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THE COMPUTER-CONTROLLED MANUFACTURING

CELL - ACHIEVEMENTS, POSSIBILITIES AND
PERSPECTIVES
J. Hatvany*, M. HOTvath** and J. Som16*
'Compu ter and Automation Institute, Hungaria n Academy of Sciences, /1 - / 502 Buda/mt.
P .O.B . 63 , Hungary
**B udapest T echnical University, H-IIII Budapest, Muegyetem rkp. J -}, H UllgGl)'

Abstract. Groups of highly versatile machine tools , controlled by microcomputers, linked by robotic devices
and able to communicate directly with computer-aided design , planning and scheduling systems are changing
the face of today 's manufacturing plants. Using sophisticated monitoring arrangements, they are able to operate
unattended during the second and third shifts. They can machine parts with very complicated shapes, using 5 or
more degrees of freedom . Thus the mode of operation, the products and the organization of the factory are
radically transformed and require personnel with new, higher skills to design and operate them . The case study
reviews the emergence of computer-controlled manufacturing cells in the Hungarian context , including the new
societal, research , development and educational requirements and the measures taken to satisfy them .

Kevwords. Computer control; machine tools; manufacturing systems; adaptive systems; optimisation ;
education; manufacturing cells.

INTRODUCTION more strictly technological topics are directed towards acquiring

The process of unattended, automatic manufacturing can be
likened to an iceberg. whose essential parts lie not in the spec-
tacular pinnacle jutting out of the water, but in the weighty
masses under the surface. The results of an extremely broad
range of research areas , from cutting technology to artificial in-
telligence. have to be available to permit the manufacturing
process to be continued unmanned (or almost unmanned) in the
second and third shifts.
For a small country with a mediocre level of development, such
as Hungary , there is considerable temptation to attain the
standards of the most advanced industrial nations by purchasing
the pinnacle of the iceberg. This , however, is not a practicable
option, for if we lack the necessary background in research and
development the tremendous problems of effective implemen-
tation will drastically reduce the efficiency of the technology we
have bought. To pursue our analogy: the pinnacle will itself turn
into a new iceberg, with almost no pinnacle.
Hungarian industry , as the prospective user of these new techno-
logies, has therefore considered it important to establish an
indigenous research and development potential. The machine
tool, the electronic and the computer industries are also
interested as po ssible producers, both for the domestic and
foreign markets. If we add to this the fact that access to the
latest foreign technologies is often barred to us by a number of
factors (politically motivated embargos, monopolistic strategies.
lack of foreign currencies, etc.), it becomes obvious that a
national CAD/CAM research and development effort is of key
significance for our industry .
One of the important characteristics of conditions in this country
is the lack of mammoth-sized companies and research institutes.
The only way, therefore , to assemble the requisite concentration
of intellectual and material resources, was to arrange for a
voluntary association of the various institutions concerned , based
on a communit y of interests . This materialized in the form of the
Production Engineering Research and Development Association,
comprising the Mechanical Engineering Faculties of the Budapest
and Miskolc Technical Universities, the Computer and Auto-
mation Institute and the Machine Industry's Institute of
Technology . The main goal of this Association is to conduct both
fundamental and problem-oriented research and development
with a view to establishing primarily the under-water mass of the
iceberg. The tip can then be added by the various manufacturing
companies.
The range of the Association's activities is very broad indeed . The
deeper knowledge of the manufacturing process, leading to .
better modelling, optimization and diagnostic capabilities. The
object of the work on machine tools is to develop morphologi-
cal structures that will better satisfy the requirements of the
automatic workshop and make the best use of the possibilities
opened up by electronics, particularly in the substitution of
electronic devices for many of the elements of the formerl y
mechanical kinematic chains. Another important area is the
development of local handling devices (robots, robot-cars,
pallet-changers, etc.) to serve as building blocks for manu-
facturing systems.
A considerable amount of work is in progress to investigate new
systems for the control both of individual machines and also
groups of machine tools. These systems are expected to have
adaptive and quasi-adaptive facilities, with simultaneous multi-
-axis operation, process monitoring and quality control features.
New systems for NC programming . manufacturing planning and
production scheduling have been introduced . These have been
designed to satisfy requirements beyond those of pro cess
automation and of CAD/CAM in the now co nventional senses.
Other ongoing research aims to incorporate the new lo cal-area
network philosophies, new languages (GESAL , ADA ,
PROLOG) , developments in both the hardware and so ftware
aspects of computer graphics, geometri c modelling , CAD frame
systems, new data-base handling method s, finite-element
analysis, new man-machine communicatio n systems (e.g. the
"soft-key" approach) and a fairly broad range of AI tools (e.g.
pattern recognition and expert systems).
Work on the analysis and design of large systems is intended to
develop a set of tools and techniques with which the computer-
-integrated manufacturing and data processing systems of the
future can be designed from the outset for their components
(both physical and logical) to link to each other with the
maximum of functional efficiency. It is hoped that this will
enable us to assemble large. cooperative systems with relative
ease, from modules of, say, the manufacturing cell level.
The Association has a joint experimental plant which is also used
for undergraduate and po st-graduate training and research.
The effectiveness of the joint endeavours carried out by the
members of the Association is born o ut by a number of research
results that have been successfully transferred to industrial use.
These include several NC programming and process planning
systems (FORTAP , TAUPROG , GLEDA , GTIPROG , FAUN) ,
geometric modellers (FFS . ruled and translational surfaces,
MODBUILD ), FEM systems, a graphic co mputer , 3D a nd 50

