Literary Criticism

Objectives:

At the end of the learning activity the students should be able to:

1. Manifest deeper understanding of literary criticism/ theoretical

framework.
2. Identify key function/role of language in man’s search for the
truth

3. Relate with sensitivity in understanding individual differences

based on different schemata.

Literary Criticism
Literary Criticism in broadest sense is the discussion of literature, including
description, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of literary works. One of the critic/s
tasks is to challenge the definitions of literature and criticism that seem too general or
broad in spectrum, too narrow or unworkable in a given context.

Through reading and discussing literature, readers expand their imagination, the
sense of what is possible, and their facility to empathize with others. Improve the ability
to read critically and interpret texts while gaining appreciation for different literary genres
and theories of interpretation. Read samples of literary interpretation. Write a critique of
a literary work.

Texts that interpret literary works are usually persuasive texts. Literary critics
may conduct a close reading of a literary work, critique a literary work from the stance of
a particular literary theory, or debate the soundness of other critics’ interpretations. The
work of literary critics is similar to the work of authors writing evaluative texts. For
example, the skills required to critique films, interpret laws, or evaluate artistic trends
are similar to those skills required by literary critics.

The genre of literary interpretation is specialized one. People may discuss their
reactions to literary works informally (at coffee houses, book clubs, or the gym) but the
lion’s share of literary criticism takes place more formally: in college classrooms,
professional journals, academic magazines, and Web sites.

Students interpret literary works for English instructors or for students enrolled in
English classes. In their interpretations, students may argue for a particular
interpretation or they may dispute other critics’ interpretations. Alternatively, students
may read a text with a particular literary theory in mind, using the theory to explicate a
particular point of view. For example, writers could critique The Story of an Hour by Kate
Chopin from a feminist theoretical perspective. Thanks to the Internet, some English
classes are now publishing students’ interpretations on Web sites. In turn, some
students and English faculty publish their work in academic literary criticism journals.
This is now what 21st century offers. The medium and platform now evolved.

Through the years, literary critics have critically argued about the best ways to
interpret literature. Accordingly, many “schools” or “theories of criticism” have emerged.
Powerful works of literature invoke multiple readings. In other words, readers can all
read the same story or poem or watch the same movie or listen to the same song and
come up with different, even conflicting, interpretations about what the work means.
Who we are reflects how we read texts. Our experiences inspire us to relate to and
sympathize with characters and difficult situations.

In addition, literary theories have unique ways to develop and substantiate

arguments. Some theories draw extensively on the work of other critics, while others
concentrate on the reader’s thoughts and feelings. Some theories analyse a work from
an historical perspective, while others focus solely on a close reading of a text

To I.A. Richards, he emphasized that both science and literature are worthy
pursuits. Science is our mechanism of uncovering the world for our use of it. Literature
is our mechanism for finding our place in the world. We need both to be human beings.
He thought that literature is all about the experience of the reader, and the way that the
reader reacts to the text is explained through psychology. Fiction answers
biological needs that the reader cannot get out of an increasingly scientific, empirical
world.

The question now is if fiction only answers man’s biological needs, would it then
be compliant to the scientific pursuit of real truth? Richards would say that, no, fiction
synthesizes and harmonizes conflicting needs in our psychology that science cannot
provide us.

To I.A. Richards, Richards writes that human language is divided into two uses:
the scientific and the emotive. Scientific language is used to reference real and true
things in the world. It is 75 degrees. The ball weighs five pounds. Emotive language is
meant to provoke emotional responses in others. Fiction uses emotive language. Travel
far enough, you meet yourself (from Cloud Atlas). The mystery of human existence lies
not in just staying alive, but in finding something to live for (from The Brothers
Karamazov).
 Both scientific and emotive language can hold truth, but the types of truth are
different. A truth of science is “when the things to which it refers to are actually together
in the way in which it refers to them.” A truth of fiction, however, is “the acceptability of
things we are told, their acceptability in the interests of the effects of the narrative.”

We can see examples of both of these truths in Ernest Hemingway’s fictional novel, For
Whom the Bell Tolls. The Spanish Civil War took place in the 1930s. Hemingway was
there. These are both facts that can be told using scientific language. Although the story
is told through emotive language and is a fiction, it still seems to hold a sort of truth to it.

What is real or true to us about a fiction is our acceptance of it. There is no

factual, scientific truth that we can measure. It’s an overwhelming sense of
understanding. The fiction tells us something about the word that we live in that rings
true within us. This means that the truth is equivalent to sincerity.

Activity 1
Give at least 5 scientific language and 5 emotive language that conceivably
shares the same truth.

Scientific Language Emotive Language Truth

Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a
literary study. It guides the reader, writer and/or critic in determining the significant truth
in a particular literary genre - traditional, contemporary, popular and/or emergent
literature.

understanding develops critical judgment Appreciation

consiquently, application to real life situations

Introspection
Analysis and Understanding

Retrospection
from certain perspectives
can never be presupposition-less,
must involve using some framework(s)
or perspective either conscious or
unconsicious

Interpretation

Framework 1

This framework (Literary Criticism Class) indicates the processes that a reader
experiences in his/her journey to understand and appreciate what literature offers in life. The
reader brings his/her own schema or experiences in life as he/she interprets because
understanding and appreciation are not presupposition-based. The readers uses his/her
introspection as he/she examines his/her thoughts or feelings and in consequently, he/she looks
back on or reviews past events or situations, especially those impactful to his/her own life
 Framework 2

This framework (Skylar Hamilton Burris) indicates the use of a particular literary
theory/approach (lens) on how readers will have better understanding and appreciation
of pieces of literature across cultural boundaries because what is illuminated in the art
and philosophy of literature is universal longings of people of different ethnicities,
beliefs, political ideologies, religious orientation and even sexual preferences.
 Critique
Framework 3

Approach to Literature
plus Group Work

School of Thought plus

principles plus ideas

Studyng Principles of
Criticism

This framework (Formalist View), indicates that understanding principles in the

study of literary criticism is important. Its nature and functions are fundamentally
essential to a critic. The critic’s perspectives are honed by his/her own schema, but the
influence of the principles and ideas derived from a literary school of thought further
gives different spectrum to his/her views in life. The specific approach depends on how
a critic sees life as he/she sees the material and the author/writer as well. The critique is
melted upon these.
Activity 2
1. For viewing, please refer to the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f31V4XiPBdI
2. Answer the following:
2.1 What is Literary Criticism as streamlined by Tim Nance?
2.2 What is still shady or grey area in your understanding of Literary Criticism?
2.3 What makes schema important as a reader and as a critic?
 References and Further Reading

