Contents

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………........3
Chapter I. Functional Perspective of Transposition……………………………………………...
1.1. Emotional and Expressive Connotations in Transposition……...…………………………...
1.2. Stylistic function on the morphological level ………………………….……………………
Chapter II. The contextual use of transposition
2.1. Stylistic Effect of Some Syntactic Constructions through Transposition………...………...
2.2. Transposition as a powerful tool for writers to create a specific effect……...……………...
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………..
Introduction

The actuality- The problem of variants of deviations from the norms of the literary language
has long been under observation. It is the inadequacy of the concept norm that causes
controversy. The norm of the language always presupposes a recognized or received
standard. At the same time, it likewise presupposes vacillations from the received standard.
The problem, therefore, is to establish the range of permissible vacillations. Variants
interacting with invariants will guarantee the potentialities of the language for enrichment
to a degree, which no artificial coinage will ever be able to reach. These expressive means of
the English language have so far been very little investigated except, perhaps, certain set
expressions and to some extent affixation. Most of them still await researchers. They are
widely used for stylistic purposes, but these purposes likewise have not yet been adequately
explained and hardly at all specified.
The object of the final work is the norms of the language and its possible variants
The subject of the final work comprises the study of meaning extension through
transposition.
The aim of the final work is to consider as one of the basic ways of meaning extension and
present its communicative and stylistic possibilities within different contests.
The solution of the aim claims for bringing about a number of certain tasks:
 To study meaning extension through transposition
 To examine some grammar patterns diverged from the invariants
 To identify and interpret the phenomenon in literature and in possible scope of
discourse
The practical value of the final work is that the material in the present research
can be used alongside with Theoretical Course of English Stylistics, Literature, and
practical lessons as well. It can bring the attention of the readers to the language
phenomenon, which carries additional information of the emotive type to increase
their ability to recognize and understand the figure meaningfully.
The theoretical background of the final work is done on the material of the works by
И. В. Арнольд, I.R. Galperin, M.A.K. Halliday, William S. Greaves, Fauconnier, G., &
Turner and others.
The structure of the final work consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusion and
bibliography.
Chapter I is devoted to the foregrounding of the particular function, of the word i.e.
with such type of denoting phenomena that create additional expressive, evaluative,
subjective connotations. We have dealt with the extension of the existing names
approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries by new, occasional individual ones,
promoted by the speaker’s subjective, original view and evaluative of things. This act
of meaning extension is traditionally reoffered to as transposition.
It also touches upon the peculiar choice of language means which is primarily
dependent on the aim of the communication. Before language is provided with a
stock of words, sufficient in their literal sense to express what is wanted, there is a
necessity of extending the use of words beyond the literal sense. ??????????????????
deals with the figurative language as a means used to serve definite aim of
communication, being one of the means of communication regarded as an
instrument by means of which the actual process of conveying ideas from one person
to another is carried out.

Chapter II considers the usage of transposition, disclose its potentiality and possible
interpretation and the effect it produces, as well as the context of transposition. What
are the wider circumstances, which help to explain both the content and the effect of
the deviations from the norms in practice.
Pragmatics is the linguistics field of study dealing with meaning and context.
Pragmatics delivers a meaning that goes beyond the true conditions such as
implicature. Implicature is something speakers do by uttering words. If people’s
saying or writing has an implicature, it means they are using an implicature in an
expression. It is a kind of meaning or implying one thing by saying another rather
than directly saying the intention.
Chapter I. Functional Perspective of Transposition
1.1. Emotional and Expressive Connotation in Transposition
Selection, or deliberate choice of language, which we hold to be the main distinctive feature
of individual style, inevitably brings up the question of norms.
In the literary language the norm is the invariant of the phonemic, morphological, lexical
and syntactical patterns in circulation during a given period in the development of the given
language.
Variants of these patterns may sometimes diverge from the invariant, but never sufficiently
to become unrecognizable or misleading. The development of any literary language shows
that the variants (of the levels enumerated above) will always center around the axis of the
invariant forms. The variants, as the term itself suggests, will never detach themselves from
the invariant to such a degree as to claim entire independence. Yet, there is a tendency to
estimate the value of individual style by the degree it violates the norms of the language.
(Galperin, 1971)
The problem of variants or deviations from the norms of the literary language has long
been under observation. It is the inadequacy of the concept norm that causes controversy. At
every period in the development of a literary language there must be a tangible norm which
first of all marks the difference between literary and non-literary language. A too rigorous
adherence to the norm brands the writer's language as bookish, no matter whether it is a
question of speech or writing. But on the other hand, neglect of the norm will always be
regarded with suspicion as being an attempt to violate the established signals of the language
code which facilitate and accelerate the process of communication. The freer the handling of
the norms the more difficult is the exchange of thoughts and ideas. (Chatman,1967)
The use of variants to the norms accepted at a given stage of language development is not
only permissible but to a very considerable extent indispensable. Variants interacting with
invariants will guarantee the potentialities of the language for enrichment to a degree, which
no artificial coinage will ever be able to reach.
When the feeling of the norm, which grows with the knowledge of the laws of the language,
is instilled in the mind, one begins to appreciate the beauty of justifiable fluctuations. But the
norm can be grasped and established only when there are deviations from it. It is therefore
best perceived in combination with something that breaks it. In this connection the
following lines are worth quoting:
"... in order to achieve a free command of a literary language, even one's own, one must read
widely, giving preference to those writers who deviate but slightly from the norm."
"Needless to say, all deviations are to some extent normalized: not every existing deviation
from the norm is good; at any rate, not in all circumstances. The feeling for what is
permissible and what is not, and mainly-a feeling for the inner sense of these deviations (and
senseless ones, as has been pointed out, are naturally bad), is developed through an extensive
study of our literature in all its variety, but of course in its best examples."(Scherba, 1939 )
Among the morphological expressive means the use of the Present Indefinite instead of the
Past Indefinite must be mentioned first. This has already been acknowledged as a special
means and is named the Historical Present. In describing some past event, the author uses
the present tense, thus achieving a more vivid picturisation of what was going on.
