8 HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING AND _ LAB EQUIPMENTS OR GENERATION, ~ MEASUREMENT AND TESTING OF HV tion of High A.C. Voltage by Cascaded Transformer and Voltage Doubler Circuit E (169)81 ated Fundamentals of High Voltage Engineering GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGE BY CASCADED TRANSFORMER Now-a-days, this method of testing has become obsolete. But in some cases, this method finds very useful and convenient. The transformers employed in cascaded unit are usually single phase core-type and oil-immersed type. For obtaining 500 kV output voltage for the test of a specimen piece, usually a single unit of transformer is used. For getting higher voltages of 1000 kV and above two or more than two transformers are generally used and they are connected in cascade. This method of cascaded transformers is convenient because a single unit for very high voltage is very large and costly. The self-explanatory diagram shown below illustrates the connections. The connection diagram and physical layout of cascaded transformer is shown in the Fig. 8.1. The figure shows the two-stage cascaded transform with strong insulating supports of various sizes depending upon the number of stages ot cascades. The testing transformers are specially designed because they are subjected to fransient over-voltage during their operation, when the test piece breaks down. » the insulation of HLV. testing transformer should be carefully Proportioned. When the test object breaks down, high current starts flowing. The current is limited by water-resistance. The kVA capacity of testing transformers is relatively low because current is limited by 1-ampere. The current is limited to low value for getting very high voltage.3 EQUIPMENTS iducto: (on tes side should be carefully designed so that eter of conductors are at least 2.5 cm for 100 kV and are removed by using the high voltage ‘cascaded transformers have severalae HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING AND Lag EQUIPMENTS Here, Capacitor to voltage 173 25V =ripple The simplest circuit for generation of high dic. Voltage is the half-wave rectifier Refer to Fig. 8.2(b). It shows the half-wave rectifier Circuit with smoothing, capacitor. In Fig. 8.2(6), D is the diode to rectify the input a.c. C_ is the smoothing capacitance. R, is load resistance. Ifa capacitor is not connected, Pulsating dc. voltage is obtained at the output terminal whereas with the capacitor, Pulsation at the Output terminal is reduced In the circuit shown above, magnitude of charge delivered by the capacitor =Q=Cx\V,,,, - ‘min) = Cx 26V) es IxT=2@V)xc sveeel 2c 2fc ae t 1 T=1 f Greinacher Voltage Doubler circuit ui cease ate be pene, volege dour or cased vas i Soren eds One ofthe most popular doubler crits develope by Greinacher is shown in Fig, 8.2(0). Pe ro a voltage-dublecicit obtain at output terminal, he twice the voltage at input. (When Bis more positive with respect to A, the diode D, conducts charging the Wes of supple. During the next half cycle of supply voltage, when A is positive with respect to B, again, is charged upto the voltage V,,,.. Thus, M point of circuit attains the voltage of 2 V....- Alter that, C, capacitor is changed upto 2 Vee 4 es >n=number of stages the linear term 1/6 can be neglected Av= xt Vinax’ I, fand C are constants. Then optimum number of stages (rt) Ximum value of Vom. by differentiating above expression w.rt. n and g to zero. 5er = pa ETAL SELLE LEED, Also q=CBV ” Hence 2 eae Cy to Cy during each cycle of fe came ig Stee ana 1 ae ee Hence regulation = mean voltage drop from 2 Vina ah aed]. a ee eer Tan ort eri amemrane rp rae: bm apn eae as om stages, to find an expresion for the tt all capacitances C,, C,, (xb the cng arte fm, the nd for yeaia pate rors fat sb 25x10" a 66 +242 — 3,66] = 122 KV. 150x110" " re ‘ oa Paihia sr aig Ct Nn it SS ee cee as 0.02 pF, calculate the ripple voltage and vo oltage drop. 2PULSE VOLTAGE WAVE It is inavitable and essential to study the nature and characteristics of ir wave before studying the generation and measurement of impulse wave. ‘ This impulse voltage test is necessary for high voltage apparatus. The tes performed as follows : ft Standard impulse wave of specified