Bressler, Charles E. Literary Criticism:An Introduction to Theory and Practice 3rd edition.
Prentice Hall USA 2002
Cruz, Isagani R. Modern Literary Criticism DLSU University Press, Taft Avenue, Manila
1984
Literary Criticism: Conclusion & New Beginnings  What is Literary Criticism?Literary
Criticism z Critical Perspectives = 1. Finding different Contexts.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny=britlit1/chapter/literary-criticism/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f31V4XiPBdI
Principles of Literary Criticism Critical Essays - eNotes.com
 MODULE
Literary Approaches as Tools for
Interpreting Literature

Objectives:

At the end of the learning activity, the students should be

able to:

1. enhance critical and reflective thinking skills in relating

oneself to others and life realities
2. demonstrate understanding to articulate varying concepts
of the different literary approaches.

What Is Interpretation?

In general, to interpret something is to make it personally meaningful. Our brain

takes raw data from the senses and makes it meaningful by relating it to our previous
experiences. We may, for example, respond to a loud noise by saying "That sounded
like a gunshot." When we read or hear a sentence, we put the words together into a
meaningful whole, rather than just noting their separate dictionary definitions. Most
everyday language is fairly straightforward and requires little interpretation. A liberal and
a conservative who read a newspaper editorial against the death penalty may disagree
with each other on that particular issue, but (unless the editorial is badly written) they
will agree that the writer is against capital punishment. That is, they won't have different
interpretations of what the article means. Language usually requires special
interpretation, however, when it is ambiguous or unclear. In order to clarify a sarcastic
statement, for example, we may ask a question like "What did you mean by that
remark?" or "Are you serious?" Because literature (other than propaganda) presents us
with more than one possible meaning, interpreting literature requires more care and
attention than does responding to an essay. Approaching literature with an inquiring
attitude helps maintain this fruitful complexity.
What Kinds of Questions Help with Interpretation?

Specific questions that allow only one answer (like "What is the main character's
nickname?") may enable a teacher to see if a student has read or studied a story, but
they rarely challenge the reader to see beyond the plot level. Because they respect the
complexity of your own experience and the author's vision, open-ended questions are
much more useful. After seeing the film Schindler's List, in which the protagonist
changes from a greedy businessman to the compassionate savior of over a thousand
Jews in Nazi-held Poland, you might ask "How and why does Schindler change?" Or
you might reflect on your own values: "How would I react in this situation?" Clearly there
is no single answer for this kind of question, and your answer may change each time
you read or think about the work.

Why Should We Interpret Literature?

Although the interpretation of literature can be challenging, it may also provide unique
and important rewards. Authors of fiction, poetry, or drama choose literature for their
expression because they believe that there are at least two valid sides to any major
issue--not just a simple right and wrong. Reading and interpreting literature, then,
nourishes us with a sense of the complexity of life's deepest mysteries-- love, hate,
death, conflicts between the individual and society, and so on--so that when we
approach these problems we do so with greater self-awareness and greater tolerance
for the views of others. We may react angrily to a news feature about physically abused
children, but when we read a story like James Joyce's "Counterparts" we are asked to
understand (without necessarily excusing such an action) the reasons why an adult
would hit a harmless child. When we interpret literature at this level, we are taking what
we already know about human nature and adding in the experience and wisdom of the
author (even if we don't share all of the author's convictions). Interpretation then is a
social act--we bring to it all of our past experiences with people, and we come away with
an even richer, more complex understanding.

Literary Approaches

Described below are nine common critical approaches to the literature. Quotations are
from X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia’s Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and
Drama, Sixth Edition (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), pages 1790-1818.