29 65
2966 J. Hatvany, M. Horvath and J. Sorn16
machining centres and their CNC units, several flexible manu,
facturing systems, etc.
The Association operates in close liaison with a number of
Hungarian companies, such as the Csepel and SZIM machine
tool works, the control manufacturers EMG and VI LAn, the
VIDEOTON computer factory, the IKARUS bus factory, etc.
Cooperation with these companies usually extends right through
to the conclusion of :i period of experimental operation.
At this time, most of the work of the Association is clustered
around the development of manufacturing cells that can operate
untended in the second and third shifts.
THE MANUFACTURING CELL
A manufacturing cell is the smallest autonomous unit of an
integrated material and data processing system. This interpre-
tation is by no means universally accepted - some authors
identify the manufacturing cell with an entire flexible manu-
facturing system, while others would use the term to describe a
single workstation (e.g. a machine tool with its robot or pallet
changer and buffer store). Our definition lies closer to the latter
version - a cell consists of one, or at most a few machine tools,
a buffer store and local material handling equipment.
In the IIllmanned manufacturing environment the manufacturing
cell is expected to
• machine the workpieces;
• carry out local handling (of tools, fixtures, workpieces and
gauges);
• monitor the manufacturing process automatically;
• control product quality;
• exercise supervisory and scheduling functions.
The cell must be able to communicate directly with the higher
levels of production control, process planning, quality control
and workflow control.
If the interpretation of the cell concept whose outlines have just
been sketched is accepted, we may derive the five-level control
schematic shown in Fig. l.
FACTORY
~
WORKSHOP
~ mizing and seJf-Qrganizing abilities.
VIRT UA L
FMS
~ intelligence technologies involving expert and reasoning systems
CELL
~ with the requirements of the third intelligence level and its first
MACHI NE
Fig. I. A five·level manufacturing control schematic.
Factory level control is concerned with product and tooling
design, process planning (including workshop selection), stock
and cost calculations, order processing and long-term production
planning.
The workshop level dei ermines the manufacturing sequence best
suited to the momentary production situation, i.e. it allocates
resources (cells and their workstations. materials, tools, fLXtures,
storage space, etc.) with respect to the workpieces (or their
homogenous groups) that are to be produced. Our interpretation
of this production control activity is that the workshop-level
control system configures its own resources into virtual manu-
facturing systems for various tasks, supervises the operation of
these dynamically changing and partly overlapping manufacturing
systems, performs short-term scheduling and resolves conflict
situations between the manufacturing systems, in accordance
with the various workpiece priorities. Workshop-level control also
carries out the supervisory functions concerned with its stores,
workshop-level material handling and shared measuring machines.
The virtual manufacturing system and its controls can not be
physically identified as a concrete set of resources (cells,
workstations, etc.), but rather as a dynamically changing
conceptual grouping of separate data processing and control
functions, data and cells. Its basic job is to deal with the particu-
lar product batch for which the workshop control level created
it. During its existence it carries out its own internal scheduling
and supervisory functions in close cooperation with those of the
workshop control.
The cell control matches the operation of the various machines
in its domain with one another, carries out the higher level
process and quality control functions and should be capable of
partially replanning the manufacturing process. Finally the
machine-level controls (of the machine tools, robots, robot cars,
coordinate measuring machines, etc.) are required to perform the
ground-level quality and process control functions and also some
of the simpler real-time process planning tasks.
The most spectacular and significant recent advance in auto-
mation has been the shift in levels of intelligence, particularly
the enhancement of local intelligence. A manufacturing cell is
therefore inherently considered "intelligent" and also as
consisting of "intelligent" machines. The exact levels of
intelligence necessary (and possible) for the cell and its
components will, however, differ according to the circumstances
of their structure and operation.
At the lowest level of intelligence the cell is capable only of
simple reactions, e.g. exchanging a broken tool, compensating for
the effect of a worn one, switching off in alarm situations, etc. A
second level will include planning tasks requiring computation
(e.g. the determination of trajectories and motion conditions)
and the solution of simple, parametric optimisation problems.
The ability to adapt to economic and technical circumstances can
be regarded as a third level of intelligence. This involves opti-
mizing adaptive control, higher-level automatic process
monitoring and quality control, and some relatively simple
learning capabilities. Finally, the highest level of intelligence
involves a cell with high-level planning, learning, structural opti-
Intelligence may be shared between the cell controller and the
controllers of its devices in a number of different ways. But
whatever the sharing strategy may be, the third and fourth levels
of intelligence certainly imply the use of various machine
and advanced knowledge-bases (comprising both active and
meta-knowledge) that are able to proceed beyond mere facts and
figures.
Our present development aim in Hungary is a cell that complies
application is to the manufacture of box-like or prismatic parts.
This does not, of course, mean that we do not intend at a sub-
sequent stage to proceed to higher intelligence levels, but merely
that in our view further, long-range scientific research is required
to create the tools of higher-level learning, problem·solving,
stru.:tural optimization, seJf-Qrganization and of sophisticated
expert systems. At present these appear to be mainly destined for
the workshop-level control activity.
The machine tool used in the cell is able to machine the part from
five sides in a single clamping position. It can mill oblique
planes, drill holes in any direction and machine complicated
 The Computer-controlled Manufacturing Ce ll
surfaces. The automatic quality control arrangements correct
dimensional, shape and alignment errors and maintain the
surface finish within given limits.
An analysis of surfaces in hydraulic machinery, dies and moulds
has led to the conclusion that the class of "complex" surfaces is
most frequently represented by ruled, translatioll2l and non-
-analytic (sculptured) ones, whose most productive manu-
facturing technology by milling is the use of S-axis machining .
Considering the drilling and the simpler plane milling operations
that also have to be performed, it was evident that the machine
would have to be a machining centre.
The most appropriate kinematic arrangement for our purposes
was found to be that shown in Fig.2. This represents as-axis
machining centre with horizontal spindle, where both the
rotational displacements are performed by the workpiece. A
structure where the tool would perform one of the rotations
would have been of equivalent merit, but it was found easier to
build the experimental prototype according to the fust alter-
native.
8' ,4
z
c
y
Fig. 2. The kinematic arrangement of a S-axis horizontal
machining centre.
The prime advantage of this machine is that it allows a very high
concentration of operations, since all surfaces on any of the five
faces of the part can be machined with a single clamping
operation. Compared to a simpler, 3-axis machine up to a dozen
clamping positions can be contracted into a single one and a
host of fixtures can also be saved . The S-axis morphology,
moreover, allows all spatial aligllment errors to be compensated
and - other conditions being equal - this will itself increase
machining accuracy.
The machine tool must have automatic tool breakage detection
and replacement , vibration sensing, diagnosis and elimination,
noise and other acoustic emission monitoring, thermal sensing
and temperature compensation at critical points. A number of
techniques have been developed for each of these tasks and they
are now being experimentally tested. A particularly important
property of the machine is a constraint control loop and a quasi-
-adaptive behaviour aimed primarily at compensating geometri-
