definition has been
composed, e.g. Herzberg’s definition of motivation in the
workplace is: performing a work related action because
you want to (Herzberg, 1959). Some divergence took
place about the important of certain aspects, but
consensus is in the fact that motivation is an individual
pro- 8 cess, it is described as being deliberate, it is
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 multifaceted and that the purpose of motivational
theories is to predict behavior (Mitchell 1982.) The
difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is
also explained. Namely, individuals are intrinsically
motivated when they look for pleasure, interest,
satisfaction, enjoyment and curiosity, self-expression or
personal challenges in the work. And individual are
extrinsically motivated when they engage in the work in
order to gain some goal that is apart from the work itself
(Amabile, 1993). Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators
are necessary in motivating employees (Herzberg, 1959).
It must be argued that managers must not only
concentrate on the necessary factors, since, according to
Herzberg (1959) managers need to address all hygiene
and factor to motivate to employee.

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 Theories on Motivation

Contrary to Maslow’s views, the short answer appears to

be the fact that for the majority of people, money is
clearly significant and a motivator at work. But to what
extent is money a significant motivator and how
important depends upon their individual circumstances
and the other happiness they derive from work. The
bottom line is definitely the extent to which money
motivates people to work to the top of their abilities.
Even though pay may still compose people tick, there are
now a number of other significant influences on
motivation. For a lot of people, the feeling of being
recognized and valued appears more important than
money in motivating them to keep on in a particular job.
(Laurie 2007)

Therefore, motivation has been an issue of concern in the

past and has established itself as an integral part in
current organizational settings. Motivation is quite
complex to comprehend thus placing awareness to the
fact that several factors influence employees
performance in a particular organization. Reason being
that, what motivates one worker will not definitely
motivate the other employee within the same company.

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 McShane et al defines motivation as “...a factor that exist
in an individual which has the potential to affect the way,
strength and eagerness of behaving towards work”.
(McShane & Von Glinow 2003) The above definition of
motivation has been supported by Petri & Govern,
“motivation is the thought that explains the propelling
force in an individual that explains differences in intensity
of behavior”. (Petri & Govern 2004).
Motivated employees are willing to devote time to
certain level of commitment for a particular objective in
an organization. Certain actions which include changing
jobs that employees perform, bringing down the levels of
hierarchy and relegating many employees in the
motivation process are significant enough to damage the
levels of trust and commitment necessary for employees
to perform above work requirements. Moreover,
employee needs are changing as younger generations of
employees have different expectations to their work than
older workers. This is as a result of globalization which
has made workforce variations to the complex issue of
motivation. (McShane & Von Glinow 2003) Many studies
had been carried out on the issue of motivation. The
theories of motivation seek to justify why certain
employees act or do things in a certain way rather than
others. For the purpose of this research I considered the
following theories to be vital in this study: the Maslow’s

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 hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s Motivation–hygiene
theory, Fifty-Fifty theory and Vroom’s Expectancy theory.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Different scholars have put forth different explanations
on how motivation can be achieved within a company or
an organization. Prominent amongst them is Maslow
with the theory of “Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs”.
Consequently, Maslow in 1943 reasoned that human
beings have an internal need pushing them on towards
self actualization (fulfillment) and personal superiority.
Maslow came up with the view that there are five
different levels of needs and once we happen to satisfy a
need at one stage or level of the hierarchy it has an
influence on our behavior. At such level our behavior
tends to diminish, we now put forth a more powerful
influence on our behavior for the need at the next level
up the hierarchy.
Firstly, individuals are motivated by Psychological needs:
By Maslow this psychological needs forms the basic need
for survival and this may include food, warmth, clothing
and shelter. When people are hungry, don’t have shelter
or clothing, there are more motivated to fulfill these need
because these needs become the major influence on their
behavior. But on the other hand when people don’t have
a deficiency in those 8 basic needs (psychological needs),
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 their needs tend to move to the second level where it is
equally seen by Maslow as the higher order of needs. The
second level is seen as the security needs: Security tends
to be the most essential need to people at this level. This
is expressed in safety in the employee’s health and
family. The third level of needs by Maslow was the social
needs. When feeling secured and safe at work,
employees will now place job relations as their focus that
is trying to build up a good friendship, love and intimacy.
As we keep moving up the lader we will have selfesteem
needs: This fourth level of needs by Maslow presents the
recognition to be accepted and valued by others. The
highest or last level of Maslow’s need is selfactualization
needs: Self actualization was to develop into more and
more what one is to become all that one is competent of
becoming. (Srivastava 2005) Figure 1 illustrates Maslow´s
five hierarchy of needs
Self-actualisation
personal growth and fulfilment