The syntactical peculiarities of the spoken language are perhaps not so striking as the
lexical ones, but more than any other features, they reveal the true nature of the spoken
variety of language, that is the situational character of the communication. The first of them
is what is erroneously called ellipsis, that is, the omission of parts of the utterance easily
supplied by the situation in which the communication takes place. These are in fact not
omissions, but the regular absence of parts unnecessary in lively conversation when there are
two or more people speaking. Here are some absolutely normal and legitimate constructions
which have missing elements in the spoken language, elements which are indispensable in
the written language, however.
Recent observations on the peculiarities of the language of modern English and American
poetry have proved that it is mainly the breach of syntactical laws that hinders
understanding to a degree that the message becomes undecodable. Coherence and logical
unity backed up by purely linguistic means is therefore an essential property of the written
variety of language.
Transpositional grammar describes and analyzes movement in meaning across and
between its different meaning-forms: text, image, space, object, body, sound and speech.
Meanings can be expressed in all of these meaning-forms, though never in quite the same
way—hence: multimodality and the transposition of meanings from form to form.
 Meanings also shift functionally. A singular instance is always about to become a
countable concept. A self-centered “I” is always about to become an empathetic “other.”
Entities can be understood in terms of the actions by which they have been constituted and
the ways in which, any moment, they are likely to act. In these ways and many others like
them, all the meanings in the world are always on the move. A transpositional grammar sets
out to capture the impatience of these movements, and their possible directions.
"A grammar is a resource for meaning, the critical functioning semiotic by means of which
we pursue our everyday life. It therefore embodies a theory of everyday life; otherwise, it
cannot function in this way... A grammar is a theory of human experience.
(Halliday, 2008)
The reasons expanding the definition of grammar are twofold. First, the meanings of
speaking and writing have never made sense outside a wider understanding of the relations
of text and speech to image, sound, body, space, and object. It makes even less sense to make
such separations today, in an era of pervasive digital media where these forms of meaning are
so profoundly overlaid. This phenomenon is called “multimodality.” Transposition is the
activity of reframing meaning in one form, then another.
The second reason is to challenge the very mode of operation of most grammars, and, more
generally, structuralist approaches to linguistics and semiotics which classify and categorize
meanings. Eschewing the neat separations, we want to say that meanings are always
traveling on journeys of change. This movement is called “functional transposition.”
Observations on the contextual use of various sentence-patterns furnish numerous examples
of re-interpretation of syntactic structures by which we mean stylistic transpositions
resulting in neutralization of primary grammatical meaning.
Meaning extension is a natural and common occurrence in language, as words are constantly
being adapted and repurposed to fit new contexts and situations. It is a key aspect of the
flexibility and adaptability of language.

For example, article deviation is a common technique in stylistics, and can be used to create
a variety of effects in a text. However, it is important to note that it should be used
judiciously, as overuse can make the text seem contrived or difficult to understand.
Using no article where one would normally be expected: This can create a sense of ambiguity
or complexity, and can be used to convey a sense of informality or to make the text more
accessible to a wider audience.

Using the definite article ("the") instead of the indefinite article ("a" or "an"): This can create
a sense of specificity or authority, and can be used to emphasize a particular aspect of the text
an indefinite article instead of a definite article: This can create a sense of surprise or
confusion, and can be used to highlight a particular aspect of the text.
Using an article that is grammatically incorrect or non-standard: This can create a sense of
informality or playfulness, and can be used to create a particular tone or voice in the text
Hemingway's famous short story "Hills Like White Elephants," he omits articles in several
places to create a sense of tension and uncertainty in the dialogue between the two
characters. For instance, the female character says, "But I don't care about me," instead of
"But I don't care about myself- adds a sense of immediacy and intimacy to the dialogue.
Similarly, in Hemingway's novel "The Old Man and the Sea," he often omits articles when
describing the sea or the fish, creating a sense of power and mystery in these natural
elements. For example, he writes, "He rested sitting on the un-stepped mast and sail and
tried not to think but only to endure," instead of "He rested sitting on the un-stepped mast
and the sail."
Overall, Hemingway's use of articles in his writing is a deliberate stylistic choice that
contributes to his minimalist and impactful prose.
The linguistic mechanism works naturally in many ways to prevent ambiguity in such
patterns of grammatical structure. Expressive evaluation of sentences can be connected with
shifts of their syntactic content.
A typical case of contextual transposition of meaning is rhetoric questions. It is syntactical
SD which presents a statement in the form of a question, though requiring no answer. The
answer may be supplied or left for the reader to infer.
E.g., Have I no reason to lament? What man has made of man? (William Wordsworth)
In fact, rhetoric questions are not questions but affirmative or negative statements put into
the interrogative shape. A rhetoric question needs no answer, because the answer to it is
quite obvious. Rhetorical questions are an indispensable element of publicistic style. The
make the audience thinking about the subject and produce dramatic effect:
Why should I do it? means /I shouldn't do it. Why doesn't he shut up? means He must shut
up. What could I do in a case like that? means I could do nothing in a case like that.
There are some more varieties of contextual transposition of meaning:
 Exclamatory sentences with inversion: Much he knew about it = He did not know
much about it.
 Negative sentences implying emphatic affirmation: I'll hang myself if it isn't Barney
Woods who did it! = It is Barney Woods who did it.
 Syntactic structures of the type: "Me a liar?" (I am not a liar)
Considerably important is that the omission of logically necessary elements of expression
may take different forms and have different stylistic functions. Syntactic constructions get
the stylistic function, as they are connected with the way of thinking reflected in the
narration, the character and peculiarities of person's perception by means of their laconism
or on the contrary their uncoiling, As an example A. l. Arnold gives a description of a sunny
morning on the Thames, the way it is seen by the painter in Joyce Cary's novel “The Horse's
Mouth”
Sun all in a blaze Lost its shape. Tide pouring up from London as bright as honled ale Full
of babbles and every bubble flashing its own electric torch mist breaking into round fat
shapes, china white on Dresden blue. Dutch angels by Rubens Della Robbia Big one on top
curled up with her knees to her nose like the little marble woman Dobson did for Court
auld. A beauty made me jump to think of it. You could have turned it round in your hand.
