Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

The Chemical Earth

Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory
Classification of Matter: Matter

Pure Substance: has a constant and definite composition and cannot be separated into two or more substances by physical or mechanical means

Mixture: Can be separated into two or more pure substances (which retain their properties) by physical or mechanical means

Element: a pure substance which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances e.g. gold/iodine

Compound: a pure substance which can be decomposed into simpler substances e.g. water/table salt

Homogenous: substances with uniform composition throughout (can also be pure substances) e.g. water/petrol

Heterogeneous: substances having non-uniform with different portions having different compositions e.g. wood/ice water

Properties of Matter: The physical properties of a substance can be observed or measured without changing the composition and identity of a substance Physical properties include colour, density, melting point (MP), boiling point (BP), electrical conductivity and heat conductivity Chemical properties can only be observed during chemical reactions A chemical reaction is any process in which the identity and composition of at least one substance is changed Thus they can only be observed when a new substance forms

Solutions: Any homogenous mixture of two or more substances Solutions consist of the two components; the solvent and the solute (or solutes) The solvent is the component present in the larger amount The solute is the component present in the smaller amount The solvent is the medium in which the solution has dissolved Any solution where the water is the solvent is an aqueous solution

Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Distinguishing Between Pure Substances and Mixtures: The melting point is the temperature at which the solid and liquid state are set to be at equilibrium The boiling point is the minimum temperature at which liquids are converted to vapours by heating i.e. the temperature at which vapour pressure = surrounding pressure A mixture will have a range of melting points (homogenous in this diagram) A pure substance will have a sharp definite melting point

Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and compounds
Sphere Biosphere Description The portion of the earth inhabited and used by living matter consisting of the other three spheres. Contains all living or once living organisms of the earth. Examples This refers to animals, plants, algae and bacteria which are mainly mixtures of compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins. Most are insoluble making up the structure whereas the soluble substances cause the functioning of the organism The crust and the top portion of Contains a diverse range of mixtures the mantle including land masses including rocks, sand, soil, mineral ores, and the ocean floor coal, oil and carbon. These mixtures are mainly made up of compounds of Si or O whereas there are very few uncombined elements such as Au, Ag, Pt, S and C The water of the earths crust Also contains a range of mixtures in such as salt water in oceans, fresh which the main component is H2O. The water in river or lakes and ground fresh water usually contains small water stored under the earths amounts of compounds from the surface elements H, O, Na, Cl, K, Mg and Ca. It also contains suspended solids and organisms meaning it is heterogeneous. Sea water is a mixture of NaCl and H2O whereas ground water is similar to river water with more compounds of Cl and S Layer of gas about 200 to 300 km Mixture of gases i.e. elements such as thick which surrounds the planet O2, N2, Ar and small compounds such as CO2 and CH4 2

Lithosphere

Hydrosphere

Atmosphere

Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of: solids of different sizes, solids and liquids, dissolved solids in liquids, liquids and gases
Properties of mixtures that can be used to separate components include: particle size, particle density, boiling point, melting point, magnetism, solubility and charge. The term used to describe the separation of these properties is known as physical separation method. Solids from solids: Magnetic separation - Uses magnetic properties of substances - Can be used to separate mixtures where not all substances are magnetic - Is usually used to separate iron ore from other minerals - Also used to separate valuable minerals such as ilmenite from beach sand Sieving - Uses the different sizes of substances to separate them - The equipment used (sieve) must contain holes that are between the size of the solids being separated - Is often used in kitchens as well as industrial uses including separating fine sand and gravel for concrete and mortar

Undissolved solids from liquids Sedimentations and decanting - Uses density of substances to separate them - The denser solid will fall to the bottom as sediment - The liquid can then be decanted, thus separating the two - This requires the solid to be insoluble - Can be used to decant sediment from wine Filtration - Uses different sizes of substances to separate them - If the solid remains suspended in the liquid - Then it can be filtered through filter paper and filter - The liquid will pass through becoming the filtrate - Whereas the solid will remain as the residue - Can be used to separate sand and water Centrifugation - Uses density and mass of substances to separate them - The spinning force of the centrifuge causes suspended solids to separate - This is due to the increasing rate at which they sick to the bottom - This method can be used to separate different parts of blood