Esteem needs
Achievement, status, responsibility,reputation

Belongingness and love needs

Family, affection, relationship, work group, etc

Safety needs
Protection, security, order, low, limits, stability,etc

Biological and Physiological needs

Figure 1 Abraham Maslow's
Basic life needs-air, food, drink, shelter,warmth, sleep, etc

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Critiques of Maslow’s theory
Wahba and Bridgewell in their extensive review of
Maslow's theory found little evidence for the ranking of
needs which Maslow described or even the existence of a
definite hierarchy. Maslow’s theory has been criticized for
this apparent rigidity. It is questionable whether needs can
always be ranked in a simple hierarchical form. Maslow
himself questions the validity of a rigid ordering of needs,
because individuals are likely to have different priorities.
(Needham 1999)

Herzberg’s two factor theory

Herzberg(2003) further modified Maslow’s need theory and
consolidated down to two areas of the needs that
motivated employees. these were termes.

 MOTIVATORS- These emphasized higher level factors

and focused on aspects of work, such as “achievement,
recognition for achievement, the work itself,
responsibility and growth advancement”.

Herzberg had the notion that those factors which

cause job satisfaction are the opposite to those that causes
job dissatisfaction. Herzberg survey was carried from a

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group of accountants and engineers. Herzberg in his studies
came up with the conclusion that employees are influenced
by two factors that are; the motivators and hygiene factors.
Motivators create job satisfactions which include
achievement, recognition, autonomy and other intrinsic
aspects when there are fulfilled. On the other hand he came
up the hygiene factors which will enhance dissatisfaction
when they are not fulfilled. Motivators are those factors
which provide feeling of job satisfaction at work. These
factors influence the ways of work in a company; for
example giving responsibility to carry an enlarge task within
an organization and providing the person with the
necessary conditions will lead to growth and advancement
to higher level tasks. Motivators are those factors which
come from within an individual that is intrinsic. These
factors could be achievements, interest in the task,
responsibility of enlarge task, growth and advancement to
higher level. Herzberg hygiene factors create a suitable
work environment though not increase in satisfaction. For
instance low pay can cause job dissatisfaction which will
affect employees’ performance. Hygiene factors are
essential to make sure that the work environment does not
develop into a disgruntle situation. Typical hygiene factors
are salary, working condition, status, company policies and
administration. (Saiyadain 2009)

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 Fifty-Fifty Theory

The fifty-fifty theory was developed by John Adair as a

motivational factor that could influence company
performance. From his perception fifty percent of
motivation comes from within a person and the remaining
fifty percent comes from the environment, mainly from
people around us. This rule is not used to declare the exact
proportions, but it tries to explain that, fifty per cent of our
motivation comes from within us and fifty per cent from an
external influence, that is, from our environment,
particularly from the people around us. These observations
are indicative rather than mathematical and they may differ
from person to person. Within these important external
factors the nature and quality of the leadership present is
essentially important. Hence the tough link between
leadership and motivation becomes vital to determine
employee’s motivation. The Fifty-Fifty rule does have the
benefit of reminding leaders that they have a key role to
play for the success or failure in the motivation of
employees at work. Fortunately or unfortunately not all the
cards are in their hands, for they are dealing with people
who are self motivating in various degree. These are the
challenges that confront the HRM to galvanize employee
motivation with the work environment. (John 2007).

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 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

The concept of the expectancy theory was first develop by

Victor Vroom and was published in 1964.Victor Vroom
offered an expectancy approach to the understanding of
motivation. As a result, motivation is a product of the
anticipated value to a person in an action. He perceived
probability that the person’s goals would be accomplished
as a product of the anticipated value in an action. Thus the
Vroom’ model is built around the concepts of value,
expectancy and force. The concept of force is on the whole
equivalent to motivation and may be shown to be the
algebraic sum of the products of valences and expectations
Thus,
Motivation (force) = Valence x Expectancy
Valence is the strength of an individual’s preference
for an outcome or goal. The strength may be negative (fear
demotion or transfer to less important job) or positive
(prospect for promotion). Expectancy is the probability that
a particular action will lead to a required outcome. If the
employee has a particular goal, some behavior has to be
produced to accomplish that goal. The employee has to
weigh the likelihood of various behaviors that will
accomplish the desired goals and select the most successful
behavior. Thus the employee’s motivation according to