Smooth and heat as a cricket bull. A Classic Event
According to I.V. Arnold the example contains compression - a meaningful absence of the
article. linguistically relevant by means of contrasting to the marked person of opposition,
that is to the noun with the article. Favourable conditions for the omission of the article are
always created by the existence of parallel building of a sentence or a word combination and
if there are homogeneous parts of the sentence. The absence of the article is important in the
given example because of another reason too. A zero article shows that the object denoted by
the noun is understood as a known diversion. In the given example, it is understood as an
artistic image. (Arnold, 1971)
Overall, transposition in grammar can be powerful tool for writers and speakers to create
specific effects or emphasize certain aspects of language. However, it should be used carefully
and purposefully to avoid confusing or alienating the reader or listener.

1.2. Stylistic function on the morphological level

This chapter examines the stylistic effect of the discrepancy between the traditional signifier
and the situational signifier at the level of morphology, i.e., the stylistic function of using
word forms of different parts of speech in grammatical meanings that are unusual for them
and with unusual subject relatedness. This use is hereinafter referred to as transposition. In
most cases, in this case, typical grammatical valence connections are violated, which makes it
possible for speakers to express their emotions and attitude to the subject of speech.
In accordance with the grammatical categories inherent in the noun, the expressive
possibilities of number and case matter for stylistics. The phenomenon of transposition is
expressed here in the fact that lexico-semantic variants of the same word can belong to
different lexico-grammatical categories, which is manifested in the difference in valences.
The lexico-grammatical category is defined as a class of lexical units united by a common
lexico-grammatical meaning, a common form in which the grammatical categories inherent
in these units are manifested, a commonality of possible substitute words, and in some cases a
certain set of suffixes and word formation models. Lexico-grammatical categories are
subgroups within parts of speech, and the coincidence of valency properties within a
category is more complete than within a part of speech.
Depending on the above features, common nouns in English can be divided into the
following categories: 1) nouns - the names of the person (reason, doctor, father); 2) animate
nouns not the name of a person, i.e. other living creatures, real or fantastic (angel, ass, bird,
devil); 3) singular-collective nouns (family, party); 4) purely collective nouns (mankind,
peerage); 5) names of measurement units (mile, month); 6) common names - names of
objects and events (book, lesson); 7) real nouns. (matter, meat, steel); abstract nouns (bigress,
clarity, stealth).
Observations show that transposition can give both expressive, emotional and evaluative, as
well as functional and stylistic connotations. Emotional-evaluative components of meaning
for example, are especially characteristic of lexico-semantic variants of nouns belonging to
the first category, i.e., names of a person, especially if they turn out to be a transposition of
words that in the main variant belong to another discharge. For example, when applied to
people, the names of animals or fantastic creatures acquire a metaphorical, emotionally
colored and offensive meaning. This is easy to see when comparing direct and metaphorical
variants of the words: ass, bear, beast, bitch, book-worm, duck, kid, shark, snake, swine,
tabby, toad, wolf, worm, angel, devil, sphinx, witch.
I was not going to have all the old tabbies bossing her around just because she is not what
they call "our class", (A. Wilson, The Middle Age)
“Old cats” (old tabbies) the heroine calls other ladies-patrons, her associates in a charitable
society, about whom it is said a little earlier in the same chapter: The women she worked
with she regarded as fools and did not hesitate to tell them so, which confirms our
considerations about the emotionality of the word tabbies in this variant.
Along with the emotional, these words also have a strong negative evaluative, as well as
expressive and stylistic (colloquial) components. It is curious that in those cases where the
names of animals have synonyms, they in the figurative names of people can differ in
intensity and nature of connotations. Thus, pig, donkey, monkey have an affectionately
ironic character ("Don't be such a donkey, dear" - C. P. Snow), while swine ass, ape have a
rude and sharply negative coloration.
Negative connotations are reinforced by constant epithets and emphatic constructions: you
impudent pup, you filthy swine, you lazy dog.
The change in discharge during transposition is expressed in a changed correlation with
pronouns, syntactic, lexical and morphological valency. In Byron's line
Roll on, thou dark and deep blue Ocean-roll!
Ocean from a common noun, inanimate becomes an animate proper name. It is being
replaced. the pronoun thou, performs the syntactic function of a rhetorical address and is
written with a capital letter. Such a phenomenon is known in stylistics under the name of
personification.
Emotional or expressive connotations also take place in the transposition of abstract nouns
into person nouns. Comparing the chubby little eccentricity:: a chubby eccentric child; he is
a disgrace to his family :: he is a disgraceful son; the old oddity: : and odd old person, it is
easy to see that the examples in the left are more expressive when the other connotations are
identical. To show the interaction of lexical meaning, transposition and syntactic
constructions, let’s consider the following example.
four synonymous sentences arranged in descending order of expressiveness.
Let’s compare: You little horror, You horrid little thing, You horrid girl, You are a horrid
girl.
In the first example, expressiveness and emotionality are increased due to the
substantivization of the adjective with an emotionally exaggerated lexical meaning and due
to the syntactic construction; the second is almost equivalent in expressiveness, here the
violation of the traditional signifier is created by applying a common name (thing) to a
person; in the third, expressiveness is weaker and relies only on the lexical meaning of horrid
and the syntactic construction; in the fourth – only on the meaning of horrible.
Transpositions are also possible between parts of speech, and not just between ranks class.
The transposition of adjectives into the category of person names and their use in the
denominative function has not only expressive, but also functional-stylistic, namely
colloquial coloring: Listen, my sweet. Come on, lovely.
In combination with other constructions, substantivization can give a book coloring:
a flush of heat: a hot flush
a man of intelligence: an intelligent man
the dark of the night: the dark night
A substantivizing adjective turns out to be more abstract and more bookish than a single-root
noun formed by derivation:
The devil –artist who had staged it (the battle) was a master, in comparison with whom all
other artists of the sublime and the terrible were babies. (R.Aldington, The Death of the
Hero)
Since the grammatical features of nouns - person names are, among others, the
possibility of the genitive case form with 's and the replacement by the pronouns he and she,
To these same features are formal signs of personification, and personification is always
accompanied by emotional coloring.
Let’s compare: Winter's grim face.
Even a very worn out and habitual personification, as, for example, when using the names of
countries and cities in the genitive case, still retains some elevation.
let’s compare: London's people, my country's laws - the people of London, the laws of my
country.
Violation of the typical valence may consist in the fact that the combined units belong to
different levels (heterogeneous valency). So, for example, a case suffix can be attached not to
the stem, as usual, but to the whole word combination or sentence.
These are comic examples with a pronounced colloquial coloring that Bailey gives:
She’s the boy I used to go with’s mother.