 Formalist Criticism (New Criticism): This approach regards literature as “a

unique form of human knowledge that needs to be examined on its own terms.”
All the elements necessary for understanding the work are contained within the
work itself. Of particular interest to the formalist critic are the elements of form—
style, structure, tone, imagery, etc.—that are found within the text. A primary goal
for formalist critics is to determine how such elements work together with the
text’s content to shape its effects upon readers.
 Biographical Criticism: This approach “begins with the simple but central
insight that literature is written by actual people and that understanding an
 author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work.” Hence, it
often affords a practical method by which readers can better understand a text.
However, a biographical critic must be careful not to take the biographical facts of
a writer’s life too far in criticizing the works of that writer: the biographical critic
“focuses on explicating the literary work by using the insight provided by
knowledge of the author’s life.... [B]iographical data should amplify the meaning
of the text, not drown it out with irrelevant material.”
(When and how does a writer become the work and the work becomes the
writer?)
 Historical Criticism: This approach “seeks to understand a literary work by
investigating the social, cultural, and intellectual context that produced it—a
context that necessarily includes the artist’s biography and milieu.” A key goal for
historical critics is to understand the effect of a literary work upon its original
readers.
 Gender Criticism (Queer Theory or Gender Studies): This approach
“examines how sexual identity influences the creation and reception of literary
works.” Originally an offshoot of feminist movements, gender criticism today
includes a number of approaches, including the so-called “masculinist” approach
recently advocated by poet Robert Bly. The bulk of gender criticism, however, is
feminist and takes as a central precept that the patriarchal attitudes that have
dominated western thought have resulted, consciously or unconsciously, in
literature “full of unexamined ‘male-produced’ assumptions.” Feminist criticism
attempts to correct this imbalance by analysing and combatting such attitudes—
by questioning, for example, why none of the characters in Shakespeare’s
play Othello ever challenge the right of a husband to murder a wife accused of
adultery. Other goals of feminist critics include “analysing how sexual identity
influences the reader of a text” and “examin[ing] how the images of men and
women in imaginative literature reflect or reject the social forces that have
historically kept the sexes from achieving total equality.”
 Psychological Criticism: This approach reflects the effect that modern
psychology has had upon both literature and literary criticism. Fundamental
figures in psychological criticism include Sigmund Freud, whose “psychoanalytic
theories changed our notions of human behavior by exploring new or
controversial areas like wish-fulfilment, sexuality, the unconscious, and
repression” as well as expanding our understanding of how “language and
symbols operate by demonstrating their ability to reflect unconscious fears or
desires”; and Carl Jung, whose theories about the unconscious are also a key
foundation of Mythological Criticism. Psychological criticism has a number of
approaches, but in general, it usually employs one (or more) of three
approaches:
1. An investigation of “the creative process of the artist: what is the nature of
literary genius and how does it relate to normal mental functions?”
2. The psychological study of a particular artist, usually noting how an
author’s biographical circumstances affect or influence their motivations
and/or behavior.
 3. The analysis of fictional characters using the language and methods of
psychology.
 Sociological Criticism: This approach “examines literature in the cultural,
economic and political context in which it is written or received,” exploring the
relationships between the artist and society. Sometimes it examines the artist’s
society to better understand the author’s literary works; other times, it may
examine the representation of such societal elements within the literature itself.
One influential type of sociological criticism is Marxist criticism, which focuses
on the economic and political elements of art, often emphasizing the ideological
content of literature; because Marxist criticism often argues that all art is political,
either challenging or endorsing (by silence) the status quo, it is frequently
evaluative and judgmental, a tendency that “can lead to reductive judgment, as
when Soviet critics rated Jack London better than William Faulkner, Ernest
Hemingway, Edith Wharton, and Henry James, because he illustrated the
principles of class struggle more clearly.” Nonetheless, Marxist criticism “can
illuminate political and economic dimensions of literature other approaches
overlook.”
 Mythological Criticism (Archetypal): This approach emphasizes “the recurrent
universal patterns underlying most literary works.” Combining the insights from
anthropology, psychology, history, and comparative religion, mythological
criticism “explores the artist’s common humanity by tracing how the individual
imagination uses myths and symbols common to different cultures and epochs.”
One key concept in mythlogical criticism is the archetype, “a symbol, character,
situation, or image that evokes a deep universal response,” which entered literary
criticism from Swiss psychologist Carl Jung. According to Jung, all individuals
share a “‘collective unconscious,’ a set of primal memories common to the
human race, existing below each person’s conscious mind”—often deriving from
primordial phenomena such as the sun, moon, fire, night, and blood, archetypes
according to Jung “trigger the collective unconscious.” Another critic, Northrop
Frye, defined archetypes in a more limited way as “a symbol, usually an image,
which recurs often enough in literature to be recognizable as an element of one’s
literary experience as a whole.” Regardless of the definition of archetype they
use, mythological critics tend to view literary works in the broader context of
works sharing a similar pattern.
 Reader-Response Criticism: This approach takes as a fundamental tenet that
“literature” exists not as an artifact upon a printed page but as a transaction
between the physical text and the mind of a reader. It attempts “to describe what
happens in the reader’s mind while interpreting a text” and reflects that reading,
like writing, is a creative process. According to reader-response critics, literary
texts do not “contain” a meaning; meanings derive only from the act of individual
readings. Hence, two different readers may derive completely different
interpretations of the same literary text; likewise, a reader who re-reads a work
years later may find the work shockingly different. Reader-response criticism,
then, emphasizes how “religious, cultural, and social values affect readings; it
also overlaps with gender criticism in exploring how men and women read the
same text with different assumptions.” Though this approach rejects the notion
 that a single “correct” reading exists for a literary work, it does not consider all
readings permissible: “Each text creates limits to its possible interpretations.”
 Deconstructionist Criticism: This approach “rejects the traditional assumption
that language can accurately represent reality.” Deconstructionist critics regard
language as a fundamentally unstable medium—the words “tree” or “dog,” for
instance, undoubtedly conjure up different mental images for different people—
and therefore, because literature is made up of words, literature possesses no
fixed, single meaning. According to critic Paul de Man, deconstructionists insist
on “the impossibility of making the actual expression coincide with what has to be
expressed, of making the actual signs [i.e., words] coincide with what is
signified.” As a result, deconstructionist critics tend to emphasize not what is
being said but how language is used in a text. The methods of this approach tend
to resemble those of formalist criticism, but whereas formalists’ primary goal is
to locate unity within a text, “how the diverse elements of a text cohere into
meaning,” deconstructionists try to show how the text “deconstructs,” “how it can
be broken down ... into mutually irreconcilable positions.” Other goals of
deconstructionists include (1) challenging the notion of authors’ “ownership” of
texts they create (and their ability to control the meaning of their texts) and (2)
focusing on how language is used to achieve power, as when they try to
understand how a some interpretations of a literary work come to be regarded as
“truth.”

Others:

New Historicism focuses on the literary text as part of a larger social and
historical context, and the modern reader’s interaction with that work. New
historicists attempt to describe the culture of a period by reading many different
types of texts and paying attention to many different dimensions of a culture,
including political, social, economic, and aesthetic concerns. They regard texts
as not simply a reflection of the culture that produced them but also as productive
of that culture by playing an active role in the social and political conflicts of an
age. New historicism acknowledges and then explores various versions of
“history,” sensitizing us to the fact that the history on which we choose to focus is
colored by being reconstructed by our present perspective.

Moral/Ethical Criticism is concerned with content and values.  The approach is

as old as literature itself, for literature is a traditional mode of imparting morality,
philosophy, and religion.  The concern in moral/intellectual criticism is not only to
discover meaning but also to determine whether works of literature are
both true and significant. To study literature from the moral/intellectual
perspective is therefore to determine whether a work conveys a lesson or
message and whether it can help readers lead better lives and improve their
understanding of the world: What ideas does the work contain?  How strongly
does the work bring forth its ideas?  What application do the ideas have to the
work’s characters and situations?  How may the ideas be evaluated
intellectually?  Morally?  Discussions based on such questions do not imply that
 literature is primarily a medium of moral and intellectual exhortation.  Ideally,
moral/intellectual criticism should differ from sermonizing to the degree that
readers should always be left with their own decisions about whether to
assimilate the ideas of a work and about whether the ideas—and values—are
personally or morally acceptable. Sophisticated critics have sometimes
demeaned the moral/intellectual approach on the grounds that “message
hunting” reduces a work’s artistic value by treating it like a sermon or political
speech; but the approach will be valuable as long as readers expect literature to
be applicable to their own lives. 