Employee management & motivation Page 27

Vroom may be augmented by changing the perception or by
boosting the expectancy level through better
communication and augmenting the actual reward that will
result. Vroom’s theory clarifies the relationship between
the employee and the organizational goals and recognizes
the differences between employees in producing work
motivation. Furthermore, this theory is consistent with the
idea that a manager’s job is to design an environment for
performance, necessarily taking into account the
differences in various situations. Thus Vroom’s theory is
quite consistent with management by objectives. However,
this theory is difficult to research and is confronted with
practical difficulties in its application. (Bose 2004).
Vroom tackles three beliefs and brings out with some clarity
and applicability. Each of the beliefs deals with what
employees think will happen if they put out effort to
perform. The first (B1) comprises of the relationship
between effort and performance, that is, (B1) is the
employee’s belief about the probability that effort will lead
to performance. Another definition is that, B1 is the
expectation that effort will lead to success. (B1) can be seen
as the employee’s belief about whether or not what is
expected can be done. The second (B2) comprises with the
relationship between performance and outcomes, that is,
the employee’s belief about the probability that
performance will lead to outcomes. B2 can be stated in
different ways, that is the employee’s belief about the
Employee management & motivation Page 28
relationship between “what you do” and “what you get.” It
is the belief about outcomes following performance and the
third (B3) looks at the relationship between outcomes and
satisfaction. The third belief (B3) is the employee’s belief
about how satisfying or gratifying the outcomes will be. It is
the belief about how fulfilling or worthwhile they will be. It
is the belief about how much value the outcomes will have
in the future when they are received, rather than what their
value is now. (Green 1992

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

The three components identified by Alderfer(1972) drew
upon maslow’s theory, but also suggested that individual
were motivated to move forward and backward through
the levels in tems of motivators. He reduced maslow’s
levels from five to the following three:
 Existence- which related to maslow first two need ,
thus combining the physiological and safety needs into
one levels;
 Relatedness- which addressed the belonging needs;
and
 Growth- which pertains to the last two needs, thereby
combining and self-actualization

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Alderfer also added his frustration-regression principle,
which postulated that individuals would move in and out
the various levels, depending upon the extent to which
their needs were being met. This approach is deemed by
student of management to be more logical and similar to
many individual’s world views.

McClelland,s Acquired Needs theory-

The idea here is that needs are acquired throughout
life. That is, needs are not innate, but are learned or
developed as a result of one’s life experiences
(macClelland, 1985). This theory focuses on three
types:
 Achievement- which emphasizes the desire for
success for mastering tasks and for attaining
goals;
 Affiliation- which focuses on the desire for
relationship and association with others
 Power- which related to the desire for
responsibility for control of, and authority over
others.

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Extrinsic Factor Theories of Motivation
Another approach to understanding motivation focuses on
external factors and their role in understanding employee
motivation. The best known of these is:

 Reinforcement - B.F. Skinner(1953) studied human

behaviour and proposed that individuals are motivated
when their behaviours are reinforced. His theory is
comprised of four types of reinforcement , the first
two are associated with achieving desirable
behaviours, while the last two address undesirable
behaviour:
 Positive reinforcement – related to taking are taken
to reward positive behaviours;
 Avoidance learning – occurs when actions are taken
to reward behaviours that avoid undesirable or
negative behaviours. This is sometimes referred to as
negative reinforcement;
 Punishment – includes action designed to reduce
undesirable behaviours by creating negative
consequences for the individual;
 Extinction – presents the removal of positive reword
for undesirable behaviours.
The primary criticism of the reinforcement approach is that
it fails to account for employees’ abilities to think critically

Employee management & motivation Page 31

and reason, both of which are important aspects of human
motivation. While reinforcement theory may be applicable
in animals, it doesn’t account for the higher level of
cognition that occurs in humans.

Intrinsic Factor Theories of Motivation –

Theories that are based on intrinsic or endogenous factors
are focus on internal thought processes and perception
about motivation. Several of these are highlighted below:

 Adam’s Equity theory – which proposed that

individual are motivated when they perceive that they
are treated equitably in comparison to other within
the organization (Adams 1963);
 Vroom’s Exepectancy Theory – which addresses the
expectations of individual and hypothesized that they
are motivated by performance and the expected
outcomes of their own behaviours (Vroom 1964);
 Locke’s Gaol Setting Theory – which hypothesized
that by establishing goals individuals are motivated to
take action achieve those goals(Locke & Latham 1990)
While each of these theories deals with a particulars aspect
of motivation, it seems unrealistic to address them in
isolation, since these factors often do come into play in and
are important to employee motivation at one time or
another.
Employee management & motivation Page 32