She’s the man that bought my wheelbarrow’s wife.
It’s the young fellow in the backroom’s car.
He is the niece, I told you about’s husband.
The morpheme is an indicator of the genitive - in these examples it is not attached to the
stem, but to the whole attributive compound in all the complex - a noun with a subordinate
clause that defines it. The comic sound arises due to many factors: due to the already
mentioned heterogeneous valency, due to the large length of the complex, due to the logical
incompatibility of the words standing next to each other: She's the boy..., She's the man........
wheel - barrow's wife, about's husband. Further syntactic links remove this incompatibility.
A similar heterogeneous valence is also possible for the plural ending, which, when attached
to the whole sentence, also sounds funny: Oh I-am-sorry-for-you is worth twenty I-told-
you-so's. *
Along with the creation of a comic effect or a certain stylistic coloring, the violation of the
traditional valence properties of the number indicator can create emphasis and increase
expressiveness. Thus, the expressiveness of the following passage from G. Green's novel The
Heart of the Matter largely depends on the unusual use of abstract nouns in the plural form,
although, of course, not only on this:
Heaven remained rigidly in its proper place on the other side of death,and on this side
flourished the injustices, the cruelties,the meanness, that elsewhere people so cleverly
hushed up.
Of course, the expressiveness of the plural in abstract nouns is difficult to distinguish from
what grammarians call individual cases of the manifestation of certain abstract properties,
but the presence of expressiveness in this example is still beyond doubt.
Another example: material nouns usually do not have a plural form. However, in describing
landscapes, such forms are used to create scale: the sands of Africa, the waters of the Ocean,
the snows of Kilimanjaro.
Expressiveness also increases in those cases when nouns are used in the plural form that
already contain an indication of plurality in their denotative meaning. Let’s compare: a lot of
money :: lots of money, a number of people :: numbers of people,
E,mrs Elliot: …I;ve asked him down to tea lots of times. Nevertheless, each time some
appointment seems to turn up and he cannot come. (J.Obsorne and A. Creighton, the
Epitaph for George Dillon)
Animated proper names are used, as is well known, without an article, except for the definite
article with plural surnames: The Hardys were rather late. (S. Maugham) and the indefinite
article in the usual introductory function: He was engaged to be married to a Miss Hubbard.
(S. Maugham) Both of these cases have a functional-stylistic coloring: both belong to the
colloquial norm. This, apparently, should also include the metonymic use of proper names
with an indefinite article for the title of a work, which gives a transposition into the category
of common names: "Have you a Rosetti?" I asked. (S. Maugham) Refers to Rosetti's paintings.
The indefinite article before the surname, in the absence of transposition, creates an
evaluative metaphorical meaning:
let’s compare I do not claim to be a Caruso - I don’t think I sing well: I do not claim to be
Caruso - I do not say that my name is Caruso. There is no evaluation component in the latter
case. As in most evaluative connotations, formal signs do not predetermine whether a
positive or negative evaluation is meant.
Particular attention should be paid to the use of articles in the enumeration. In attributive
combinations with several dependent homogeneous members, homogeneous members
usually close between the first article, which indicates the nominal nature of the phrase, and
the noun. For the construction of the combination, the repetition of the article is not
necessary, but it may be necessary to perform the stylistic function.
Under the low sky, the grass shone with a brilliant, an almost artificial sheen. (C. P. Snow)
The appearance of the second article turns out to be unexpected and, drawing attention to
the word following it emphasizes its importance and creates the impression of the beginning
of a new phrase. The effect of the repetition of the article is generally similar to the
repetition of any other determiner or conjunction and can be combined with the stylistic
device of growth, i.e., the arrangement of words and expressions in the order of their
increasing value. When enumerating, i.e., in a series of homogeneous members, deviation
from the norm can be expressed both in the repetition of the article and in the omission.
It began to rain slowly and heavily and drenchingly... and her thoughts went down the lane
toward the field, the hedge, the trees - oak, beech, elm. (Gr. Greene)
In this case, the alternation of words with the article and without article creates a certain
rhythm of the sentence: slowing down or speeding up its pace
Along with the stylistic features of the use of articles discussed above, there is also a
specific genre, i.e. features of the use of articles in author's remarks, newspaper headlines,
etc.
The stylistic functions of pronouns also rely on the divergence between traditional and
situational denoting and partly on transposition. The lexico-grammatical categories of
pronouns are known. These are personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative, indefinite and
others. From a stylistic point of view, the most important are personal, indicative and
indefinite, and we will dwell on them in more detail.
Personal pronouns
The pronoun of the first person singular is one of the formal features of the first person
narrative that has become so widespread in modern literature.
In speech characteristics, the exaggeratedly frequent first person pronoun reveals the self-
satisfaction and selfishness of the speaker, as can be seen in the speech of the movie boss
from the story “The Nest of Love’’.
"... I mean I want you to be sure and see the kiddies. I've got three."
"I've seen their pictures," said Bartelett. "You must be very proud of them. They're all girls,
aren't they?" "Yes, sir; three girls. I wouldn't have a boy. I mean I al- ways wanted girls. I
mean girls have got a lot more zip to them. I mean they're a lot zippier. But let's go! The
Rolls is downstairs and if we start now we'll get there before dark. I mean I want you to see
the place while it's still daylight."
On the contrary, the use of one or you, which the speaker refers to himself, indicates a
certain restraint, the speaker does not allow himself to talk too directly about feelings, about
something that personally touches him very much. One, thus, simultaneously conveys both
emotionality and restraint, formally means anyone, but, in essence, refers to the speaker.
Replacing I with the indefinite one or the second person plural pronoun you in the
generalizing function creates closer contact between the speaker and the listener, sounds
more modest and respectful. The speaker makes the listener participate in his experiences. B.
Charleston gives the following example from Priestley's play "Dangerous Turn".
O l wen: Then it's not so bad then. You can always build another image for yourself to fall in
love with.
Robert: No, you can't. That's the trouble you lose the capacity for building. You run short of
the stuff that creates beautiful illusions.
In Olwen's speech, you is used as a regular second person pronoun and refers to Robert. But
Robert uses you in a general way, that is, including himself, his interlocutor Olwen, and
other people in general. Thus, he fends off Olwen's irony, which hints that he has created an
unworthy idol for himself. Robert is well aware that Olwen's words characterize his attitude
to life and to the empty, depraved Betty, but is defended by this generalized you, not taking
what was said personally or accepting only partially.