Post-Colonialism Criticism is most commonly written about countries that have

been previously colonized. A post-colonial lens would approach literature and
look for what effects colonization has left on a society or on individual characters.
This criticism looks through literature with the post-colonial theory. It shows
history and the effects that colonization can leave on a civilization even after they
have gained independence. The post-colonialism critical lens interprets the
challenges and changes of a previously colonized nation as the effects of
colonization. The major important symbols are oppression and power. There is
an identity between the colonizer and the colonized. The goal of the critical lens
is to seek to understand the behavior of characters or the society. It can be
analyzed by the setting and the actions or behaviors depicted by characters in
literature can be attributed to their country being previously colonized. Characters
or society can feel torn between the identities of their native culture and the
culture of the colonizing country. A reader needs to have a good grasp of
historical knowledge in order to fully apply the post colonialism lens to literature.
A reader has to be aware of the previous or current colonial status of any
countries or societies that are presented in a work of literature.

. Modernism/Post-Modernism is a rejection of traditional forms of literature

(chronological plots, continuous narratives, closed endings etc.) in favor of
experimental forms. They have nostalgia for the past that they feel is lost so
Modernist texts often include multiple allusions. Post-Modernists follow the same
principles but celebrate the new forms of fragmentation rather than lamenting
them.
Look for ironies within a text
Analyze fragmentation and a mixing of genres and forms
Blurs the line between “high” literature (classics) and popular literature (NY
Times Bestsellers)

Cultural Criticism examines the text from the perspective of cultural attitudes
and often focuses on individuals within society who are marginalized or face
discrimination in some way. Cultural criticism may consider race, gender,
religion, ethnicity, sexuality or other characteristics that separate individuals in
society and potentially lead to one feeling or being treated as “less than” another.
It suggests that being included or excluded from the dominant culture changes
the way one may view the text.
Activity 1
1. How do you interpret a song?

2. Give at least 5 questions to aid you in interpreting a song of your choice.

3. Is reacting to a social media post same as writing a critique? In what sense it

is not? Or similar?

Activity 2
In this activity, the students will be grouped into 5 and they will be directed to
create their own cell (via Chat Room, Messenger or other platform as they agree).
For 1 ½ hours, they will work on (1) Which posts on their FB account they can
regard as Constructive and Destructive Criticism; (2) How can this criticism (either
constructive or destructive) be considered within the notion of literary criticism? (3)
Select a “meme” post and come up with their critique on it. (4) What do they
consider in coming up with their shared view.
 Activity 3
1. List down at least 2 questions for each of the literary approaches.
2. How do elements work together with the text’s content to shape its effects upon
readers?
3. When and how does a writer become the work and the work becomes the
writer?
4. Do men and women portray equally in literature?
5. What do social, cultural and intellectual context important in historical approach
to understanding literature?
6. What makes Sigmund Freud a literary genius?
7. Can we examine literature without being sociologically political? Why?
8. What makes Myths the dreams of the world?
9. As a reader, can you limit your interpretation of a text? Why?
10. Why do deconstructionists believe that language cannot actually represent
reality?

Self-Assessment Questions

List down at least 10 historical, political and personal facts (life episodes) for the least
20 years.

Example:
Historical
2000, April 19 –
Air Philippines Flight 541
explodes and crashes into
a coconut plantation in
Island Garden City of
Samal, killing all 131
people on board. It is
considered as the
country's worst aviation
accident in history, with
fatality count surpassing
those from another plane
crash in 1998.
Political
The Marcoses are one
of the most well-known
political families in the
Philippines. The dynasty
started with Mariano
Marcos, a lawyer from
Ilocos Norte who was a
member of the House of
Representatives back in
1925. Ilocos Norte remains
to be the Marcoses’
political stronghold today.
Personal
Someone has 5
children. The eldest son is
21. He studies at UP
Diliman. The second
daughter is an incoming
third year Nursing Student
at FEU. The third daughter
is incoming freshman
Psychology student at FEU
also. The fourth son is
Grade 7 this School Year
and the youngest is 1 year
and 6 months old girl.

Historical Political Personal

1.
 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

References:

Bressler, Charles E. Literary Criticism:An Introduction to Theory and Practice 3rd edition.
Prentice Hall USA 2002
Cruz, Isagani R. Modern Literary Criticism DLSU University Press, Taft Avenue, Manila
1984

 https://www.uv.es/~fores/programa/hale_literarycritic.html
 http://home.olemiss.edu/~egjbp/spring97/litcrit.html. 
 
https://herefordhs.bcps.org/UserFiles/Servers/Server_3705599/File/Academics/English/
Approaches%20to%20Lit%20Crit--brief.pdf
 Classical and Medieval
Criticism (Aristotle’s Poetics)

Objectives:

At the end of the learning activity, the students should be

able to:

3. engage and interrogate from the literary period, and apply

them in the analysis of selected literary texts

4. demonstrate their ability to articulate theoretical concepts

orally by their class participation

Classical and Medieval Literature Criticism

Classical and Medieval Literature Criticism assembles and contextualizes critical

responses to the works of writers of all sorts--poets, playwrights, chroniclers,
philosophers, religious figures, and writers from other genres--from every region of the
world, from the earliest known examples of written works to the eve of the modern era.
Later classical and medieval criticism often focused on religious texts, and the
several long religious traditions of hermeneutics and textual exegesis have had a
profound influence on the study of secular texts. This was particularly the case for the
literary traditions of the three Abrahamic religions: Jewish literature, Christian literature
and Islamic literature.
Literary criticism was also employed in other forms of medieval Arabic literature
and Arabic poetry from the 9th century which determine the characteristics of the literary
writers’ works. The Sanskrit Natya Shastra includes literary criticism on ancient Indian
literature and Sanskrit drama and the general excellence in the presentation of an
inherently interesting subject
Literary criticism is thought to have existed as long as literature In the 4th century
BC Aristotle wrote the Poetics, a typology and description of literary forms with many
specific criticisms of contemporary works of art. Poetics developed for the first time the
concepts of mimesis and catharsis, which are still crucial in literary studies. Plato's
attacks on poetry as imitative, secondary, and false were formative as well.
To have a glimpse of the type of literature and style of the period, let’s try to
familiarize ourselves and recall some of …