amplitude (crest value) is applied | in_ succession. If flashover or puncture of insulator does not take apparatus is considered to have passed the test. If puncture occurs or if more applied test waves, flash over occurs, the apparatus is considered failed the test. During the test, some waves should be applied with : | polarity. | terminal is connected to the earth and frame of the apparatus under t Impulse Voltage Wave ‘Standard impulse waves are characterised by @ Polarity a 5 ‘ (ii) Peak value ‘ ‘ Et (ii) Virtual front time j (i) Virtual half time ‘acai | (®) Virtual time chopping Impulse voltages or surge voltages are Shera from. ponent q seit sinusoidal shape, Impulses are the transient volt > wide variation in magnitudes and oe oeHIGH VOLTAGE TESTING AND LAB EQUIPMENTS 183 Point A in the figure is called ‘virtual zero’. AC on time-axis B= AB=T, = Front time (+ OA is negligible) The standard wave shape of an impulse is shown in Fig. 8.3(a) Standard Lightning Impulse Itis a full impulse having a front time of 1.2 u-sec. And time to half value or tail time of 50 i-sec. It is described as 1.2/50 impulse. Wave front is steep part of wave. Wave tail is flat portion of the impulse wave. The standard specifications and wave-shape of lightning impulse are shown in Fig. 8.3(6). Standard Switching Impulse This wave is characterised by prolonged wave-front and wave-tail. The typical switching impulse wave has front time T, of the order of 250 i-sec and half value or tail-time 7, of 2500 p-sec. The permissible deviation in the crest value Vp is of the order of 4 to 12%. Wave front is steep portion of impulse wave. Figure 8.3(c) illustrates the wave shape and specification of switching impulse.184 8.38 Fundamentals of High Voltage Engineering — WAVE SHAPING CIRCUIT The basic principle of impulse upon charging and discharging phenomenon of capacitor. rd The impulse wave is generated by a wave shaping circuit shown in Fig. 8.3(d). Figure 83 refers to a wave-shaping circuit. The Proper shape is given to impulse wave by controlling front and tail of impulse. It is done by providing suitable values to R, and R,. C; = Source capacitance. Rc = Charging Resistance. R,, = Resistance to control front wave. C, = Capacitive load. R, = Resistance to control tail. Explanation An impulse voltage is generated across a ca source is charged to a direct voltage E, required instant of time, the spark gap (SG) is triggered. The current starts flowing through R,. The value of R, > R,, in practice so that the source capacitance C; ) charges load capacitance C;, very quicl ‘kly through the series resistance R,. This gives the steep wave front for the output volt. ena ‘ ‘age V,. When C, is sufficiently | charged, bothC, andC, discharge through R, giving slower a ‘all portion! J pacitive load C,. A capacitor C, of the through a charging resistor R-. At the—_—_—_—_—_—_—_—————————— HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING AND LAB EQUIPMENTS 185 8.3C Marxcrcuir The circuit et discharging Gute toYiPS Principle of charging the capacitors’in parallel and hi Sing them in series is known as Marx-circuit. This is used to generate the igh voltage impulse wave. The multi-stage surge generator is drawn below. Figure 8.3(¢) refers to a 4-stage Marx-circuit. Tr supply transformer © test specimen, et R, R, Its components are : 1. Impulse capacitor - C, 2. Load-capacitors - C,,C>,C3... . Charging capacitors — Ry, R,,R. Charging rectifier-transformer Spark gaps ~ S,,5,,53... Voltage divider - VD . Wave-shape controlling resistors — R5, R}, Rj... Explanation In this method of obtaining surge voltage, the number of capacitors (Cy, C>,C3,C,, Cy, etc) connected in parallel arc charged from an HLT. transformer through a rectifying device as indicated in the circuit. At a certain voltage, which depends upon the setting of trigger-gaps, the trigger gaps break down and connect the capacitors in series. Thus the voltage applied to the test specimen becomes equal to the sum of the voltages, to which each of the capacitor is charged. Noe ‘The trigger gaps are set in such a way or in such an order, that, breaks down at a voltage slightly lower than S, and the trigger gap S, breaks down at a voltage slightly lower than S, and so on. It means, the trigger gap S, breaks down first and then S,, $3, S, etc. one by one.186 Fundamentals of High Voltage Engineering Any number of trigger gaps (usually upto 50) can be used to obtain a suitable voltage impulse. eee Extensive research work has led to development of several simplified circuits and the circuit which is commonly used now-a-days is shown in Fig. 8.3(f). To test specimen Load Voltage divider DC. supply ee specimen Emth 0 FIGURE 8.3 Figure 8.3(/) refers to the simplest Marx-circuit. 