Robin Nandy Dissolved solids from liquids (Solutions)

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Evaporation - This uses the different volatilities (ease at which substance changes into gas) of solvent and solute to separate them - The more volatile substance(usually the liquid) will evaporate first - This leaves the solute to crystallize into a solid but the solvent disappears - Salt water is separated using this method Distillation - This uses the dissimilar boiling points of substances - Can be used to separate solids and liquids but more frequently used to separate liquids

Liquids from liquids (miscible) Distillation and condensation This uses the dissimilar boiling points of two miscible liquids i.e. liquids that mix to form a solution The mixture is boiled, the vapours are collected and then they are condensed The liquid with the lower boiling point vaporises first and then the heating is stopped This vapour is then condensed and collected as the distillate

Fractional Distillation This also uses dissimilar boiling points but are for those have BPs close together (100 degree range) This is similar to normal distillation except for the use of column This fractionating column e.g. glass beads provides a surface on which the liquids can cool and condense The liquid with the lowest boiling point (highest volatility) reaches the top of the column and proceeds the condenser However liquids with higher boiling points condense more readily and trickle back down to the flask Can be used to separate crude oil

liquids which a fractionating

to

Robin Nandy Liquids from liquids (immiscible) -

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Separating funnel This uses the density and insolubility of the immiscible liquids to separate them Since these liquids have different densities they form distinct layers with a junction in between The tap is opened to let the denser liquid flow out and closed at the junction to retain the less dense liquid

Gases from gases Fractional distillation (same as before) however the gases must be first be liquefied by compressing them

Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth materials, identifying differences in properties which enable these separations
The separation of mixtures depends on the differences in the physical properties of the components. The separation technique applied is based on those differences If the mixture contains several substances, the order in which each is separated must be considered to ensure success of later steps Simplicity and practicality must also be considered Properties Used Magnetism Size Density and insolubility Size and insolubility Density and Mass Volatility (Boiling points) Boiling points Boiling points Density and insolubility

Separation Technique Magnetic separation Sieving Sedimentation and decanting Filtration Centrifugation Evaporation Distillation and condensation Fractional distillation Separating funnel

Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other scientists
To decide whether a newly discovered mineral deposit contains a sufficiently high percentage of the required compound to make its extraction from that deposit economically viable To determine composition of soil in a particular location to see if it is suitable for growing a certain crop 5

Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

To determine the amounts of particular substances present in water or air to decide how polluted samples are To decide whether a particular commercial mixture being sold has the same percentage composition as a similar mixture being marketed

Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory
In Ionic compounds: Cations come first and remain the same

In Acids:

In molecular compounds: The element with the more positive nature in a compound is named first. The second element is named with an -ide ending and prefixes are used to identify the relative number of atoms in such compounds Prefix Mono Di Tri Tetra Penta Hexa Hepta Octa Nona Deca Undeca Dodeca No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered

No. Of C Atoms Prefix 1 meth 2 eth 3 Prop 4 but 5 pent 6 hex 7 hept 8 oct 9 non 10 dec

Find the longest chain of carbon atoms and the number will give you one of the prefixes above If all bonds in this chain are single then it will be an alkane and thus end with the suffix ane e.g. butane If there is a double bond in the chain then it will be an alkene ending with the suffix ene e.g. butane If there is a triple bond in the chain it will be an alkyne ending with the suffix yne e.g. butyne If there are any alkyls (alkenes with ones less hydrogen atom) attached to these bonds then there will be a alkyl at the front with a number indicating on which part of the chain it is bonded e.g. 2-methylbutane

Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined element
Reactive elements are those that readily form other substances by reacting with other elements Thus the more reactive an element the more readily it will form compounds Most elements are found naturally occurring in compounds with very few occurring in their pure state Group 1, the alkali metals are the most reactive due to their 1 valence electron and thus makes them more likely to lose this and combine with other elements to achieve full electron configuration Group 2, the halogens are also very reactive due to their 7 valence electrons making them more likely to achieve full electronic configuration by attracting another electron Group 8, the noble gases are also known as inert gases because they do not react with anything at room temperature due to their stable electronic configuration of 8 outer shell electrons The reactivity of most transition metals vary however there are a few such as palladium, platinum and gold are also unreactive

Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical properties
Physical Property Metal Non-Metal State at room temperature Solid except mercury Solids or Gases except for bromine Lustre Shiny Dull Density High Low Conductivity (heat & electricity) Good Bad except carbon Strength High tensile strength Brittle Malleability Can be rolled into sheets Cannot Ductility Can be drawn into wires cannot There are several elements which are difficult to classify as they have properties from both classes. These are known as semi metals which include B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te

Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties
Metals are usually used for - building materials (strength, low reactivity) - cars, planes, trains (lustre, malleability, strength, densities) - machinery (MP, strength) - electrical wiring (conductivity, ductility, MP, low reactivity) - domestic appliances (conductivity, lustre) - jewellery (lustre, MP, malleability, tensile strength) Non-metals used in elemental form - Carbon (graphite) in electrodes, dry cells and as a lubricant - Oxygen for medical purposes - Chlorine for bleach, disinfectant and making plastic (PVC) - Argon for filling electric light bulbs - Many compounds of non-metals are used in fuels, fertilisers, synthetic materials, drugs, cosmetics and detergents

Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting
All matter is made of particles In solids these particles are packed closely together in an orderly array with strong forces holding them together This causes solids to have definite shapes and be relatively hard However they are not stationary but rather vibrating slightly in their fixed positions In liquids the particles are much more free as forces holding them together are relatively weak

Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Thus liquids do not have definite shapes but rather take the shape of the container they are placed in as they vibrate as well as make random translational movements In gases particles have very weak (basically none) forces of attraction and thus move very rapidly and spread out to fill the whole volume available Compressing particles refers to pushing them closer together Thus solids and liquids cannot be compressed much since they are already close together but gases can easily be compressed

Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms

Energy levels also known as shells refer to the orbital path of electrons around the nucleus of an atom Stating the number of electrons in each consecutive shell as a set of numbers is known as the electronic configuration The theoretical maximum number of electrons that can be contained in each energy level is represented by the formula 2n^2 8 valence shell electrons is a stable configuration

Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number

These Mass Numbers are the relative masses of atoms... obviously one atom has a very small value when measured in grams (1 hydrogen atom 1.7 x 10-27 kg) Mass numbers are always whole numbers, since there must be whole numbers of protons and neutrons in each atom, they are not the number on the periodic table but rather the atomic weight rounded to the nearest whole number Atomic number represent the number of protons that are present in an atom which is equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom

Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons

If an atom has an incomplete outer shell, it may either gain or lose electrons to obtain electron configuration of its nearest noble gas neighbour, thus becoming charged Atoms which have lost or gained electrons are charged and known as ions An atom is electrically neutral i.e. p+=e+ When atoms lose electrons it means that p+>e- therefore they have a positive charge and become cations When atoms gain electrons it means e->p+ therefore they have a negative charge and become anions

Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Apply the periodic table to predict the ions formed by atoms gaining or losing electrons
The periodic table can be used to predict the ions formed by metals and non-metals by observing their group Groups 1-3 will form cations with the charges respective to the numbers of the group Groups 5-7 will form anions with charges respective to the numbers of their opposite groups (1-3) Group 4 can vary, forming both positive and negative charges of 4 Group 8 does not produce ions as they have stable electronic configuration The transition metals have varying charges but all form cations

Apply Lewis electron dot structures to: - the formation of ions - the electron sharing in come simple molecules