The Famous Literature and writers Classical and Medieval Period

Plato: Ion, Republic, Cratylus
Aristotle: Poetics, Rhetoric
Dante: The Banquet, Letter to Can Grande Della Scala
Boccaccio: Life of Dante, Genealogy of the Gentile Gods
Christine de Pizan: The Book of the City of Ladies
Rajashekhara: Inquiry into Literature
Valmiki: The Invention of Poetry (from the Ramayana)
Anandavardhana: Light on Suggestion
Cao Pi: A Discourse on Literature
Lu Ji: Rhymeprose on Literature
Liu Xie: The Literary Mind
Wang Changling: A Discussion of Literature and Meaning
Sikong Tu: The Twenty-Four Classes of Poetry

Please go the link below to have further readings

https://www.gate.com>classical-and-medieval-literature
Aristotle’s Poetics

Aristotle's Poetics can be read as a response to Plato's attack on art. Aristotle (384–322
B.C.E.) was a student at Plato's Academy from the time he was seventeen until Plato's
death some twenty years later. He spent the next twelve years engaging in scientific
research and serving as tutor to the then teenaged Alexander the Great. He returned to
Athens in 335 B.C.E., and founded his own school on the steps of the Lyceum. He
remained there until 323 B.C.E., when he was forced to leave as a result of his
associations with Alexander. He died a year later of natural causes.

Summary:
Aristotle's Poetics seeks to address the different kinds of poetry, the structure of
a good poem, and the division of a poem into its component parts. He defines poetry as
a 'medium of imitation' that seeks to represent or duplicate life through character,
emotion, or action. Aristotle defines poetry very broadly, including epic poetry, tragedy,
comedy, dithyrambic poetry, and even some kinds of music.
According to Aristotle, tragedy came from the efforts of poets to present men as
'nobler,' or 'better' than they are in real life. Comedy, on the other hand, shows a 'lower
type' of person, and reveals humans to be worse than they are in average. Epic poetry,
on the other hand, imitates 'noble' men like tragedy, but only has one type of meter -
unlike tragedy, which can have several - and is narrative in form.
Aristotle lays out six elements of tragedy: plot, character, diction, thought,
spectacle, and song. Plot is 'the soul' of tragedy, because action is paramount to the
significance of a drama, and all other elements are subsidiary. A plot must have a
beginning, middle, and end; it must also be universal in significance, have a
determinate structure, and maintain a unity of theme and purpose.
Plot also must contain elements of astonishment, reversal (peripeteia),
recognition, and suffering. Reversal is an ironic twist or change by which the main
action of the story comes full-circle. Recognition, meanwhile, is the change from
ignorance to knowledge, usually involving people coming to understand one another's
true identities. Suffering is a destructive or painful action, which is often the result of a
reversal or recognition. All three elements coalesce to create "catharsis," which is the
engenderment of fear and pity in the audience: pity for the tragic hero's plight, and fear
that his fate might befall us.
When it comes to character, a poet should aim for four things. First, the hero
must be 'good,' and thus manifest moral purpose in his speech. Second, the hero must
have propriety, or 'manly valor.' Thirdly, the hero must be 'true to life.' And finally, the
hero must be consistent.
Tragedy and Epic poetry fall into the same categories: simple, complex (driven
by reversal and recognition), ethical (moral) or pathetic (passion). There are a few
differences between tragedy and epic, however. First, an epic poem does not use song
or spectacle to achieve its cathartic effect. Second, epics often cannot be presented at
a single sitting, whereas tragedies are usually able to be seen in a single viewing.
Finally, the 'heroic measure' of epic poetry is hexameter, where tragedy often uses
other forms of meter to achieve the rhythms of different characters' speech.
Aristotle also lays out the elements of successful imitation. The poet must imitate
either things as they are, things as they are thought to be, or things as they ought to be.
The poet must also imitate in action and language (preferably metaphors or
contemporary words). Errors come when the poet imitates incorrectly - and thus
destroys the essence of the poem - or when the poet accidentally makes an error (a
factual error, for instance). Aristotle does not believe that factual errors sabotage the
entire work; errors that limit or compromise the unity of a given work, however, are
much more consequential.
Aristotle concludes by tackling the question of whether the epic or tragic form is
'higher.' Most critics of his time argued that tragedy was for an inferior audience that
required the gesture of performers, while epic poetry was for a 'cultivated audience'
which could filter a narrative form through their own imaginations. In reply, Aristotle
notes that epic recitation can be marred by overdone gesticulation in the same way as a
tragedy; moreover, tragedy, like poetry, can produce its effect without action - its power
is in the mere reading. Aristotle argues that tragedy is, in fact, superior to epic, because
it has all the epic elements as well as spectacle and music to provide an indulgent
pleasure for the audience. Tragedy, then, despite the arguments of other critics, is the
higher art for Aristotle.

Please go the link below to have further readings

https://ieutm.edu>aris-poe

Figure it out !

1. How does Aristotle's definition of "poetry" differ from our own?

2. Explain Aristotle's concept of mimesis. In what way is poetry imitative

3. What is katharsis? How does it work in the context of tragedy?

 Renaissance Criticism

Objectives:

At the end of the learning activity, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the background of Philip Sidney, the contributions of
the Renaissance Period in literature, and the influence of
humanism on the Renaissance Literary Criticism;
2. Explain the key features to understand the Renaissance Literary
Criticism based on “The Defense of Poesy”;
3. Argue on the charges brought against poetry and Sidney’s
defense as discussed in his work, The Defense of Poesy; and
4. Analyze one of the sonnets compiled as collection in “Astrophel
and Stella” by Sir Philip Sidney based on the key features of
Renaissance Literary Criticism.

The Renaissance Period

The word ‘renaissance’ is a French word which means ‘rebirth’. The people
credited with beginning the Renaissance were trying to recreate the classical models of
Ancient Greek and Rome.

The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and
economic “rebirth” following the Middle Ages. Generally described as taking place from
the 14th century to the 17th century, the Renaissance promoted the rediscovery of
classical philosophy, literature and art. Some of the greatest thinkers, authors,
statesmen, scientists and artists in human history thrived during this era, while global
exploration opened up new lands and cultures to European commerce. The
Renaissance is credited with bridging the gap between the Middle Ages and modern-
day civilization.