In the author's narration, the generalizing you has both the first and the second person as a
denotation, that is, it unites the author and the reader, involving the latter in the circle of
experiences and thoughts described. A similar function in familiar colloquial speech can be
replaced by I by such nouns as a man, a chap, a fellow, a girl. In fiction, such a replacement is
possible, of course, either in direct speech or in first-person narration.
The generalizing one and the generalizing you, referred to the speaker, are very close in
meaning.
In the following example from Gr. Greene “The essence of the matter ’’Scobie thinks about
himself, but uses not the pronoun I, but the indefinite one, thereby extending his
experiences to others, that is, creating a generalization. "If one knew," he wondered, "the
facts, would one have to feel pity even for the planets? If one reached what they called the
heart of the matter?" It is no coincidence, of course, that this generalization is necessary in a
phrase that reveals the philosophical meaning of the title of the novel, which puts forward
compassion as the basis of morality. Replacing one with you would change the meaning
slightly, but the phrase would sound somewhat less abstract and philosophical.
Huxley, with the help of one, creates a satirical subtext, mocks the hypocrisy of Burlap, who,
agreeing to give an employee a meager increase, speaks about himself in an impersonal form
in order to relieve himself of responsibility.
"One feels quite ashamed of offering it. But what can one do?" One could obviously do
nothing, for the good reason that one was impersonal and did not exist. (A. Huxley, Point
Counter Point)
The speaker can also talk about himself in the third person, then he, as it were, looks at
himself from the side and thereby concentrates attention on himself more strongly. K.
Mansfield writes about himself in his diary: I do not want to write; I want to live. What does
she mean by that? It's hard to say. An additional meaning of this statement is cold alienation.
The basic meaning would not change if we replaced she with I: I do not want to write: I
want to live. What do I mean by that? It's hard for me to say. Replacing I with one would
give the statement a more generalized meaning, suggesting greater understanding and
sympathy: One doesn't want to write; one wants to live. What does one mean by that? One
cannot say.
The second person singular pronoun thou, its object case thee, possessive thy and its absolute
form thine, intensifier and reflexive thyself are no longer common in modern English, but
can be used in various stylistic functions. In poetry and in appeals to God, they create an
archaic elation. Thou can convey historical or geographical flavor. So, for example, when
rendering speech in a language in which the pronoun of the second person singular exists
(Spanish, Italian), Hemingway uses thou and the corresponding verb forms as one of the
means to create local color. A similar stylistic function is played by the second person
pronoun ye, which is archaic in modern English and has survived only in dialects. It is,
accordingly, important for speech characteristics.
The stylistic possibilities of using the third person singular pronouns he, she, it are
interesting primarily because these pronouns can serve as formal indicators of
personification, if not or she replace the nouns traditionally replaced by it, and thus create an
emotional high. : and vice versa, the replacement of animate nouns with the pronoun it
reduces them to the category of things and thus belittles them, gives the statement an ironic,
humorous, disapproving and less often affectionate character:
"O, Lord!" He involuntarily ejaculated as the incredibly dilapidated figure appeared in the
light. It stopped; it
uncovered pale gums, and long upper teeth in a malevolent grin. - "Is there anything wrong
with me, Mister Mate?" it asked. (J. Conrad)
"Evaluative connotation of this kind is inherent in other languages but it is closely related to
the system available in the given language.
The pronouns What, this, that, anything, or the pronominal use of the word thing, or the use
of nouns to refer to people, which in the literal sense generally refer to animals or Fantastic
creatures, can have a similar function of reduction: beast, brute, creature, fury.
In the elevated personification of heavenly bodies, forces of nature, cities, rivers, etc., the
choice between he and she is subjective and entirely depends on the image that the author
creates. In this sense, it is interesting to mention as an example the personification of the sun
in the novel “Tess of the d'Urbervilles” by T. Hardy, where the writer gives a special
explanation why he believes that the pronoun of the masculine gender is more appropriate
for the sun.
The use of it when replacing nouns-names of a person is a certain violation of the norm and
therefore it is very expressive, the choice between he/she and it in relation to animals is not
regulated by grammatical norms. The use of he or she according to gender is optional and
takes on some emotional connotation. The speaker uses it when talking about unfamiliar
animals or about animals with which he is angry. He or she speaks about his dog, horse, etc.
The use of emotional nouns in relation to animals, which are literally the names of a person
(for example, beggar), sounds playful and affectionate .... but he enjoyed the bobbery the
little beggars (viz. birds) were kicking up. (Galsworthy)
The function of pronouns in the transposition of discharges is very significant. Their use in
Hemingway's story "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" is interesting. The hero of the story, dying of
gangrene, the writer Henry feels the approach of death as the approach of a living being:
Because just then, death had come and rested its head on the foot of the cot and he could
smell its breath. There is no traditional personification here, because the use of the pronoun
it (and not he or she) shows that the word death does not fall into the category of nouns of a
person, but into the category of animate, but not names of a person.
The pronoun we with the main meaning speaking together with another person or persons
can be used in the norm of the language in such a way that only the speaker is its actual
referent. These are the so-called Pluralis Majestatis (plural of majesty, used in royal decrees,
manifestos, etc.) and Pluralis Modestiae (plural of modesty) or the author's we', used to unite
oneself out of modesty with those to whom one addresses speech
In fiction, multiple modesty evokes associations with scientific prose and thus creates the
effect of authenticity (W. Scott, for example, uses we in historical novels, and the reader
creates associations with scientific and historical literature). In scholarly prose, both first
person pronouns are avoided and replaced by the present writer, the present reviewer.
The third person plural pronoun they acquires emotionality when it is used independently,
its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not replace anything, but simply indicates that the
action is performed by a group of persons that does not include the interlocutor or the
speaker, who, as if were, from - these "they".
