Viewpoints which Matter

Philosophy | Psychology | Ecology | Sociology | Economics | Finance | Strategy | Scenarios | Futures |

Foresight | Operational Research | Complexity | Networks | Systems | Dynamics

What are Problem

Structuring Methods?

What are Problem Structuring Methods?

Source: PROBLEM STRUCTURING IN PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS

Problem structuring methods provide a methodological complement to

theories of policy design. Arguably, structuring a problem is a
prerequisite of designing solutions for that problem.4 In this context,
problem structuring methods are metamethods. They are “about” and
“come before” processes of policy design and other forms of problem
solving.

Source: Strategic Development: Methods and Models

 Advertisements

PRIVACY REPORT THIS AD

KEY TERMS

PSM
Soft OR
Hard OR
Unstructured Problems
Systems
System Sciences
SODA Strategic Options Development and Analysis
SSM Soft Systems Methodology
SCA Strategic Choice Approach
Robustness Analysis
Drama Theory
Interactive Planning
Scenario Planning
Critical Systems Heuristics
SWOT
Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing
Viable Systems Model VSM
System Dynamics
Decision Conferencing
Multi-methodology
John Mingers
Jonathan Rosenhead
John Morecroft
MC Jackson
Operational Research
Problem Structuring Methods PSM
Sta!ord Beer
Robert Dyson
Jay Forrester
Russell Acko!
Robert Flood
Peter Checkland
Group Model Building
Behaviour Operational Research
Community Operations Research
Ill-structured versus Well-structured Problems
Wicked Versus Tame Problems
Ill-Defined versus Well-Defined Problems
Nigel Howard
Metagames
 Hypergames

Advertisements

PRIVACY REPORT THIS AD

PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS

Source: Past, present and future of problem structuring methods

The problematic situations for which PSMs aim to provide analytic assistance are
characterized by

Multiple actors,
Di!ering perspectives,
Partially conflicting interests,
Significant intangibles,
Perplexing uncertainties.

The relative salience of these factors will di!er between situations (and di!erent
methods are selective in the emphasis given to them). However, in all cases there is a
meta-characteristic, that of complexity, arising out of the need to comprehend a
tangle of issues without being able to start from a presumed consensual formulation.
For an introduction to PSMs, see Rosenhead and Mingers, 2001

Source: Problem structuring methods in action

Strategic options development and analysis (SODA) is a general problem

identification method that uses cognitive mapping as a modelling device
for eliciting and recording individuals’ views of a problem situation. The
merged individual cognitive maps (or a joint map developed within a
workshop session) provide the framework for group discussions, and a
facilitator guides participants towards commitment to a portfolio of
actions.

Soft systems methodology (SSM) is a general method for system redesign.

Participants build ideal-type conceptual models (CMs), one for each
relevant world view. They compare them with perceptions of the existing
system in order to generate debate about what changes are culturally
feasible and systemically desirable.

Strategic choice approach (SCA) is a planning approach centered on

managing uncertainty in strategic situations. Facilitators assist
participants to model the interconnectedness of decision areas.
Interactive comparison of alternative decision schemes helps them to
bring key uncertainties to the surface. On this basis the group identifies
priority areas for partial commitment, and designs explorations and
contingency plans.

Robustness analysis is an approach that focuses on maintaining useful

flexibility under uncertainty. In an interactive process, participants and
analysts assess both the compatibility of alternative initial commitments
with possible future configurations of the system being planned for, and
the performance of each configuration in feasible future environments.
This enables them to compare the flexibility maintained by alternative
initial commitments.

Drama theory draws on two earlier approaches, meta games and hyper
games. It is an interactive method of analysing co-operation and conflict
among multiple actors. A model is built from perceptions of the options
available to the various actors, and how they are rated. Drama theory
looks for the “dilemmas” presented to the actors within this model of the
situation. Each dilemma is a change point, tending to cause an actor to
feel specific emotions and to produce rational arguments by which the
model itself is redefined. When and only when such successive
redefinitions have eliminated all dilemmas is the actors’ joint problem
fully resolved. Analysts commonly work with one of the parties, helping it
to be more e!ective in the rational-emotional process of dramatic
resolution. (Descriptions based substantially on Rosenhead, 1996.)