8.4 GENERATION OF IMPULSE VOLTAGE BY VANDE-GRAFF GENERATOR Constructional Details Refer to Fig. 8.4(a). It consists of a large spherical conducting shell of few metres radius. This is supported at a height of several Metres above the ground on an insulating column. Anarrow belt made of insulating material like rubber or silk is wound around two Pulleys / one on ground level and one at the centre of the shell. The belt is kept continuously moving by a motor which drives the lower pulley, It continuously carries positive charge, sprayed on it by a brush, When belt goes up, the charges are transferred to another upper metallic brush, connected to large shell, This is the machine capable of building up potential difference of a few million volts. Therefore, it can create the field which may be very cl Id of air which is about 3x 10° volts/metre, ty close to breakdown fielHollow metal dome shell) Accumulation of qPastve charge leveloping million Metal brush ae (delivers positive Gee, charges to dome) Upper Pulley Insulating supporting column which Prevents leakage of charge from belts Insulating rubber or silk belt Positive (4) to carry and deliver charge ‘metal comb. Source to spray Positive charge “HIGH VOLTAGE TEStiNG AND LAB EQUIPMENTS Be. Theory (Principle) Let us consider a spherical shell (hollow, not a solid) of radius R having the charges Q. Refer to Fig 8.4(6). The field outside the sphere is just that of a point charge Q at the centre while the field inside the sphere vanishes. So, the potential outside is that of a point charge and inside it is constant ie,, the value at distance R. <. Potential inside the conducting spherical shell of radius R carrying the charge Q Gide: 4ney R Now, refer to Fig. 8.4(c). te Let us.suppose thay byveome:wayy-aismalllspheiioe-mdiuseiis iiicoduced into large shell. The small sphere carries the charge 4. Potential due to small sphere at its surface 14 4ney 7 ‘Taking both charges into account, we have total Vat rand at R, vay-7t_ (2-4) = Some 4ney r Slo ett eae) Potential Difference =V(r)-V(R) jis always positive as jot therefore, small higher potential irrespective of the charge on larger independent of Q. Therefore, the natural ‘The potential of outer sphere would keep on \ field of air. The breakdown field of air is 30 kV/cm or 35, way high voltage impulse can be obtained betwee of working of Van-de-Graff generator. d over the insulating belt with done eSIERATION OF IMPULSE CURRENT an impulse voltage generated by impulse-voltage-generator is applied or jected to a test object, the current flowing in that test object is called an current. The wave-shape of impulse-voltage and im) t the same. It possible at tel Get vate: peal crest value or peak value may be rent. The test object under the influence of impulse current may be pulse current whose crest value isThe trigger-gap TG is arranged to fire at a point on the 50 Hz wave. It is a matter to appreciate that a potential qi be connected across the test object to n impulse-voltage produced by this circuit test object. For analysis, the above circuit can be simplified circuit as shown in Fig. 8.5(c), Here C= Total effective capacitance V, = Voltage developed during charging of all capacitors and R= Inductance and resistance of the leads, capacitors and test From the circuit, we can write 5 ; 2(8) = impedance in Laplace-operator $ i i =R+jol+_ Jol joc Replacing Joby S, we get Z(s)=R+1s41 cs Voltage across capacitance =Vou(t) In Laplace form, voltage =o= V foe cost -a sinot.e“]=0 oL a i ~.e™[wcosot —a sinot] = 0 3E; [i @.cosat —a..sinwt = 0 Dividing and multiplying by Va? +07 we get, > a .cosot - -*__ sinwt = 0 a? +0 ln? +0" = sin. cost ~ cos@ sinot = 0 => sin@-of)=0 s 0-ot=0the circuit inductance 2 