You kept from thinking and it was all marvellous. You were equipped with good insides so
that you did not go to pieces that way that most of them had, and you made an attitude that
you cared nothing for the work you used to do now, that you could no longer do it. But, in
yourself, you said that you would write about these people; about the very rich; that you
were really not of them but a spy in their country; that you would leave it and write of it
and for once it would be written by someone who knew what he was Writing of. But he
would never do it... (E. Hemingway, The Snows of Kilimanjaro)
The demonstrative pronouns this and that point to things, separating them from the class of
their like, and refer to the things, concepts, etc. mentioned earlier, which can be expressed in
words or sentences. If they do not have such a function in the text and they do not refer to
anything and do not distinguish an object from a class of similar ones, demonstrative
pronouns have emotive power. Robert: I'm sorry, but I must know this. Was that something
to do with that missing five hundred pounds? Gordon (excitedly): Oh - for God's sake - don't
drag that money into it! We don't want all that all over again. (J. B. Priestley, Dangerous
Corner)
In this example, that missing five hundred pounds the definite article would suffice, and then
before the word money there might not even be an article in the firebox. The use of that
indicates the excitement of the speakers.
George Dillon, taking advantage of the kindness of Mrs. Eliot, lives at her expense and in her
family, instead of gratitude, desperately despising everything that surrounds him.
George: Oh, don't be so innocent, Ruth. This house! This room! This hideous, God - awful
room!
Ruth: Aren't you being just a little insulting? George: I'm simply telling you what you very
well know. They may be your relations but have you honestly got one tiny thing in common
with any of them? These people-
Ruth: Oh, no! Not, 'these people'! Please - not that
"These people" sounds just insulting, and Ruth interrupts George. Or a little further:
Ruth: The job I do is so hysterically dull that every time I go into that office, and see myself
lungs out with the loneliness and the bore- dom of it. (J. Osborne and A. Creighton, The
Epitaph for George Dillon)
This and that can express both irritation and anger, as well as ridicule, gaiety. Demonstrative
pronouns are especially expressive in combination with possessive pronouns in postposition:
that ring of yours, that brother of mine, this idea of his. The next step of amplification is
obtained when the epithet is included. The epithet can be expressed as an adjective: this
lovely ring of yours, that old ramshackle house of his, that wretched puppy of yours.
Demonstrative pronouns can be used instead of personal pronouns, creating emphasis.
Stylistically neutral possessive pronouns express belonging or serve as a determiner of nouns
denoting, for example, body parts, clothing and other personal items, food, etc., which is a
characteristic feature of the English language. Possessive pronouns (mainly your) turn out to
be emotional and emphatic when they refer to something that does not belong to the
interlocutor, but is connected emotionally with him, likes him or is often mentioned by him.
Betty: You couldn't even be generous though you'd given your precious Martin everything
we'd got. (J. B. Priestley. Dangerous Corner)
Other pronouns can also be emphatic and emotional, and the condition for emotionality is
always a violation of the usual connection with the referent.
The only grammatical category inherent in adjectives in modern English is the category of
comparison. It conveys the degree of intensity of the sign expressed by the adjective
and,therefore, is very close to the stylistic category of expressiveness. This is especially true
for the elative, the grammatical meaning of which is a relatively large measure of the
feature: a most valuable idea, the sweetest baby.
To help the superlative degree of the adjective and along with it, other means are used to
express the elative. syntactic order.
Let’s compare:
the sweetest baby
the sweetest of babies
a foolish wife:
a foolish, foolish wife :
a most foolishwife ::
the most foolish of wives:
your fool of a wife:
your wife is foolishness itself::
she is as foolish as can be::
is she as foolish as all that?
In a familiar-colloquial style or vernacular, it is possible to strengthen with the help of that:
She is that foolish
In a literary-colloquial style, emotional-evaluative the component is introduced when used
in pairs with evaluation layers
nice and warm, good and strong.
Mrs Elliot Oh Josie, you are a naughty girl, you really are. I was hoping you'd have
everything nice and clean and tidy when I came in. (J. Osborne and A. Creighton,)

This example is highly expressive both in its syntactic pattern and thanks to the abundant
intensifiers.
The comparison category covers only qualitative and quantitative adjectives. The use of a
comparative or superlative degree for other adjectives that do not have this category makes
the adjective more expressive: You cannot be deader than the dead. (E. Hemingway)
Likewise, since synthetic forms of comparison are characteristic only of monosyllabic and
few disyllabic adjectives, deviations from this rule may have a stylistic function. In the
following example, this form amuses the reader and at the same time betrays the excitement
of the little heroine, which is emphasized in the author's comments:
"Curiouser and curiouser!" cried Alice (she was so much surprised that for the moment she
quite forgot how to speak good English). (Lewis Carrol, Alice in Wonderland)
Violation of valence in the form of a combination of a superlative suffix with a noun stem is
expressive, funny and well-remembered, i.e. it meets the basic requirements of the language
of advertising. In the example below, a kind of elative is created by a double violation of
valence: the orangemostest drink in the world.
A similar increase in expressiveness is observed in colloquial speech. The adjective idiotic
characterizes the mental abilities of a person and should be combined with nouns of a
person. However, it is often combined with inanimate nouns to convey the speaker's
annoyance: My idiotic shoe-laces are undone.
Comparing different lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives from the point of view of
their connotative possibilities, it is not difficult to see that qualitative adjectives are richer in
connotations than relative ones with the same root: glass:: glassy, gold:: golden, etc.
Above, in connection with the analysis of pronouns, we got an idea of the stylistic effect of
transpositions in the area of the category of a person. But the verb has a more developed
system of word formation and a greater number of grammatical categories than any other
part of speech. Accordingly, a priori it can be argued that its stylistic potential should be
significant. Unfortunately, it has not yet been sufficiently studied.
It can apparently be argued that transposition also serves as an important means of
expression here. It is known, for example, that in a lively emotional narration about events
that took place in the past or are expected in the future, the so-called present historical is
used. Brugman and Jespersen use the term "real dramatic".
The real dramatic creates a kind of artistic illusion about the past being told as if it were
unfolding before the eyes of the reader or listener.
Similarly, continuous forms of the present, past and future are often used in cases where, due
to the nature of the action, the indefinite form should be used. Continuous forms are more
emotional.
They can express, for example, fleeting irritation of interlocutors.
In the conversation between Ruth and George Dillon:
Ruth: I'd like to read some of your work.
George: Thank you, I'll think about it.
Ruth: Do you charge a fee?
George: You are not being very funny yourself now.
The emotionality of this whole scene is revealed by many linguistic features, one of them is
the special use of present forms of the verb:
Ruth: You're burning yourself out. And for what? ...