The lewis dot electron dot diagrams of an atom simply show the symbol of the element and its outer shell electrons (represented by dots) e.g. To represent a cation, the dots are simply removed as it has lost electrons and the symbol stands alone with brackets and its charge e.g. To represent an anion, all (8) dots around the symbol will exist as it has gained electrons as well as brackets and the charge of the ion e.g. When representing ionic compounds, simply combine the two above e.g. When representing molecular compounds draw the atoms, sharing electrons e.g. The dots for the different atoms should be in different colours Here is an example of a more complex Lewis dot electron for ammonia e.g.

Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite charge
When an atom such as that of Na comes near an atom of Cl, the sodium loses its one electron to the chlorine and thus has more protons becoming a cation The chlorine which originally had 7 valence electrons now has a full shell of 8 and thus has become an anion The opposite charges of these ions cause electrostatic attraction and result in the formation of an ionic compound

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Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other

A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that is capable of separate existence They are like groups of atoms stuck together Thus they have the ability to move independently of each other

Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one atom
The molecules containing just one atom are known as monatomic molecules and are the noble gases They contain just one atom because they have a full electronic configuration and are therefore stable enough to exist alone However other elements such as oxygen and most other gases exist as diatomic molecules meaning they contain 2 atoms These bonds between molecules in a chemical reaction can be broken during chemical reactions such as the formation of H2O

Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing electrons

Covalent molecules are from covalent bonds that are formed between pairs of atoms by the sharing of electrons For example two chlorine atoms form a covalent molecule because each chlorine atom needs one electron to achieve full electronic configuration Thus they share one electron from each other and form a covalent bond thus becoming a covalent molecule

Construct formulae for compounds formed from: - Ions - Atoms sharing electrons
For ionic compounds, the formula is empirical and shows the ratio of each ion in the compound e.g. NaCl has a ratio of 1:1 For atoms sharing electrons (molecules) we use molecular formula which simply shows the amount of atoms of each element in each molecule e.g. water is H2O meaning there are 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom

Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of particles
Physical Changes: Can occur when a substance changes state, size, shape and is dissolved or separated from a mixture No new substances have been created and the particles of the substance remain the same 11

Robin Nandy Chemical changes:

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Can occur when a substance burns, two elements combine to form a compound, a new substance forms or disappears In this type of reaction, new particles are formed but atoms remain the same they have been rearranged into new molecules or ions

Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the difference between physical and chemical changes
Boiling of water (Physical Change) Heat is the energy applied to the liquid water This heat energy causes the intermolecular forces between the various H20 molecules to break This results in the formation of H20 gas or water vapour Since the H20 molecules are still present, no new substances have been formed and none have disappeared This indicates it is a physical change

Electrolysis of water (Chemical Change) Electricity is the energy applied to the water This electricity causes the intramolecular forces between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the individual molecules to break This results in the formation of O2 and H2 molecules The H20 molecules have disappeared and the new substance in the form of oxygen and hydrogen molecules have formed This indicates that it is a chemical change

Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday life
Decomposing a compound into elements requires a large input of energy because it is necessary to overcome the strong chemical bonds holding the atoms together in compounds Synthesis is the formation of a compound and because the high reactivity of most natural elements, this reaction releases a tremendous amount of energy. Recall that atoms release energy as they become stable.

Form of Energy Heat

Light

Synthesis (released) When copper or steal rusts to form iron(III)oxide it releases heat energy Silver magnesium burns in air to produce magnesium oxide 12

Decomposition (absorbed) Motor car air bags where sodium azide is decomposed to sodium and nitrogen gas (by igniting with a detonating cap) Silver chloride is a white solid which turns purple then black due exposure to the sunlight

Robin Nandy Electricity

Year 11 Chemistry Lightning causes nitrogen and oxygen in the air to form NO (nitric oxide)