Given the ill-defined location of the PSM/non- PSM boundary, there are
a number of other methods with some currency that have at least certain
family resemblances. These include critical systems heuristics (CSH)
(Ulrich, 2000), interactive planning (Acko!, 1981), and strategic
assumption surfacing and testing (Mason and Mitro!, 1981). Other
related methods which feature in this special issue are SWOT (Weihrich,
1998), scenario planning (Schoemaker, 1998), and the socio-technical
systems approach (Trist and Murray, 1993). Those which are particularly
close to the spirit of PSMs in at least some of their modes of use, and
therefore thought to merit inclusion in Rosenhead and Mingers (2001),
are the following:

Viable systems model (VSM) is a generic model of a viable organization

based on cybernetic principles. It specifies five notional systems that
should exist within an organization in some form––operations, co-
ordination, control, intelligence, and policy, together with the
appropriate control and communicational relationships. Although it was
developed with a prescriptive intent, it can also be used as part of a
debate about problems of organizational design and redesign (Harnden,
1990).

System dynamics(SD) is a way of modelling peoples’ perceptions of real-

world systems based especially on causal relationships and feedback. It
was developed as a traditional simulation tool but can be used, especially
in combination with influence diagrams (causal–loop diagrams), as a
way of facilitating group discussion (Lane, 2000; Vennix, 1996).

Decision conferencing is a variant of the more widely known “decision

analysis”. Like the latter, it builds models to support choice between
decision alternatives in cases where the consequences may be
multidimensional; and where there may be uncertainty about future
events which a!ect those consequences. What distinguishes decision
conferencing is that it operates in workshop mode, with one or more
facilitators eliciting from the group of participants both the structure of
the model, and the probabilities and utilities to be included in it. The aim
is cast, not as the identification of an objectively best solution, but as the
achievement of shared understanding, the development of a sense of
common purpose, and the generation of a commitment to action
(Phillips, 1989; Watson and Buede, 1987).

There are a number of texts which present a di!erent selection of “softer”

 methods than do Rosenhead and Mingers. These include Flood and
Jackson (1991), who concentrate on systems-based methods, Dyson and
O’Brien (1998) who consider a range of hard and soft approaches in the
area of strategy formulation; and Sorensen and Vidal (1999) who make a
wide range of methods accessible to a Scandinavian readership. There is
clearly an extensive repertoire of methods available. In fact it is common
to combine together a number of PSMs, or PSMs together with more
traditional methods, in a single intervention––a practice known as
multimethodology (Mingers and Gill, 1997). So the range of
methodological choice is wider even than a simple listing of methods
might suggest.

Advertisements

PRIVACY REPORT THIS AD

Source: Are project managers ready for the 21th challenges? A review of problem
structuring methods for decision support
BENEFITS OF PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS

Source: Are project managers ready for the 21th challenges? A review of problem
structuring methods for decision support

MY RELATED POSTS

Systems and Organizational Cybernetics

Micro Motives, Macro Behavior: Agent Based Modeling in Economics

Production and Distribution Planning : Strategic, Global, and Integrated

Drama Theory: Choices, Conflicts and Dilemmas

Drama Theory: Acting Strategically

Quantitative Models for Closed Loop Supply Chain and Reverse Logistics

Hierarchical Planning: Integration of Strategy, Planning, Scheduling, and Execution

Stock Flow Consistent Input Output Models (SFCIO)

Stock Flow Consistent Models for Ecological Economics

Gantt Chart Simulation for Stock Flow Consistent Production Schedules

Shell Oil’s Scenarios: Strategic Foresight and Scenario Planning for the Future

Water | Food | Energy | Nexus: Mega Trends and Scenarios for the Future

Global Trends, Scenarios, and Futures: For Foresight and Strategic Management

HP’s Megatrends

Global Flow of Funds: Statistical Data Matrix across National Boundaries

Credit Chains and Production Networks

Supply Chain Finance (SCF) / Financial Supply Chain Management (F-SCM)

Financial Social Accounting Matrix

Morris Copeland and Flow of Funds accounts

Systems Biology: Biological Networks, Network Motifs, Switches and Oscillators

Oscillations and Amplifications in Demand-Supply Network Chains

Portfolio Planning Models for Corporate Strategic Planning

Cyber-Semiotics: Why Information is not enough

Truth, Beauty, and Goodness: Integral Theory of Ken Wilber

KEY SOURCES OF RESEARCH

UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOUR IN PROBLEM STRUCTURING
METHODS INTERVENTIONS WITH ACTIVITY THEORY.