George: You don't even begin to understand - you're no different from the rest. Burning
myself out! You bet I'm burning myself out! I've been doing that for so many years now-and
who in hell cares?
The continuous form is used here for actions that reveal the character of the character and
are far from being indifferent to the speaker.
The present continuous is also used in conversation to express surprise, distrust,
indignation at the words of the interlocutor, and repetition can be used: Burning my-self out!
You bet I'm burning myself out!
Jimmy Porter resents the fact that he has to trade in a stall.
Jimmy: One day when I'm no longer spending my days running a sweet-stall. I may write a
book about us all. (.1. Osborne, Look Back in Anger)
Expressiveness arises here at the same time both at the lexical and grammatical levels. The
very combination to spend one's days is already expressive: the use of the continuous form,
which is optional due to the situation, is also expressive.
If irony and dissatisfaction are expressed by asking again, the interrogative form is combined
with a special intonation:
You're not really suggesting that... are you?
You're not trying to convince me that...?
Indignation is expressed by imitation of distrust. Listener Pretends not to believe his ears.
Sometimes the continuous form, due to its emotionality, turns out to be softer and more
polite in the same play, the kind Mrs. Eliot says softly: I'd better show you the way. He's not
feeling so good today.
 All considered cases of transposition had emotional expressiveness, but transposition can
also have a functional and stylistic character. In the speech characteristics of the heroes, the
use of the form I, he, we ain't or I says, characteristic of colloquial speech, can occur, and this
is when talking about past events; or the singular has, is, was when the subject is in the
plural: Times 'as changed. The transposition can be double, i.e., touch forms and time, and
number, or single - only time, only person,
For example (in the same play):
Josie: Well, I'm doing it aren't I?
or
Percy: ...But what about me? I'm going to look a proper bloody fool, aren't I?
In the last example it is interesting to note that Percy, in accordance with the literary norm,
uses both the form of the first person singular, and in the alternative part of the question,
the plural form are.
So, N. S. Bukhtiyarova, based on the data of other authors, linguists and literary critics,
compares the use of lexical-semantic variants of the word now in scientific and artistic prose.
In scientific texts, w serves as a means of communication in the course of logical reasoning. It
can mean "Next", "so", in this work, in the following ', 'below. In the book of Norbert Wiener
we find the following example of such usage:
Now there is no normal process except death which completely clears the brain from all
past impressions; and after death it is impossible to set it going again...
In fiction, now can play a big role in setting the timeline for a story. Following M. O.
Mendelson and V. Kozhinov, N. S. Bukhtiyarova explores the now function in E.
Hemingway’s novel “For Whom the Bell Tolls” and interprets now as a metronome of
dramatic action of the novel. The whole life of the hero until the completion of the task is, as
it were, subordinated to this basic moment. It should be added to this that now is generally
one of Hemingway's favorite keywords, whose works are characterized by complex binding
of time plans of the present, past and future.
As in the following example from the story In Another Country, where the starting point is
indicated by the adverb then:
Another boy who walked with us sometimes and made us five wore a black silk
handkerchief across his face because he had no nose then and his face was to be rebuilt. He
had gone out to the front from the military academy and been wounded within an hour after
he had gone into the front line for the first time. They rebuilt his face, but he came from a
very old family and they could never get the nose exactly right. He went to South America
and worked in a bank. But this was a long time ago, and then we did not any of us know
how it was going to be afterword.
Many of the most frequent adverbs are homonymous with particles and interjections and
are generally characterized by a developed polysemy, which is still very little studied
linguistically. Their stylistic interpretation has so far been developed clearly insufficiently,
mainly due to the lack of a linguistic base.

2.1. Stylistic Effect of Some Syntactic Constructions through Transposition

In terms of linguistic stylistics, at the syntactic level, one has to deal with the so-called
syntactic synonymy, i.e., with the transfer of approximately the same subject-logical
information with different syntactic constructions with different functional-stylistic and
expressive coloring and connotations. Let’s compare, for example, verbal and non-verbal
imperative sentences:
Step in here - In here!
Wait a moment! - Just a moment!
The stylistic effect is based on the establishment of synonyms for different types of syntactic
constructions, of which one with the traditional use of syntactic links is neutral, and the
other with their rethinking is expressive and emotional. For example, an expressive-ironic
expression of negation is possible in affirmative or interrogative sentences in form.
"But why should two people stay together and be unhappy? » the barmaid was saying.
»Why? When they can get a divorce and be happy?"
"Because marriage is a sacrament," replied the stranger. "Sacrament yourself!" the barmaid
retorted contemptuously.
(A. Huxley, Point Counter Point)
The first two rhetorical questions correspond to the statement: people who are unhappy in
marriage should get a divorce. The last exclamation is expressively negative and expresses
contempt for the interlocutor's argument.
Emotionality and expressiveness can be conveyed from speech not only by a special choice
of words, as discussed above, but also by their special placement.
In English, each member of a sentence, as is known, has a common place, determined by the
way it is syntactically expressed, connections with other words, and the type of sentence.
Violation of the usual order of the members of a sentence, as a result of which some element
appears to be emphasized and receives special connotations of emotionality or
expressiveness. The inversion is determined by the position of the syntactically
interconnected members of the sentence relative to each other. The change in word order
cannot be unlimited, it is subject to some rules; For example, the subject can follow the verb,
but the article and the demonstrative pronoun must necessarily precede the noun to which
they refer.
Some changes in word order change syntactic relations, and with them the whole meaning
of the sentence: When a man wants to kill a tiger he calls it sport; when a tiger wants to kill
a man it is ferocity; others combine grammatical and expressive functions. Let’s compare: I
had known it: Had I known it:
If I had known it, where the second differs from the first in grammatical meaning, and from
the third in expressiveness. Finally, changes in the order of words are possible, which do not
change the grammatical meaning and are not associated with expressiveness or emotionality,
but have a functional and stylistic coloring. These include, for example, the assignment of a
preposition to the end of a sentence, which is possible only in a colloquial style. Let’s
compare:
The man of whom I spoke: The man I spoke of.
It is the colloquial style (and especially the familiar colloquial style) that is characterized
by the emphasis on the first place of the emotionally dominant element (Bloomfield's term):
"Flowers! You wouldn't believe it, madam, the flowers he used to bring me." "White! He
turned as white as a woman."