The Chemical Earth

Aluminium is extracted commercially by electrolysing molten aluminium oxide

Explain the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them
The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound either due to the electrostatic attraction in ionic compounds or intramolecular forces of molecular compounds the more energy required to break the compound into elements Alternatively the stronger the chemical bonding, the more energy released when the compound is formed from its elements

Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and mixtures
Elements and Compounds are all pure substances Each element, and each compound has its own unique properties which are characteristic and do NOT vary Compounds have different properties from the elements that it is made of Mixtures are not pure. The properties of mixtures are usually a blend of the properties of its parts, and vary according to its exact composition. An example of the differences in properties can be seen through the comparison of magnesium oxide, magnesium and oxygen: Properties State Colour Reaction with acid Magnesium Solid Silver H2 gas evolved Oxygen Gas Colourless No reaction Magnesium oxide Solid White No reaction

Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network
The main physical properties used to distinguish between covalent networks and covalent molecular are MP, BP and hardness The MP and BP differ because of the strength of the covalent bonds between the atoms in the covalent networks cause MP and BP to be very high Whereas the intermolecular forces of the covalent molecular bonds are weak and thus they have low-medium MP and BP Since the covalent networks are bonded so strongly, they are very hard but brittle at the same time Covalent molecular substances (if solid) are usually waxy and soft but can also be hard and brittle 13

Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Metallic bonding occurs as a three dimensional lattice of positive ions immersed in a sea of delocalised electrons Ionic bonding occurs due to the outright transfer of electrons from one to another causing electrostatic attraction of ions with opposite charges Covalent molecular bonds are formed from the sharing of electrons between different atoms Covalent networks are lattices in which covalent bonding extends indefinteley throughout the whole crystal

Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons

Metal consists of an orderly three dimensional array of positive ions held together by a mobile sea of delocalised electrons The valence electrons break away from their atoms leaving behind positive ions These free electrons are known as delocalised because they are no longer part of a particular atoms but move randomly through the lattice By being shared by several positive ions, they provide the chemical bonding holding the crystal together

Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions

There are no separate molecules in ionic compounds Due to the several ions of opposite charge, a crystal lattice forms and all ions of opposite charge are attracted to each other and thus held tightly This causes am infinite array of positive and negative ions resulting in the formation of a three-dimensional lattice

Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula

Due to the fact that ionic compounds occur a indefinite three-dimensional lattices it is impossible to calculate the exact number of atoms Thus when writing a formula for a ionic compound the simplest ratio of positive ions to negative ions is presented known as the empirical formula

Indentify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices

There are the seven (halogens) diatomic molecules H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 as well as P4 and S8 which all exist as molecules in nature All other gases exist as monatomic molecules Carbon exists in two different covalent networks including diamond and graphite Often when an element has more than one molecule or lattice they are known as allotropes and have different physical and chemical properties Oxygen has O2 and O3 14

Robin Nandy

Year 11 Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Phosphorus can also be found in both molecular and lattice forms of P4 Sulphur has crystalline and molecular forms of S8 Tin can also occur in different structures

Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures
Ionic Compounds Solid ionic lattices will NOT conduct because ions cannot move freely because the ions are held tightly together by electrostatic forces However, if an ionic compound is melted, the (+ve) and (-ve) ions can move freely and independently If a voltage is applied, a current will be carried by the ions migrating in opposite directions Many ionic compounds are soluble in water When they dissolve, the lattice disintegrates and the ions can move freely allowing it to conduct electricity Ionic compounds are usually hard due to their electrostatic attraction causing strong bond between atoms However if the ions are shifted, ions of opposite charge come closer together and repel each other causing the crystal to shatter

Covalent Molecular Covalent molecular substances do not contain any charged particles which can move independently and thus are unable to conduct elecetricity Because the intermolecular forces holding the molecules together are weak, means that it easy to distort the substance and therefore it is soft

Covalent network structures These do not contain any charged ions and there are no free electrons thus are not able to conduct electricity However they are very hard due to their strong covalent bonds but can be shattered easily

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