White, L., Burger, K., & Yearworth, M. (2016).

European Journal of Operational Research, 249(3), 983-1004.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2015.07.044

Click to access EJOR_AT_final.pdf

https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/understanding-behaviour-
in-problem-structuring-methods-interventi

“IS VALUE FOCUSED THINKING A PROBLEM STRUCTURING

METHOD OR SOFT OR OR WHAT?”

Keisler, Je!rey,

(2012).

Management Science and Information Systems Faculty Publication Series. Paper 42.

http://scholarworks.umb.edu/msis_faculty_pubs/42

RATIONAL ANALYSIS FOR A PROBLEMATIC WORLD REVISITED:

PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS FOR COMPLEXITY,
UNCERTAINTY AND CONFLICT

John Mingers, Jonathan Rosenhead

2001 Book Second ed.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS: A

LITERATURE REVIEW
 Authors:
Christopher Smith
Duncan Shaw

https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-
characteristics-of-problem-structuring-methods-a-literature-review(e4bbf605-
6df1-4a33-853c-2bc17dc18a8e).html

PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS IN ACTION

John Mingers a,*, Jonathan Rosenhead b

a Warwick Business School, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK

b London School of Economics, Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, UK

European Journal of Operational Research 152 (2004) 530–554

Click to access Problem%20structuring%20methods%20in%20action.pdf

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Problem-structuring-methods-in-action-
Mingers-Rosenhead/752fdb5dfaddbc0a7946f281a9c454d6f4203542

Click to access Problem%20structuring%20methods%20in%20action.pdf

INTRODUCTION TO THE SPECIAL ISSUE: TEACHING SOFT O.R.,

PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS, AND MULTIMETHODOLOGY.

John Mingers, Jonathan Rosenhead, (2011)

INFORMS Transactions on Education 12(1):1-

3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/ited.1110.0073

Click to access Mingers-Rosenberg-PSM-SoftOR.pdf

https://pubsonline.informs.org/toc/ited/12/1
PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS, 1950S-1989: AN ATLAS OF
THE JOURNAL LITERATURE

Georgiou, Ion and Heck, Joaquim,

Advertisements

PRIVACY REPORT THIS AD

(June 26, 2017).

Available at
SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3077648 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.307764
8

https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3077648

“AN INVESTIGATION ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A PROBLEM

STRUCTURING METHOD IN A GROUPDECISION-MAKING
PROCESS”

Thaviphoke, Ying.

(2020). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dissertation, Engineering Management, Old

Dominion University,

DOI: 10.25777/cx7x-z403
https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/emse_etds/182

WHAT’S THE PROBLEM? AN INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM

STRUCTURING METHODS

Jonathan Rosenhead

Published Online:1 Dec 1996

https://doi.org/10.1287/inte.26.6.117
Click to access Whats-the-Problem-An-Introduction-to-Problem-Structuring-
Methods.pdf

PROBLEM STRUCTURING IN PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS

William N. Dunn
Graduate School of Public and International A!airs University of Pittsburgh

