PROJECT LOCUS (GRADE 11)

3rd Quarter

Statistics and Probability

STATISTICS - A branch of Mathematics that deals with the collection, organization,

presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data.

PROBABILITY - A number between 0 and 1, inclusive, expressing the

precise likelihood of an event happening.

Lesson: Random Variables

VARIABLE - a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.

Various letters of the alphabet, such as X, Y, or Z, are used to represent variables.

Classifications of Variables:
1. Qualitative - can be placed into distinct categories, according to some characteristic or
attribute.
2. Quantitative - are numerical and can be ordered or ranked.

Classifications of Quantitative Variables:

1. Discrete - assume values that can be counted.
2. Continuous - can assume an infinite number of values between any two specific values.
They are obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and decimals.

Types or Levels of Measurement Scales:

1. Nominal - classifies data into mutually exclusive (non overlapping) categories in
which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
2. Ordinal - classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however, precise
differences between the ranks do not exist.
3. Interval - ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do exist; however,
there is no meaningful zero.
4. Ratio - possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there exists a true
zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different
members of the population.

Lesson: Exploring Random Variables

EXPERIMENT - Any activity, which can be done repeatedly under similar conditions.
OUTCOME - A result of an experiment.
EVENT/SAMPLE POINT - A subset/element of a sample space.
VARIABLE - A characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.

RANDOM VARIABLE
A function that assigns a real number to each element of the sample space. It is a variable
whose values are determined by chance. Random variables are denoted by uppercase letters
such as X, Y, or Z and the realizations or the possible values of these random variables are
denoted by the corresponding lowercase letters like x ,y, or z.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF RANDOM VARIABLE:

DISCRETE VARIABLE - assume values that can be counted.
CONTINUOUS VARIABLE - can assume an infinite number of values between any two
specific values. They are obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and decimals.

Lesson: Illustrating and Calculating the Mean, Variance

and Standard Deviation of a Discrete Probability
Distribution

Mean – the sum of a collection of numerical data divided by the number of data items.
– the most reliable, but the most sensitive measure of average.
Variance – a measure based on the deviations of individual scores about the mean. It is
simply standard deviation squared.
Standard deviation – a measure of variability which is most commonly used as guide for the
degree of dispersion or spread. It is the square root of variance.
Mean of a Random Variable – the measure of the central location of a random variable. It is
also called the expected value. It is calculated as the weighted mean of the values where the
weights are their corresponding probabilities.
When all the values are constant, there are no variations in the possible values. Thus, all the
measures of variability will then be 0. A small value of standard deviation (or variance)
means that the dispersion of the random variable is narrowly concentrated around the mean.
A large value of standard deviation (or variance) means that the distribution is spread out,
with some possibility of observing values at some distance from the mean.

Formulas:
𝝁𝒙 = 𝑿𝟏 ∙ 𝑷(𝑿𝟏)+ 𝑿𝟐 ∙ 𝐏 (𝑿𝟐)+…+ 𝑿𝒏 ∙ 𝐏 (𝑿𝒏)
𝝈𝟐 = ∑[𝑿2 ∙ 𝑷(𝑿)] − 𝝁𝟐

𝝈 = 𝝈𝟐

Lesson: Solving problems involving the mean, variance

and standard deviation of a discrete probability
distribution and interpreting them

The concept of expected value is very useful in games of chance, where the participants are
interested in expected gains or losses. They look at some strategies or options that will help in
their decision-making so that they can maximize their gains and minimize their losses. Others
look at the price of their bets in games, and check whether it is fair or not.

A fair game occurs if the expected value of the gain (or loss) equals 0. This means that the
expected value of the total winnings is equal to the bet.

Problem:
A school organized a fund-raising activity, it involved selling of 500 raffle tickets. One ticket
costs P100. The lone winner of this raffle will receive P10 000. What is your expected net
gain if you buy one raffle ticket?

Solution:
Let X be the amount of the net gain for this fund-raising activity. The net gain is the
difference between the amount to be on and the ticket price. Thus, the possible values of X
are P9 900 (if you win) and - P100 (if you lose). Since there are 500 tickets, the probability of
1 499
winning is 500
and the probability of losing is 500
The expected value of X is,
1 499
E[X] = 9 900 ( 500 ) + (−100) ( 500 ) = -80

Note that the expected value is negative. This means that you expect a loss of P80 for each
raffle ticket you buy.

Lesson: Normal Random Variables

Normal random variable is a set of numerical value of continuous random variable which is
normally distributed.
Normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution for a random variable X. It also
represents the probability, or the proportion, or the percentage associated with specific sets of
measurement values.
It is also known as the Gaussian distribution in honor of the German mathematician Johann
Carl Friedrich Gauss who derived its equation.The graph of a normal distribution is called
the normal curve.

Formula:
The mathematical equation for a normal distribution is:
(𝑋−μ)2
𝑒−
y= 2 σ2

2 2π

● e ≈ 2.718
● π ≈ 3.14
● μ = the population mean
● σ = population standard deviation
● σ2 = variance

The shape and position of a normal distribution curve depend on two parameters, the mean
and the standard deviation. Each normally distributed variable has its own normal distribution
curve, which depends on the values of the variable’s mean and standard deviation.

A normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution for a random variable x. The

graph of a normal distribution is called the normal curve. A normal distribution is a
continuous, symmetric, bell-shaped distribution of a variable wherein the tails are asymptotic
to the x-axis.
Properties of the Theoretical Normal Distribution
1. A normal distribution curve is bell-shaped.
2. The mean, median, and mode are equal and are located at the center of the distribution.
3. A normal distribution curve is unimodal (i.e., it has only one mode).
4. The curve is symmetric about the mean, which is equivalent to saying that its shape is the
same on both sides of a vertical line passing through the center.
5. The curve is continuous; that is, there are no gaps or holes. For each value of X, there is a
corresponding value of Y.
6. The curve never touches the x axis. Theoretically, no matter how far in either direction the
curve extends, it never meets the x axis—but it gets increasingly closer.
7. The total area under a normal distribution curve is equal to 1.00, or 100%.
8. The area under the part of a normal curve that lies within 1 standard deviation of the mean
is approximately 0.68, or 68%; within 2 standard deviations, about 0.95, or 95%; and within 3
standard deviations, about 0.997, or 99.7%. It is called the 68%-95%-99.7% rule or the
EMPIRICAL rule.

Lesson: Understanding the Z score

Z-SCORE is a statistical measurement that describes a value's relationship to the mean of a

group of values. Z-score is measured in terms of standard deviations from the mean. If a
Z-score is 0, it indicates that the data point's score is identical to the mean score.

The area under the normal curve are given in terms of z-values or scores. The z-value leads to
the area under the curve found in the normal curve table, which is a probability, and that
probability gives the desired percentage for X.

The Table of Areas under the normal curve is known as the z-table.
𝑋−𝜇
𝑧= 𝜎

X- given measurement
𝜇 − 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝜎 − 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Problem:
Find the area under the standard normal curve between X = 40 and X = 55 with a mean of 50
and standard deviation of 10.

Solution:
𝑋−𝜇
𝑧= 𝜎

For x = 40 z = -1
For x = 55 z = 0.5

Area = Z0.5-Z-1
Area = .6915 - .1587
Area = .5328

Therefore, the area between 40 and 55 is 0.5328 or 53.28%.

Lesson: Identifying Region

Z-table
Is a table of areas under the normal curve. The z-table provides the proportion of the area
between any two specific values under the curve, regions under the curve can be described in
terms of area.

When the z-value is to the left or any related terms just write the value.
When the z-value is to the right or any related terms, subtract 1 by the value.
When the shaded region is in between of the two z-value, subtract the bigger by the smallest
value.
 Lesson: Identifying the Different Random Sampling
Techniques

POPULATION
It includes all of its elements from a set of data. The size of the population is the number of
observations in the population.
SAMPLE
It consists of one or more data drawn from the population.
RANDOM SAMPLING
is a sampling method of choosing representatives from the population wherein every sample
has an equal chance of being selected. Accurate data can be collected using random sampling
techniques.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Sampling techniques that involve random selection.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Sampling techniques that do not involve random selection of the data.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING:

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
the most basic random sampling wherein each element in the population has an equal
probability of being selected.
SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING
is a random sampling that uses a list of all the elements in the population and then elements
are being selected based on the kth consistent intervals. To get the kth interval, divide the
population size by the sample size.
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
is a random sampling wherein the population is divided into different strata or divisions. The
number of samples will be proportionately picked in each stratum that is why all strata are
represented in the samples.
CLUSTER SAMPLING
is a random sampling wherein population is divided into clusters or groups and then the
clusters are randomly selected. All elements of the clusters randomly selected are considered
the samples of the study.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
Wherein the researcher gathers data from nearby information exerting minimal
effort.Convenience is being used by persons giving questionnaires on the streets to ask the
passersby.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Or chain-referral sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling technique in which the
samples have traits that are rare to find. This is a sampling technique, in which existing
subjects provide referrals to recruit samples required for a research study.
VOLUNTEER SAMPLING
Sample units are volunteers in studies wherein the measuring process is painful or
troublesome to a respondent.

Lesson: Computing for the Parameter and Statistics

PARAMETER
is a measure that is used to describe the population.
STATISTIC
is a measure that is used to describe the sample.

Formulas:
POPULATION
Σ𝑋
𝝁 (mean) = 𝑁

Σ𝑋−𝝁)2
𝝈𝟐 (variance) = 𝑁

Σ𝑋−𝝁)2
𝝈 (standard deviation) = 𝑁

SAMPLE
Σ𝑋
X̅ (mean) = 𝑁

Σ𝑋−𝑥̅̅)2
S2 (variance) = 𝑁
 Σ𝑋−𝑥̅)2
S (standard deviation) = 𝑁

Lesson: Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

Sampling distribution of the sample means is a frequency distribution using the computed
sample mean from all the possible random samples of a particular sample size taken from the
given population.

1. Determine the number of sets of all possible random samples that can be drawn from the
given population by using the formula, NCn, where N is the population size and n is the
sample size.
2. List all the possible random samples and solve for the sample mean of each set of samples.
3. Construct a frequency and probability distribution table of the sample means indicating its
number of occurrence or the frequency and probability.

Lesson: Central Limit Theorem

If a random sample of size n is drawn from a population, then as n becomes larger, the
sampling distribution of the mean approaches the normal distribution, regardless of the shape
of the population distribution.

1. The population mean is equal to the mean of sampling distribution.

2. If we divide the population variance by sample size, it is equal to the variance of
sample distribution.
3. If we divide the population standard deviation by the square root of the sample size, it
is equal to the standard deviation of sample distribution.