The Emergence of the Literary Movement during the Renaissance Period

 Along with the renewed cultural interest in all things classical—the history,
culture, and writings of ancient Greece and Rome—came a fresh concentration on all
things Human, also known as “Humanism.”

During the 14th century, the philosophy of humanism began to emerge in Italy.
Humanism emphasizes that man is the center of the universe and that all human
achievements in art, literature, and science should be regarded. Instead of relying on
the will of God, people began to act according to capabilities.

Renaissance writers were full of curiosity about humankind. What motivates or

inspires people? What angers or pleases them? What makes them good or bad? How
will people of different character respond under pressure? What are the limits to the
capabilities of men and women?

Writers also pondered the human condition. What is the nature of human life in
this world? Is it bad or good? Free or determined? Monumentally important or
completely insignificant?

Literature During the Renaissance Period

The following briefly describes the literature during the Renaissance Period:

1. The dominant forms of English literature during the Renaissance were the poem
and the drama, drama subgenres are tragedy and comedy.
2. Playwrights mixed things up by manipulating the traditional genres of tragedy and
comedy. These genre-bending works lead to the birth of the tragicomedy.
3. Some of the major contributions during the renaissance period are the
translations of religious writings into other languages as in the case of Martin
Luther and William Tyndale, those contributions led to a religious reformations
4. Renaissance literature revolved more around having a real humanistic
protagonist with a real story to tell.
5. Renaissance literature dealt much more with human characteristics and
behaviors leaving behind the religious and methaphysical subjects of the
medieval era.
6. Some of the writings of the time were influenced by roman and greek mythology
so it is common that those writing include heroes, deities and monsters.
7. Some of the writing focus on political reformation.
8. The writers of the movement imitated art and they hope to change reality through
it. Imitation means mirroring life.
9. The writer reflected an spirit of exploration that was going on throughout the
world.
10. The renaissance writers were concerned with monarchs and aristocrats. They
wrote about them and also they were men of the court.
Renaissance Writers

The earliest Renaissance literature appeared in 14th century Italy; Dante,

Petrarch, and Machiavelli are notable examples of Italian Renaissance writers. From
Italy the influence of the Renaissance spread at different rates to other countries, and
continued to spread throughout Europe through the 17th century. The English
Renaissance and the Renaissance in Scotland date from the late 15th century to the
early 17th century. In northern Europe the scholarly writings of Erasmus, the plays of
Shakespeare, the poems of Edmund Spenser, and the writings of Sir Philip Sidney may
be considered Renaissance in character.

Philip Sidney’s An Apology for Poetry

A. Sir Philip Sidney

Sir Philip Sidney was one of the founders of humanist tradition of the English
verse. 400 years ago in London a society was founded, called “Areopagus” headed by
Philip Sidney. The members of this society were Edmund Spenser (1552 –1599), Fulk
Grewil. During their meetings religious and philosophical problems were discussed and
new forms of poetry were worked out. “The Defense of Poetry” by Philip Sydney was a
theoretical work, philosophical and esthetical creed of the new poetry founders. The
main object of poetry after Sidney is considered to be the positive influence on the
individual’s mentality: it is necessary for the poet to create an ideal character; and to
convince the reader to believe in such perfect character the writers must face their
characters to difficulties and make them improve their souls

B. Apologie for Poetrie/Defense of Poetry: A Background

A product of the revival of classical Greek and Roman culture known as

humanism, Renaissance literary criticism took root in defenses of poetry and dialogues
on language and literary imitation in Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries.

In 1579 Stephen Gosson published a short book, The School of Abuse, virtually
attacking poets and actors and questioning the morality of fictitious works. In 1580
Sidney wrote The Defense of Poesy also known as An Apology for Poetry. The
comments of Gosson did not address specifically to Philip Sidney, but it motivated
Sidney to write his own opinions on the subject

This work by Sidney is an early example of English criticism as it goes beyond

just looking at poetry. Sidney instead said “poesy” which included all of fictionalized arts,
examples being prose and drama. The idea that poetry is all lies comes from puritans
and even Plato, but Defense of Poesy takes the judicial side of the argument and
explains why this isn’t the case. Sidney’s argument attempts to raise poetry into the
higher arts and disprove the criticism against it.
 In Sidney’s work The Defense of Poesy, he defended poetry, discussed the
opposition to poetry, such as the common caviller notion of studying “practical”
knowledge, and a small discussion on linguistics.

It raises issues – such as the value and function of poetry, the nature of imitation,
and the concept of nature.

C. Key Features to understand the Renaissance Literary Criticism based on

“The Defense of Poesy”

The literature of the Renaissance was written within the general movement of
the Renaissance that arose in 13th century Italy and continued until the 16th century
while being diffused into the western world. It is characterized by the adoption of a
Humanist philosophy and the recovery of the classical literature of Antiquity and
benefited from the spread of printing in the latter part of the 15th century.

For the writers of the Renaissance, Greco-Roman inspiration was shown both in
the themes of their writing and in the literary forms they used. Platonic ideas were
revived and put to the service of Christianity. The search for pleasures of the senses
and a critical and rational spirit completed the ideological panorama of the period. New
literary genres such as the essay and new metrical forms such as the sonnet and
Spenserian stanza made their appearance.