Click to access 5ae!35b03d17.pdf

PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE OF PROBLEM STRUCTURING

METHODS

J Rosenhead

London School of Economics, London, UK

Journal of the Operational Research Society (2006), 1–7

Click to access Past-present-and-future-of-problem-structuring-methods.pdf

FRAMING AND REFRAMING AS A CREATIVE PROBLEM

STRUCTURING AID

Victoria J Mabin, and John Davies Management Group Victoria University of

Wellington PO Box 600 Wellington
email: vicky.mabin@vuw.ac.nz

Tel +4-495 5140

email: john.davies@vuw.ac.nz Tel + 4-471 5382
Fax + 4-471 2200

https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/30614144/orsnz-proceedings-1995-34.pdf?
1361216487=&response-content-
disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DFraming_and_reframing_as_a_creative_pr
ob.pdf&Expires=1626149131&Signature=V6Zo9F5rfLMfIl0pK6SfjzVgBXl8aTOctBtrtA
JwgQRVR7Ku4PV5E5476Rr3M6DCBIi~D2e9rkXXA2~lxyntYpH83a2NKd74H9BbrGov
z9K73hi0T4grwSxStGKm2OHoihoVS0t5hcMIyxvPEgORg-
dnR3ZAojdSOJOvpeOERWQ4NMGgKX9yneAYunj8HzLThPb2w0ObHyUW~t0NR5E65
VG5hWYA6r-X1THswfrJ7Ot06kNZhmToUZK5py-
0JQ7GAGvzPutYcDEOOtKQCkyBDXskRIVYDo-NZzc5ETJfTg4~cKkd5X8fIMylCqtoz-
VwfziyeAkta-nYK89O5MU2BA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA

REASSESSING THE SCOPE OF OR PRACTICE: THE INFLUENCES OF

PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS AND THE ANALYTICS
MOVEMENT

Ranyard, J.C., Fildes, R. and Hun, T-I (2014).

(LUMS Working Paper 2014:8).

Lancaster University: The Department of Management Science.

Click to access Global_OR_Practice_EJOR_acepted_WorkingPaper.pdf

REASONING MAPS FOR DECISION AID: AN INTEGRATED

APPROACH FOR PROBLEM-STRUCTURING AND MULTI-CRITERIA
EVALUATION

G Montibeller1∗, V Belton2, F Ackermann2 and L Ensslin3

1London School of Economics, London, UK; 2University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK;

and 3Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianópolis, Brazil

Journal of the Operational Research Society (2008) 59, 575–589

Click to access Reasoning-maps-for-decision-aiding-An-integrated-approach-

for-problem-structuring-and-multi-criteria-evaluation-Journal-of-the-
Operational-Research-Society-59-575-589.pdf
SPECIAL ISSUE ON PROBLEM STRUCTURING RESEARCH AND
PRACTICE

Fran Ackermann • L. Alberto Franco • Etiënne Rouwette • Leroy White

EURO J Decis Process (2014) 2:165–172 DOI 10.1007/s40070-014-0037-6

Click to access s40070-014-0037-6.pdf

SOFT OR COMES OF AGE – BUT NOT EVERYWHERE!

Mingers, John (2011)

ISSN 0305-0483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omega.2011.01.005

Omega, 39 (6). pp. 729-741

Click to access Soft_OR_Omega1rev%202%20final.pdf

AN INVESTIGATION ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A PROBLEM

STRUCTURING METHOD IN A GROUP DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

Ying Thaviphoke
Old Dominion University, ythav001@odu.edu

2020

https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1182&context=emse_etds

OR COMPETENCES: THE DEMANDS OF PROBLEM STRUCTURING

METHODS

Richard John Ormerod

EURO J Decis Process (2014) 2:313–340

DOI 10.1007/s40070-013-0021-6

Click to access s40070-013-0021-6.pdf

HARD OR, SOFT OR, PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS,

CRITICAL SYSTEMS THINKING: A PRIMER

Hans G. Daellenbach

Department of Management University of Canterbury Christchurch, NZ

h.daellenbach@mang.canterbury.ac.nz

Click to access Daellenbach.pdf

ARE PROJECT MANAGERS READY FOR THE 21TH CHALLENGES? A

REVIEW OF PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS FOR DECISION
SUPPORT

José Ramón San Cristóbal Mateo

Emma Diaz Ruiz de Navamuel

María Antonia González Villa

https://repositorio.unican.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10902/13669/ijispm-
050203.pdf?sequence=1