cal errors. It is equipped with a pallet changer , but we are also
investigating methods for using robots to handle box-like and
prismatic parts.
The cell controller performs supervisory and report-writing
functions , maintains communication with the higher control
levels, stores the required machining programs and carries out
the more complex optimizing and adaptive control, quality
control and monitoring functions. The latter two are supported
by expert systems.
At the basic level , the control unit of the machining centre
carries out motion instructions and performs real-time transfor-
mations and tool compensation calculations. One level higher , it
2967
can generate tool paths and has simple adaptive and quasi-
adaptive abilities. It receives and processes quality control and
process monitoring information from both the sensors and the
cell controller. The unit therefore also has to posses certain
simple learning capabilities.
The real-time calculations require the computing unit of the
machine controller to be fast, with quick input facilities that
enable it to be linked to the NC programming computer even
when very long programs are involved .
Figure 3 is a simple diagram of the machine tool controller. Here,
adaptive optimization, secondary optimization and computing
the input signals to the quasi-adaptive correction facility, have all
been considered to be cell functions . The tasks of the NC part of
the control unit can well include the planning of tool trajectories.
The separation of functions is, of course, partly arbitrary, indeed
the cell controller and machine controller can even be built as
one physical unit.
Fig. 3. Functional schematic of the machine tool controller.
Apart from the familiar functions of NC programming (including
planning the 3-, 4- and S-axis machining of complex surfaces),
unattended machining also requires the programming of the
quality control and monitoring functions . This involves
computing the normal (reference) values of the process, work-
piece and tool characteristics, the permitted margins of
divergence from the stipulated qualit y and process parameters,
the expected sense of the divergence , the required frequencies of
measurement and correction, as well as the input of a priori
knowledge about certain causal relationships.
Two possible interfaces between programming and the control
unit must be considered. It is evidently necessary to have a lower
level, which may be identified with the NC instruction code
stipulated by the ISO . This is the level of elementary
displacements and correction vectors. It is however , also useful
if the controller allows unit operations to be introduced. In thi s
case we define only a surface to be machined (e.g. a hole, a plane,
a patch) , the machining tolerances and the mode of machining.
The cutter paths are then computed by the control unit , which
uses them to generate elementary displacement vectors .
Work on the unattended manufacturing cell is at an advanced
stage and the time has come to fit it into a broader environment ,
whose elements are largely available as the results of previous
2968 J. Hat vany , M. Horvath an d J. Som1 6
work. The prime feature of this environment - which we have
called an integrated material and data processing system - is the
enhanced scope of the integration process, involving the auto-
mation of an increasing number of functions and the augmen-
tation of the level of their automation. The development of the
manufacturing cell can, in fact , only be successful if these higher
levels of integration and automation are properly considered .
Higher-level analysis and design at the integrated systems level
are indispensable to allow us to determine the functions and
interfaces of the various components and subsystems, so that
they can become parts of a future over-all cooperative system. If
this is not done , it will be impossible at a later stage to link them
and achieve their harmonious cooperation.
One especially interesting linkage that has been relatively
neglected in the literature is that between process planning and
production scheduling, including the analysis of the connections
between the various levels of these activities, the possibilities of
multi-level optimisation and the use of shared databases.
THE INTEGRATION OF
PROCESS PLANNING AND
PRODUCTION SCHEDULING
It is extremely difficult to estimate the overall effectiveness of
compounded data processing systems. The goals for the
individual subsystems must be formulated to be in harmony with
the common goals of the total system and the only way that this
can usually be accomplished is that the optimum of one
subsystem appears as a constraint for the others. Figure 4 is an
optimal point
constraints
connections of
subsystems
I
I
j development of an ACO (Adaptive Control, Optimisation)
\~
total system
performance
Fig. 4. Subsystem optimisation in the context of total system
performance.
attempt to illustrate this abstract concept which it is not very
easy to state in exact terms. Yet this is the very problem that has
to be faced , when linking the process planning and production
scheduling functions.
Our investigations have shown that the connection of these two
functions stems not only from the trivial consideration that
process planning (and indeed, the broader function of manu-
facturing planning) is the source of the basic data for production
scheduling. It goes far deeper, because it is at this interface that
a number of management-type requirements can most effectively
be introduced into the planning and scheduling process.
Several optimization schemes for determining process parameters
that make the part at minimum cost or during minimum time , or
according to some other local goal have been proposed , based on
widely differing strategies, and are in use today . The common
deficiency of these methods is that they are unable to adapt their
goals dynamically to the ever changing situations that are
characteristic of the real workshop . It was these considerations
that led in Hungary to the proposal of an entirely new approach ,
which has been called "secondary optimization" and was
implemented in the environment shown on Fig .S, (at the end of
this paper). The result has been the development of a rather
sophisticated overall control strategy.
Some typical situations which the secondary optimization
strategy is designed to solve are as follow s:
• According to the scheduling for some parts, machining that
satisfies the "optimum cost" criterion is too slow . The
parts are required sooner.
• For some of the tools, the toot wear rates are unacceptably
high if "optimum time" criteria ara applied .
• The schedule has loades some machines less heavily. Tools
can be saved by reducing cutting intensity on these
machines.
The secondary optimization strategy consists essentially of using
a set of expressions for optimal cost , minimum time and
minimum tool wear and iterating these to obtain an overall
optimum under the given scheduling constraints. Almost as a
''by-product '' of this procedure, all the data are also derived for
a tool life control system, which is of great importance for the
higher-level optimization of manufacturing cell control.
Another aspect of process optimization that is essential in the
manufacturing cell is the real-time adaptive control of machine
tools. A Hungarian attempt in this direction , has been the
system with learning abilities that was first applied to plunge-cut
grinding. The role of learning in the arrangement shown on Fig .6
is the improvement of the process model. The possibilities of
applying the principles illustrated to the control of other
machine tools in the manufacturing cell concept are currently
being studied.
It has been pointed out in the previous Chapter, that the
ultimate aim of the systems architecture being developed is to
permit the construction of highly distributed , cooperative
systems. The methods for directly integrating process planning
and production scheduling which have been described, will
greatly facilitate this task . Altho,ugh such features as the on-line
determination of cutting data in ACO subsystems may have
caused some initial difficulties in the design of appropriate
production scheduling arrangements, the overall system
(incorporating secondary optimization) has nevertheless become
far more flexible , because of the ease with which management-
-type requirements may be introduced at this stage.
The progress made in the technical areas of the manufacturing
cell concept and of its broader context - the unattended
workshop - has not , however , been matched by equivalent
results in creating the social, educational, management and
training environments without which these systems cannot
operate.
 The Computer-controlled Manufacturing Cell 2969