mH and Determine the peak current Solution, Given that, Cee An impulse current generator has total capacitance of 15 uF, the charging voltage aa dynamic resistance 1 ohmELECT ROSTATIC VOLTMETER lectrostatic equipments are generally used as voltmeter and that too ag rae enitaae ad nt an ntloatalinstrainen Th Principle of opera of such equipments is the force of attraction between El 4 neighbouring plates, between which a potential difference is maintained, Th force gives rise to a deflecting torque. Such instruments are used for meas, of High-Voltages. Construction For constructional details refer to Fig. 8.6(a). It consists of quadrants AA and B which are in fixed state. In the hollow space of quadrants, there is a double o movable vane (M). 4 light aluminium vane M is mounted on a spindle-§ can rotate in circular path in the hollow space of quadrant. When the vane and quadrant are tel Positely char, measurement, the vane is cee eared spindle * and hence the pointer to rotate. ye The’ i 2. amount of rotation and hence the defleti torque in this inHIGH VOLTAGE TESTING AND LAB EQUIPMENTS Bee Therefore, such voltmeters have an uneven and non-imniform scale. To control the Movernent of pointer, a suspension spring is used. The damping torque is Provided by a vane immersed in oil. Theory ee is Suppose that, supply Vis given between the two terminals as shown in the igure. Let the deflecting angle be 0. Tf Cis the capacitance between quadrant and vane in the deflected Position, then the charge in the instrument = CV. The energy stored in electrostatic field is given by dE=d| ( 3 ) 2Odve hy? ac 27 Cx av +l ytac =C-Veav +t yac (By partial differentiation) At deflection @, controlling torque is +. -: Additional eriergy stored =T-d® (Potential Energy) (: P=T-W, «. E=TWxt=Txp T8 Total energy stored =T x d0-+dE =Txd0-+CV -dV +3.V?.ac And, the energy supplied by source at potential V when it supplied charge d0 =V -d0 x =V -[d(CV)]=V[C-dV +V -dC]=CV-dV +V2dC 5 Ce PSVAL 2 Per xte Now, Energy stored = Energy supplied Txd0+CV-dV +3V? -dC=CV- dV +V*dC Tx d0=V2dC = avec pvtuc| a 196 Fundamentals of High Voltage Engineering ay Control Torsion If the instrument is used to measure Joy spring hed voltages too, multicellular structure is useq Several Vane-quadrant units are co; pointes Peet The final structure of equipment. takes the vane shape as shown in Fig. 8.6(b). : Rotating Due to having several multicellular con. structions, even at very low supply, greater torque is produced. Therefore, after callibration, this equipment becomes able to measure the low voltages also. Oil-immersed vane on to provide damping. © » FIGURE 8.6" 8.7 SpHERE-cAP Sphere-gap is one of the standard methods to measure the () Peak value of ac. voltage. (ii) Peak value of d.c. voltage. (iii) Impulse voltage. Sphere gap is very essential device to check the voltmeters and voltage measuring. devices used in high voltage test circuit. Theory In this method of measurement of extra high voltage, two equal sized metal spheres made of brass, bronze, aluminium or copper are used. The spheres are mounted vertically one above the other and lower ‘sphere is earthed. The potential difference which causes the spark over, depends upon (i) Size of sphere. (ii) Dielectric strength of air, (iif) Distance between the spheres, (iv) Humidity. (0) Temperature. The potential difference between the spheres gradually increases till a spark passes between the spheres. The spark Over-voltage is matched with the collibration tables in terms of rms value. To obtain the peak value of the voltage “under measurement, the rms value is multiplied by the Peak factor /2. commHIGH VOLTAGE TESTING AND LAB EQUIPMENTS 197 Some precautions have to be taken while measuring the voltage by this method : (The gap length between the spheres should not exceed sphere radius. (ii) The impulse should be of standard wave and has the wave-tail time of 5 micro seconds. (id Shape, mountings and clearances of the sphere should be specified by certain inter-relation as indicated in the diagram. (2) No conductor or body having a conducting surface shall be near the sparking point of high voltage sphere than the distance given by (025 +3) metres, where Vis the peak voltage in kV. Figure 87 