TOWARDS A NEW FRAMEWORK FOR EVALUATING SYSTEMIC

PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS

Gerald Midgley Robert Y. Cavana John Brocklesby , Je! L. Foote David R.R. Wood ,
Annabel Ahuriri-Driscoll

European Journal of Operational Research 229 (2013) 143–154

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377221713000945

PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS

Jonathan Rosenhead1

Chapter in book

(1) The London School of Economics and Political Science, London, England

Advertisements

PRIVACY REPORT THIS AD

Kluwer Academic Publishers 2001

https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-0611-X_806

Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science

2001 Edition | Editors: Saul I. Gass, Carl M. Harris

Click to access Problem-Structuring-Methods.pdf

BEYOND PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS: REINVENTING THE

FUTURE OF OR/MS

Author(s): M. C. Jackson

Source: The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 57, No. 7, Special Issue:
Problem Structuring Methods (Jul., 2006), pp. 868-878

Published by: Palgrave Macmillan Journals on behalf of the Operational Research

Society

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4102274

Click to access Beyond-Problem-Structuring-Methods-Reinventing-the-Future-
of-OR-MS.pdf

STRATEGIC DEVELOPMENT: METHODS AND MODELS

Robert G. Dyson (Editor), Frances A. O’Brien (Editor)

ISBN: 978-0-471-97495-6

May 1998 346 Pages

https://www.wiley.com/en-al/Strategic+Development:+Methods+and+Models-p-
9780471974956

GROUP MODEL BUILDING:

PROBLEM STRUCTURING, POLICY SIMULATION AND DECISION
SUPPORT

David F. Andersen, University at Albany

Jac A.M. Vennix, Radboud University Nijmegen George P. Richardson, University at
Albany Etiënne A.J.A. Rouwette, Radboud University Nijmegen

Click to access JORS06.pdf

REASSESSING THE SCOPE OF OR PRACTICE: THE INFLUENCES OF

PROBLEM STRUCTURING METHODS AND THE ANALYTICS
MOVEMENT

J. C. Ranyard, R. Fildes* and Tun-I Hu

The Department of Management Science Lancaster University Management School

Lancaster LA1 4YX
UK

Click to access Global_OR_Practice_EJOR_acepted_WorkingPaper.pdf

 Advertisements

PRIVACY REPORT THIS AD

Author: Mayank Chaturvedi

You can contact me using this email mchatur at the rate of AOL.COM. My professional profile
is on Linkedin.com. View all posts by Mayank Chaturvedi

Mayank Chaturvedi / July 14, 2021 / Business Dynamics, Change Management, Cognitive Science,
Complex Systems, Complex Thought, Complexity, Corporate Development, Drama Theory,
Management Consulting, Non-linear Dynamics, Operational Research, Operations Research,
Organizational Learning, Public Policy, Scenario Planning, Scenarios and Simulations, strategic
management, Strategic Planning, System Dynamics, Systems Theory and Cybernetics / Behaviour
Operational Research, Community Operational Research, Critical Systems Heuristics, Decisions
Conferencing, Drama Theory, Group Model Building, Hard OR, IllDefined Problems, Illstructured
Problems, Interactive Planning, Jay Forrester, John Mingers, John Morecroft, Jonathan Rosenhead, MC
Jackson, Messy Problems, Multi Methodology, Operational Research, Peter Checkland, Problem
Structuring Methods, PSM, Robert Dyson, Robert Flood, Robustness Analysis, Russell Ackoff, Scenario
Planning, Soft OR, Soft System Methodology, Stafford Beer, Strategic Assumption Surfacing and
Testing, Strategic Choice Approach, Strategic Options Development and Analysis, SWOT, System
Sciences, Systems Dynamics, Unstructured Problems, Viable Systems Model, Wicked Problems

3 thoughts on “What are Problem

Structuring Methods?”

Pingback: Frames in Interaction – Viewpoints which Matter

Pingback: Scenarios: Frames of Possibilities and Plausibilities – Viewpoints which

Matter
Pingback: System Archetypes: Stories that Repeat – Viewpoints which Matter

Viewpoints which Matter / Create a free website or blog at WordPress.com.