SOCIETAL ASPECTS
The experience accumulated in Hungary since the mid-seventies
in the design and implementation of advanced manufacturing
systems has highlighted a number of problems in the design,
implementation operation and enhancement of these systems
which are caused not SO much by technical, as by societal
deficiencies.
In the realm of design, three problem areas have emerged with
particular force. These are
• the acquisition of appropriate multi-disciplinary skills,
• the development of suitable patterns for team work,
• the creation of convenient and efficient channels for
consultation.
construction of hardware and software systems that will permit
a number of ideologies to be applied. These can range from the
intimate involvement of the worker in moment-to-moment
operation, to the complete separation of data-handling from the
shop floor in both time and space.
Finally it has become our firmly held conviction that all manu-
facturing systems must be designed for continuous improvement
and enhancement. Having had some unfavourable experiences
with systems that were "cast in concrete" - unchangeable and
inflexible - we have insisted both in our educational and
training curricula and also in our product development work,
that the only good system is one that is capable of improvement.
CONCLUSIONS

The ever narrower specialization that has characterized much of
our post-war engineering education, has not favoured the
development of a sufficient number of graduate engineers with
the breadth of scope (ranging from production engineering,
mechanical design, computer software and hardware, automatic
control and electronics, to human engineering, market analysis
and investment policies), to enable them to possess the requisite
interdisciplinary vision required for at least the senior designers
of manufacturing systems. This situation has been further
aggravated by the individualistic ambitions and work-style that
our traditional educational and motivational practices have
reinforced . Added to the rigid hierarchical management practices
which many European companies (including Hungarian ones)
still try to enforce , these traditions have severely inhibited the
formation and efficient operation of teams of people recruited
from a variety of backgrounds. Finally, no really good way of
involving the prospective user (including the future operator) in
design decisions has yet been evolved anywhere.
The research and development work being conducted in Hungary
is designed primarily to make our industry receptive to the
changes leading to the factory of the future . In order to achieve a
deeper understanding of the issues involved, new approaches have
been developed and are being tried in a number of areas. The
experiences gained so far have enriched our understanding of the
issues involved and have provided the impetus both for new
forms of cooperative research and for new experiments in
engineering education.
REFERENCES
The Case Study touches on a very large number of subjects for
each of which it would have been impracticable to cite a
reference. The following papers (and their reference sectiol,ls) can
serve as source indications:

In order to overcome these problems, a new, radical experiment Horvath, M., and A.Markus (1983) . Practical Methods and
in engineering education has been designed and will be launched Techniques, New Ventures in CAD /CAM. In E.A.Warman
in the autumn of 1984. The essence of this experiment is to form (Ed .), Computer Applications in Production and
small groups of students, who will be working in creative, Engineering. Amsterdam, North-Holland, pp. 749-764.
problem-solving teams, using interactive computer technology, Soml6, l ., and M.Horvath (1982) . On the Hierarchical Systems,
right from the outset. They will also have hands - on experience Optimization and Adaptive Control of Machine Tools.
both in the joint experimental workshop of the Research In H.Akashi (Ed .), Control Science and Technology for the
Association and in the most advanced factories in Hungary and Progress of Society, Proc. of the 8th IFAC World Congress,
nearby countries. The very flexible and adaptive curriculum Kyoto, 1981. Vo!. 4. Oxford, Pergamon Press,
which we have prepared, devotes prime attention to the pp. 2011-2020.
development of creativity as a cultural attribute, rooted in the Hatvany , l., and L.Nemes (1981) . Design Criteria and
natural sciences, but also based on a broad-ranging acquaintance Evaluation Methods for Man-Machine Communication on
with the social, economic and cultural factors which determine the Shop Floor. In T.Sata and E.A.Warman (Ed s. ),
the survival-space of a country's industries. Man-Machine Communication in CAD /CAM, Amsterdam,
North-Holland , pp. 217-225 .
At the same time , efforts are being made to introduce modern
concepts of project management (e.g. matrix management,
structural analysis, etc.).Hungary is also attempting to participate
in the on1!oing international research activities concerned with
developing better user participation in the design phase. The
experiences we have gained in the implementation of manu-
facturing systems have indicated that there is a far greater need
than was hitherto appreciated for educating top management ,
achieving an informed preliminary concensus among
medium-management and shop-floor personnel and organizing
detailed and thorough training courses to qualify everyone for
the jobs they will have to do . All this has to be done before the
flJ'st old machine is dismantled, and especially before the flJ'st new
one is installed, using e.g. the facilities of our experimental
workshop. Our previous approach of "on-the-job" training and
conducting these phases in parallel with implementation led to
much misunderstanding and even pin-pointed a posteriori design
errors which could have been spotted far earlier.