refers to sphere-gap method to measure the Peak Value of a.c. and d.c. and impulse. It shows the configuration, arrangement, specification regarding shape, mountings and clearances of the spheres. Advantages > Cheapness. > Simplicity. > Reliability. > Peak voltages of value ranging from 2 kV to 2500 kV can be measured easily.198 88 Fundamentals of High Voltage Engineering > Gollibration of high voltage voltmeters and voltage measuring dey; be done easily. devices og, > Measurement of impulse voltage of either polarity can be easily Disadvantage > It does not provide the continuous record of voltage. ROD-GAPS MEASUREMENT As the name indicates, it consists of two squared rod electrodes, with jg cross-section in the form of square-surface. Area of cross-section is = customarily taken as 1.27 cm”. The rods are mounted on insulating stands, in such a way that the length of rod becomes 1/2 of the gap-spacing between two rods r electrodes. The lower rod or electrode is earthed. The rod gap may be used to measure the 1. Peak value power frequency voltage. 2. Peak value or crest value of impulse voltage. 3. Sometimes, having modification, rod gaps can be used to measure de voltage also. For different gap-spacing, breakdown voltage is different remaining physicil conditions such as temperature 25° Pressure 760 mm of Hg, vapour pressure 15.5 mm of Hg constant. ‘Tne breakdown voltage increases or decreases linearly with the variation inat density in the gap. And, also, the breakdown voltage increases with the increaseif relative humidity, Zi arangement for rod-gap consists of Upper hemispherically capped rods of about 20mm ‘ electrode an as shown in the figure. 2 teal Breet Figure 8.8 refers to Rod-gap measurement of ee 0mm) Principle is based on the breakdown voltage emisp certain length of air gap. to a The earth electrode should be long enue : os fe yuiate Positive streamer or anode 7 se ree high voltage rod is cathode, In euch the breakd lown voltage will be initiated ™ Positive streamer,HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING AND LAB EQUIPMENTS 199 ‘The breakdown voltage is given by an empirical expression : where, V, = Breakdown voltage A= 20 KV for positive polarity of high electrode = 15 KV for negative polarity of high voltage electrode B=5.1 kV/cm S= Spacing 6 = Air density factor h= Absolute humidity in gm/m? Advantages > > > > > The device is compact and robust. Construction is simple. Its cost is low. Easy to operate. It solves many purposes of measurement : (a) It can measure the peak value of power frequency voltage. (b) Tt can measure peak value of impulse voltage. (0) It can measure d.c. voltage also. Disadvantages > > > Less accurate. Less sensitive. Except for low voltages (less than 120 kV) where the accuracy is low, the breakdown voltage is calculated by using empirical formula. Due to the uncertainty associated with the influence of humidity, the rod Baps are no longer used for measurement of a.c. and impulse voltage. There is large variation in breakdown voltage during measurement for the same gap-length. 3 LTAGE D ae 2 8.9 VOLTAGE DIVIDERS S The high voltage dividers are also the important equipment of EHV laboratories. The high voltage dividers are also used to measure very high voltages. Ina higher200 Fundamentals of High Voltage Engineering the voltages of wide range of magnitudes and ‘Wave sured. The most versatile equ: ys equipment,” in voltage laboratory, rate of rise of voltages is to be mea: EHV-laboratory is the voltage divider coupled with an oscill voltmeter, The voltage dividers are used to measure A.C, D.C, oe ne voltages. The measurement of high voltage by voltage divider is based mee stepping down of voltage. the ‘There are three types of voltage divider : (a) Purely resistive divider (6) Purely capacitive divider (©) Resistance-capacitance divider Resistance Voltage Divider Resistance voltage divider consists of high voltage arm (R, ) low voltage arm(R) co-axial cable and an oscilloscope. The surge impedance of cable is (say) R.. Atte end point or termination point of cable a resistance R, is connected to ground o prevent reflection of voltage at the open end termination near oscilloscope. Refer to Figs. 8.9(a) and (b). Ground (a) (b) . Tins