1. The Theory of Imitation

a. The Renaissance critics’ theory of imitation is different from that of Plato
and Aristotle.
b. Imitation for Plato and Aristotle was the imitation of persons and things in
nature. Horace and Longinus used it as meaning the imitation of other
writers. This latter sense is the one in which it was most often used by the
Renaissance critics.
c. Plato views that art is the imitation of nature but it is not slavish imitation
rather it is creative imitation
d. For Sidney, nature is dull, incomplete and ugly. It is artists who turn dull
nature in to golden color. He employs his creative faculty, imagination and
style of presentation to decorate the raw materials of nature.
e. For Aristotle human action is more important, but for Sidney nature is
important.
f. In Sidney’s work The Defense of Poetry, he displays knowledge of Horace
and Plato
g. Sidney states that poetry “is an art of imitation, for so Aristotle termed it in
his word mimesis, that is to say, a representing, counterfeiting, or figuring
forth: to speak metaphorically, a speaking picture: with this end, to teach
and delight”
h. Sidney adapts elements from the early modern period Aristotle and
Horace to offer his own somewhat broader view of imitation
 i. He suggests that there have been three kinds of poetic imitation:
i. poetry that “did imitate the inconceivable excellencies of God,”
as in the various poetical portions of the Old Testament
ii. imitation that is effected by poetry that deals with subjects whose
scope is philosophical, historical, or scientific, such as the
works of Cato, Lucretius, Manilius, or Lucan
iii. imitation that lifts it free of the constraints imposed by Aristotle
wherein poets most properly do imitate to teach and delight, and to
imitate, borrow nothing of what is, hath been, or shall be: but range
only . . . into the divine consideration of what may be, and should
be”

2. The truth-value and didactic role of literature

a. Didactic effect of a poem depends up on the poet's power to move. It
depends up on the affective quality of poetry
b. Example of didactic role: Heroes are ideally presented and evils are
corrupt
c. Didactic role during the renaissance
i. The Renaissance critics adopted the Horatian formula that literature
should “teach and delight”.
ii. The prevailing renaissance version of this is that poetry teaches
delightfully.
iii. This was in answer to the medieval view that poetry is either
dangerous or a waste of time

3. The classical “Unities”

a. Renaissance writers added the doctrine of the “unity of place” to
Aristotle’s original demand for the unity of action and time

4. Notion of Verisimilitude
a. Renaissance critics asserted that poetry must be verisimilar in two
respects. This was based on the notion of verisimilitude:
i. It must imitate objects that are real, not fantastic
ii. Its manner of imitation must appear probable or at least possible to
the audience

5. The use of the vernacular

a. Many Renaissance writers write in the vernacular. Some of these writers
theorized and defended their practice.
b. The Protestant Reformation fostered vernacular translations of the Bible
as well as of liturgies and hymns.
c. The Renaissance writers were obliged to address controversial issues of
meter, rhyming, and versification in vernacular tongues.
 6. The definition of poetic genres such as narrative and drama
a. The Renaissance writers wrote in the ancient forms or genres of epic,
tragedy, and comedy to attain the ancient spirit.
b. They mould their style upon that of the great ancients.

7. The invention of new, mixed genres

a. The Renaissance critics did not accept the mixing of genres as
tragicomedy since it can destroy the sense of decorum. However,
Shakespeare is known for using this mixing of genre like his famous
“Romeo and Juliet”. The tragedy on this play was the death of the mains
characters, and the comedy on this instance was the satisfaction of the
main characters of reaching their aim on “’till death do us part”.
b. The Renaissance writers invent newer, characteristically humanist,
genres such as the essay and the dialogue form.
c. They focus on the epigram as an instrument of wit.

8. The use of rhyme in poetry

a. Renaissance writers rejected the regular stress-based alliterative meter of
medieval poets.
b. They rejected rhyme as an unclassical barbarism.
c. They searched for a new metrical basis for poetry and eventually
stimulated the growth of blank verse.

9. The relative values of quantitative and qualitative verse

a. Renaissance writers introduced classical quantitative meters, based on
length of syllables rather than stress, into vernacular languages

D. Charges Brought Against Poetry and Sidney’s Defense

The following cite the specific charges brought against poetry during the Renaissance
Period, and these were how Sidney defended poetry:
1. There are other kinds of knowledge more fruitful than poetry
a. Poetry is the source of knowledge and a civilizing force for Sidney.
b. Poetry corrupts the people and it is the waste of time, but Sidney says that
no learning is so good as that which teaches and moves to virtue and that
nothing can both teach and amuse so much as poetry does.
c. In essay societies, poetry was the main source of education. He
remembers ancient Greek society that respected poets. The poets are
always to be looked up. So, poetry is not wasted of time.
d. Sidney states that the greatest gifts bestowed upon human beings
are oratio and ratio, speech and reason
e. Sidney defended that it is poetry which most polishes the gift of speech,
and it “far exceedeth prose” on two accounts:
i. it engenders delight because of its meticulous ordering of words
ii. it is memorable
 f. Hence, since knowledge depends on memory, poetry has an affinity with
knowledge
g. Moreover, since poetry “teacheth and moveth to virtue,” there can be no
“more fruitful knowledge” than poetry

2. Poetry “is the mother of lies”

a. Sidney’s famous retort is that “the poet . . . nothing affirms, and therefore
never lie”
b. Sidney defended that the poet does not claim to be telling the truth; he is
not relating “what is, or is not, but what should or should not be… He is
writing “not affirmatively, but allegorically, and figuratively”
c. The poetic truths are ideal and universal; therefore, poetry cannot be a
mother of lies

3. Poetry abused men’s wit, training it to wanton sinfulness, and lustful love
a. Sidney defended that it is with particular poets who have abused their art,
not with the art itself
b. Sidney explained that it is not that “poetry abused man’s wit, but that,
man’s wit abused poetry”
c. Abuses are more nursed by philosophy and history than by poetry, by
describing battles, bloodshed, violence etc
d. On the contrary, poetry helps to maintain morality and peace by avoiding
such violence and bloodsheds; moreover, it brings light to knowledge

Sample Literature by Sidney and Its Interpretation

Philip Sidney used seduction literature, which can be seen as erotic literature, but
is more often used in the meaning of to lead. This would mean that he is guiding you
through his works, fitting in with the theme of literary criticism which was to guide the
reader through the works of the classics and into their newer theories.

Astrophil and Stella 1: Loving in truth, and fain in verse my love to show
By Sir Philip Sidney

Loving in truth, and fain in verse my love to show,

That she, dear she, might take some pleasure of my pain,—
Pleasure might cause her read, reading might make her know,
Knowledge might pity win, and pity grace obtain,—
I sought fit words to paint the blackest face of woe;
Studying inventions fine her wits to entertain,
Oft turning others' leaves, to see if thence would flow
Some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburn'd brain.
But words came halting forth, wanting invention's stay;
Invention, Nature's child, fled step-dame Study's blows;
 And others' feet still seem'd but strangers in my way.
Thus great with child to speak and helpless in my throes,
Biting my truant pen, beating myself for spite,
"Fool," said my Muse to me, "look in thy heart, and write."