With respect to the operation of intelligent manufacturing

systems, we have conducted a considerable amount of research
on the development of congenial workplaces and their man-
-machine interfaces, both at the supervisor and operator levels.
Views on right and wrong ways to involve people in the
operation of the computer-controlled factory, workshop or cell,
are very divergent and very strongly held. Taking into account
the highly heterogeneous background against which Hungarian
industry has to develop its system, we have not taken sides but
have laid the main emphasis on permissivity , i.e. on the
2970 J. Hatvany , M. Hor vath and J. Som16

MONITOR PROr.RAM

DATABASE DATABASE MANUFACTURI Nr.

MANAr.EMENT OF PLANNINr.

OF MANUFACTURINr.

PLANNINr.

PLANNING

STRUCTURE
SPEOFI CATION DDMF DATABASE
IN DOLI. DISPAT CHER
LANr.UAr.E
STRUCTURE
I
r.ENERATlON
11
11
11 SECO NDARY
11 OPTIM IZATION

MONITOR OR
'- rr----\L--ll PROr.RAM

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COMMAND
" ~I MANUFAC TURING 11 IIDOMF USER ROUTlNESII ::

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===;:>
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FLOW
-----~d/1 : II000F USER ROUTINES III 1<-- - - - - - - - - ---l
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Fig. S. An integrated manufacturing planning and production scheduling environment.

----1
Machine I
:>
I
tool A
Cutting
>
control L __~_J
Monitoring
computer process - r==v
11
A
<....
.---,
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~,=-
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< r.JI:.,
oatu ~ ACO
ILearning I computation
evaLuation
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LI"_J
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"------'

~~
JI
Fig. 6. An optimizing adaptive control scheme with learning abilit y.