rom the circuit diagram of divider itis obvious that R IIR, 1 ‘e* «Its resultant will be &1-Re_ R,+R, Total resistance from ground to load will be R, +(RyIIR,) : =R, + Pek. R+R,HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING AND LAB EQUIPMENTS 201 R,.R RR, 2 le (aa, “ate Saas Raho a RR, +R,R, +R,R, Now, voltage rati The value of R,, is usually limited to 20 ka. The use of resistance voltage divider is upto 500 kV. At EHV-level, the height of high-voltage arm is above 20 metres, Therefore, inductances are formed in the resistence. In addition to this, stray capacitance is also developed as shown in the figure. Capacitive Voltage Divider Capacitive voltage divider consists of low voltage arm (C,) and high voltage arm (C,); a coaxial cable and an oscilloscope. The simplified diagram of a capacitive HY, voltage divider is shown in Fig. 8.9(c). Voltage ratio is given by G BS aS Ys ey SIGEITG) Vy q This type of divider also suffers from jae inductance of high voltage arm which : is very tall as well as the effect of stray es capacitances. Resistive Capacitive Divider This type of divider also has two arms-voltage arm and low voltage arm. The high voltage arm consists of combination of resistance and capacitance in series. The low voltage arm contains only a capacitance of suitable value. In resistance capacitance voltage divider, the resistances perform two functions : () It critically damps the inductance developed in long column of R-C divider. (i) It helps to damp the reflections in high voltage lead to the test object. This type of divider eliminates some serious problems of resistance divider and capacitance divider.Fundamentals of High Voltage Engineering Figure 8.(@) shows the schematic diagram of RC voltage | divider, A resistive voltage divider can not measure all types of voltage aveshape di Stray capacitance to earth. But R-C divider removes the effect of, Say apaciang” A capacitive divider can not damp oscillation caused by lead inductance es difficulty is removed by RC divider. HV. lead HV. lead Lp RR 2c . Lp RR 2c The approximate equivalent circuit of RC voltage divider can be drawn as shown in Fig. 8.9(). é For half length of divider, the Tesistance will be R / 2 and so for inductance als0- For half length of divider, the capacitanc stray capacitance to earth, LetZ, be the impedance of divider, From Fig, 8.9(), it is obvious that © will be 2C. Let us assume that C isthe (F-R/2+20)i1¢,& HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING AND LAB EQUIPMENTS 203 Again, L/2, R/2 and 2C components of upper half of divider are in series with the above expression. Z4(S)= /2+4s/a4a/acsyx I |eiR/2+is/241 2cs)|R 7242541, 1° a Gs: 12811 REE 2 “best es [rads de] 2°" acs * cs _(R/aets/2e1/2c9) s+] R 7248/2 C2) Sree |te/2ets2s1 209 QC+C,) a 2CC [ri2eus/2+ 0 Numerator : aoe By g2 4{RS4 GCG) 25 | Enna EGE The characteristics of above transfer function can be determined from the POLES. <. The denominator [s+ Be Tos |s a quadratic equation. The denominator determines the POLES. 2C+C, Owith its discriminant = 0. a R For critical damping, S” oo ICC, —— Ts204 8.10 Fundamentals of High Voltage Engineering Comparing the above expression with quadratic equation ax? + br +ex9, Wehaye b& Gq a=1, b=R/L, C= Discriminant =b? - 4ac=0 2 iG > (8) -w 3 +. Above equation will be 2_ 4} 2C+0}_ anol For full length of divider capacitance =C ©. Replacing ‘2C’ by C, we get 2 eas . (R/L) -S|-0 Lovage | . Ra oS ee ae Hed. Bet 5 nae HALL-GENERATOR Hall-generator is the device used for the measurements of high d.c. current whos principle of working is based on the ‘Hall-Effect’, Hall-Effect When a metallic sheet is placed in the magnetic fi perpendicular cusrenti allowed to pass through the two ce fees of Re field al being in perpendicular direction to the sheet, a force which is named “Lorenz-force” acts upon the electrons in the metal structure, Due to the : charge-displacement, Emf is generated, Thiee 1 perpendicular to current and field. Fleming's left-hand-rule. mf is called Hall-voltage Vi 284 i; The direction of Lorenz-force is determine! The Hall-voltage V,, is proportional to the current Va i A inversely proportional to the thickness 4 of as ty, as magnetic flux Band That is, Vy xl oe Vy «B 1 Vy ed