3.

4 ♢

Definition 1. ♢ is the statement: There exists a sequence ⟨Aα : α < ω1 ⟩ such that Aα ⊆ α
for each α and, for every A ⊆ ω1 , the set {α : A ∩ α = Aα } is stationary. Such sequence is
called a ♢ sequence.

Lemma 2. ♢ implies CH.

Proof. Suppose ⟨Aα : α < ωω ⟩ is a ♢ sequence. We show that P(ω) ⊆ {Aα : α < ω1 }.
Let A ⊆ ω. Then the set S = {α : A ∩ α = Aα } is stationary; in particular, it is
unbounded in ω1 . Pick some γ ∈ S such that γ ≥ ω. Then A = A ∩ γ = Aγ .

Lemma 3. Suppose κ is regular, T is a κ-tree in which all maximal antichains have size
less than κ and ∀x ∈ T ∃y, z ∈ x↑ [y ⊥ z]. Then T is a κ-Suslin tree.

Proof. Suppose to the contrary that T have a chain of size κ. This means that there is a
path P through T . Notice that ∀x ∈ T ∃y ∈ x↑ [y ∈ / P ]. So we can recursively pick xα , yα
for α < κ so that xα ∈ P , yα ∈ xα ↑ \ P , and α < β → height(xα ) < height(yα ) < height(xβ ).
Then one can verify that {yα : α < κ} is an antichain of size κ.

Theorem 4. ♢ implies that there is a Suslin tree.

Proof. As a set, the tree T is the ordinal ω1 whose levels are

• L0 = {0}, L1 = ω \ {0},
• Ln+1 = {ω · n + k : k < ω} for 0 < n < ω, and
• Lα = {ω · α + k : k < ω} for ω ≤ α < ω1 .
∪
So, whenever ω ≤ α < ω1 , the subtree Tα = ξ<α Lξ is an ordinal ω · α. Our task is to
define the tree order @ on T , and the hard part is at the limit steps. We also require the
tree (T, @) to satisfy

∀x ∈ T ∀α < ω1 [α > height(x) → ∃y ∈ Lα (T )[x @ y]]. (*)

Step 1: We put each node in L1 directly above 0.

Step α + 1: We split the set Lα+1 into ℵ0 countably infinite subsets, say {Eα+1
ξ
: ξ ∈ Lα }.
ξ
Then we put each node in Eα+1 directly above ξ.
Step γ for a limit γ: Let {xk : k < ω} list the elements of Tγ (which is just the set ω · γ).
For each k, choose a path Pk through Tγ with xk ∈ Pk and with some conditions described
below, and then put the node ω · γ + k directly above Pk .
We can see that (*) is preserved along the construction, and we obtain an ω1 -tree. To
make the tree Suslin, let ⟨Aα : α < ω1 ⟩ be a ♢ sequence where each Aα ⊆ α. We add some
conditions for the limit step γ as follows:

1
 If ω · γ = γ and Aγ ⊆ γ is a maximal antichain in Tγ , then Pk ∩ Aγ ̸= ∅ for all k < ω.

To confirm that we can construct so that this condition is satisfied, suppose γ be as in the
assumption, and consider a k < ω. Since Aγ is maximal in Tγ , pick some wk ∈ Aγ such
that xk ̸⊥ wk ; so xk ⊑ wk or wk ⊑ xk (or xk = wk ). Choose a strictly increasing sequence
⟨αn : n < ω⟩ such that max{height(xk ), height(wk )} < α0 and sup{αn : n < ω} = γ. Using
∪ nodes zn for n < ω so that height(zn ) = αn and xk , wk @ z0 @
(*) ω times, we can pick
z1 @ .... Define Pk = n (zn ↓), which is a path through Tγ with xk , wk ∈ Pk , and proceed as
described above. After we have completed this level, observe that every node at this level
is above some node in Aγ . So, after we complete the construction of T , the Aγ remains a
maximal antichain in T .
To confirm that (T, @) is Suslin, by the previous lemma, it suffices to show that T has
no uncountable antichain. Suppose A ⊆ T is a maximal antichain. Let us first construct a
club C ⊆ ω1 such that

∀γ ∈ C [ω · γ = γ > 0 and A ∩ γ is a maximal antichain in Tγ ]. (**)

Define f : ω1 → ω1 by

f (α) = min{δ < ω1 : δ > ω · α and ∀x ∈ Tα ∃w ∈ A ∩ Tδ [x ̸⊥ w]}.

By Lemma 3.3.11, the set C0 = {γ < ω1 : ∀α < γ [f (α) < γ]} is a club. Then the club
C = C0 ∩ {γ < ω1 : ω · γ = γ > 0} satisfies the condition (**).
Now, as {β < ω1 : A ∩ β = Aβ } is stationary, we can pick γ ∈ C such that A ∩ γ = Aγ .
Since Aγ is a maximal antichain (in both Tγ and T ), we conclude that A = Aγ ⊆ γ, which
is countable.

Theorem 5. V = L implies ♢.

Proof. See, for example, Theorem 13.21 in [1]. The proof requires some familiarity with
properties of L, elementary submodels, and Mostowski collapsing functions.

References
1. Thomas Jech, Set Theory: The Third Millennium Edition, revised and expanded,
Springer-Verlag Berlin, 2003.

2. Kenneth Kunen, Set Theory, College Publications, 2011.