The sequence “Astrophel and Stella” (written in the period 1581 –1583 and
published in 1591)contains 108 sonnets and 11 songs. The young courtier Astrophel is
the Greek for ‘star-lover’--“Stella” – the Latin for ‘star’.

Before the discussion of the sonnet sequence let us consider some facts from
the life of Sydney and Penelope Devereux and their relationship. The contemporaries of
Sydney believed them to be the prototypes of Astrophel and Stella. Sydney was
engaged to Penelope, the daughter of the earl of Essex – who eventually had a rather
unhappy marriage to Lord Rich. For the time Sydney was engaged to Penelope she
was 18-19. Penelope is identified as Stella, although she is said to have been rather
less virtuous than Stella.

The range of lexical means Sidney used in his cycle is wide. He used colloquial
words, introduced political, military, law terms enriching English poetry and national
language in the whole.

Sidney used two methods:

1. Compound epithets consisting of two or more words. This technique was
new for the English poetry. Sidney was considered to copy it from French poetry.
Writing about peculiarities of the English language Sidney noted that for his
native language “brilliant composition of two or three words” is characteristic.

2. The second method is inversion which has emotional and intellectual

character and makes the verse more musical and colored. For example in
the 11th Song: “Never doth thy beauty flourish More than in my reason’s sight”,
or in the 1st Song: “Doubt you, to whom my Muse these notes intendeth/ Only
with you not miracles are wonders”. Besides Sydney prefers to use one syllable
or two syllable words in his verse and sometimes there is about 10 short words in
the line, for example, sonnet 31: “With how sad steps, o Moone, thou climb’st the
skies”, 12 or sonnet 1: “Fool”, said my Muse to me, “Look in thy heart and
write…”

Activity 1
Direction: Discuss the following questions:

1. Philip Sidney as one of the greatest poet of his time

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. Influence of humanism during the Renaissance Period of Literature

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

3. Contributions of the Renaissance Period in literature

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

4. The Defense of Poesy considered as the early example of literary criticism

________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Activity 2
Directions: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if incorrect.

1. _________ Sidney argued that poetry should not be preempted as the first light
giver to ignorance that flourished before any other art or science.
2. _________ Sidney explained that poetry is divine and as well as prophetic.
3. _________ The end of poetry is to teach and please; hence it is usable to
society.
4. _________ Poetry inspires every individual to highlight the vices of the villains
and imitate the noble and virtuous action of heroes.
5. _________ Poetry is the most fruitful of all knowledge and it has the power to
teach and please and also moves its readers to virtuous action.
6. _________ In poetry lies are not deliberately stated; therefore the poet can not
be accused of lying.
7. _________ Poetry in itself is noble and that it can be the cause of any moral
corruption.
8. _________ Poetry has a universal appeal arising from the aesthetic appeal of its
words and phrases.
9. _________ Sidney defended that it is the poetry itself should be blamed of
abused in poetry.
 10. _________ Sidney defended that poetry is far better and effective than history
and philosophy

ASAQ
1. FALSE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4. FALSE
5. TRUE
6. TRUE
7. FALSE
8. TRUE
9. FALSE
10. TRUE

Activity 3
Direction: Agree or Disagree? Argue and defend your stand on the following
statements related to the charges against poetry:

1. Poetry is superior to all other branches of learning

________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________

2. Poetry nurses abuse of humanity

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3. Poetry is a double edged sword: It can be used badly or well

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________________________________________________________________

4. Poetry is an art of imitation

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 5. Poetry teaches and moves virtue
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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Activity 4
Directions: Analyze one of the sonnets compiled as collection in “Astrophel and
Stella” by Sir Philip Sidney based on the key features of Renaissance Literary
Criticism. Write at least three-page analysis of the given poem.

Astrophel and Stella by Sir Philip Sidney

1. Leave me, O Love, which reaches! but to dust,

2. And thou, my mind, aspire to higher things!
3. Corw rich in that which never taketh rust:
4. Whatever fades, but fading pleasure brings.
5. Draw in thy beams, and humble all thy might
6. To that sweet yoke where lasting freedoms be;
7. Which breaks the clouds and opens forth the light
8. That doth both shine and give us sight to see.
9. O! Take fast hold! let that light be thy guide
10. In this small coarse which birth draws out to death,
11. And think how evil becometh him to slide
12. Who seeketh Heaven, and comes of heavenly breath.
13. Then farewell, world! thy uttermost I see:
14. Eternal love, maintain thy life in me!

Key Features of Renaissance Literary Criticism:

A. Poetic Imitation (discuss what aspect of nature is imitated by the poem)

B. Didactic Effect (what are the examples of binary objects reflected in the poem;
how do these objects reflect the concept of “teach and delight”)
C. Unity of Place, Action, and Time (discuss the place, action, and time reflected
in the poem, and how they are related with one another)
D. Notion of Verisimilitude (are the imitated objects real or fictitious? How do they
appear probable to the audience?)
E. The Use of Vernacular (discuss the form of the poem based on the vernacular
used)
F. Poetic Genre (discuss the style of the writer)
References
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https://englishpost.org/literary-movements-renaissance/
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https://kidskonnect.com/history/renaissance/
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https://www.litcharts.com/lit/an-apology-for-poetry/summary
Literary Criticism Guide. (n.d.). Renaissance and neoclassical theorists and critics.
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and-neoclassical-theorists-and-critics
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the-renaissance/
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Poetry Foundation. (n.d.). Astrophil and stella: Loving in truth and fain in verse my love
to show. Retrieved from
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45152/astrophil-and-stella-1-loving-in-
truth-and-fain-in-verse-my-love-to-show
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Russel, W. M. (n.d.). Literary criticism. Retrieved from
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9780195399301-0212.xml
Sites. (n.d.). Sidneys defense of poetry. Retrieved from
https://sites.udel.edu/britlitwiki/sidneys-defense-of-poesy/
Slideshare. (n.d.). Philip Sidney an apology for poetry. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/stmaryspg2014/philip-sidney-an-apology-for-poetry
TPU. (n.d.). Renessans. Retrieved from
https://portal.tpu.ru/SHARED/g/GREDINA/four/Tab/renessans.pdf