(K. Mansfield, Lady's Maid)
A special syntactic form of amplification in such cases is the construction it is flowers that, it
was flowers that. Such constructions are called emphatic. In the examples considered, the
girl first names the object, especially the one that excites her (flowers), names what struck
her the most in the reaction of the young man (his pallor), and then explains the situation.
One of the main classifications of sentences in syntax is, as is well known, the classification
according to the purpose of utterances into declarative, interrogative, exclamatory and
incentive. Each of these categories has its own formal and intonational features. It is also
known that sentences are divided into affirmative and negative sentences. However, each of
them can be found in the meaning of any of the others, while acquiring a special modal or
emotional meaning, expressiveness or stylistic coloring. So, for example, sentences that are
affirmative in form can be used as questions if the asking person wants to show that he
already knows what the answer will be and is not indifferent to it. They can also serve as
stimuli to action; so-called rhetorical questions serve as an emphatic statement, and
imperative sentences can sometimes convey not a call to action, but a threat or ridicule. All
these shifts, i.e. the use of syntactic structures in denotative meanings that are unusual for
them and with additional connotations, are called transposition.
Considering first the transposition of the narrative position and turning it into a question.
Such a transposition with very diverse connotations received quite a wide spread in
colloquial speech.
In the dialogue below, we can consider different types of direct word order questions:
Louise (brightly, putting her husband in his place: Who was in it, dear? Lawrence
Olivier? I always think he best for those Greek things, don't you?... I'll never forget that
wonderful night when they put out his eyes-1 could hear that scream for weeks and weeks
afterwards everywhere I went. There was something so farouche about it. You know the
word, dear, farouche? like animals in the jungle.
Stanley (to Clive): And that's supposed to be cultured> Clive: What?
Stanley: People having their eyes put out.
Clive: I don't know what "cultured" means. I always thought it has something to do with
pearls.
Louise: Nonsense, you know perfectly well what your father means. It's not people's eyes,
Stanley: it's poetry. Of course, I do not expect you to understand.
Stanley (to Clive): And this is what you want to study at Cambridge, when you get up
there next month? (,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Transposition, that is, the direct word order in Stanley's questions (And that's supposed to be
cultured? and And this is what you want to study at Cambridge?), saturates these questions
with irony and even sarcasm.
Let us now turn to the transposition of the reverse direction. i.e., turning the question
into an emphatic statement. This so-called rhetorical question is the most studied form of
transposition in stylistics,
A rhetorical question does not imply an answer and is not posed in order to induce the
listener to tell something unknown to the speaker. The function of a rhetorical question is to
attract attention, enhance the impression, increase the emotional tone, create elation. The
answer is already suggested in it, and the rhetorical question only involves the reader in
reasoning or experiencing, making him more active, supposedly forcing him to draw a
conclusion.
The rhetorical question is found in all styles of speech, but has a somewhat specific
function in each of them. Shakespeare's sonnet 57, on the infinite devotion of the beloved,
begins with an emotional question, which is really a statement:
Being your slave, what should I do but tend
Upon the hours and times of your desire?
After considering the transposition of a statement and a question, it is logical to turn to the
transposition of negation and implied negation and consider the case when emphatic
negation is expressed by sentences in which there are no negative words. It is appropriate to
call these cases transposition structures with limited possibilities of lexical and morphological
variation. Their originality is far from being exhausted by the fact that the negation in them
is expressed without the help of negative words. The freedom of rethinking here is far from
being as great as in rhetorical questions or questions of word order
The number of such formations is not very significant, and they are found mainly in the
colloquial style of speech.
"Did you give her my regards?" I asked him. "Yeah."
The hell he did, the bastard. (Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye)
Since negation (like the question), as has long been noted, is overall more emotional and
expressive than affirmation, the stylistic possibilities of negation deserve especially careful
consideration. It is important to consider them at different levels. There is a point of no
return unremarked at the time in most lives. (Gr. Greene, The Comedians) Negation allows
us to make this phrase extremely laconic and thereby strengthen the expression of the
irreversibility of the moment we are talking about here.
In colloquial speech, the expressiveness of negation has a variety of functions. The same
negative affixes can take on a strong evaluative connotation and express disapproval:
unladylike, uneatable, un-American, and rather unnecessary. The accumulation of negations
in the character's speech testifies to his agitation. In Priestley's play "Time and the Conway
Family," Mrs. Conway, excited and animated, happy that at last all her children are with her
and both sons have safely returned from the front (it takes place in 1919), talks to her
attorney and uses the negation of a little or in every phrase:
Mrs. C.: Isn't that lovely? All the children back home, and plenty of money to help them
settle down. And, mind you, Gerald, ‘I shouldn't be a bit surprised if Robin doesn't do
awfully well in some business quite soon. Selling things, probably people find him so
attractive. Dear Robin!
Gerald, it isn't so very long ago that I thought myself the unluckiest woman in the world. If
it hadn't been for the children, I wouldn't have wanted to go on living. And now, though of
course, it'll never be the same without him- I suddenly feel I'm one of the luckiest women in
the world. All my children round me, quite safe at last, very happy.
The expressive negation function is particularly clear in the sentence: I shouldn't be
surprised if Robin doesn't do awfully well.
A negative construction, instead of a logically necessary affirmative one, can also convey
other excitement, indecision, hesitation: I am wondering if I ought not to ring him up.
Double negation is a characteristic feature of the vernacular, but this, of course, does not
exclude its expressiveness. It is used mainly in speech characteristics.
A figure of speech called litote is based on the expressiveness of negation and consists in the
use of a particle with an antonym already containing a negative prefix: It is not unlikely - it
is very likely; he was not unaware of = he was quite aware of. A construction with a litote
can have different functions in combination with different stylistic coloring. In colloquial
style, she conveys irony. In a scientific style, she gives the statement more rigor and caution:
it is not difficult to see=it is easy to see.
The stylistic functions of conjunctions, which are very important and varied, have been
studied very little. Even less studied are the expression of syntactic connections with the
help of pronouns, adverbial connection, different variants of repetitions in the same
function, the replacement of the indefinite article by the definite one, connection with the
help of the unity of tenses and the relative use of tenses in one narration, the omission of the
implied word and his substitution.
Ways of expressing syntactic relations within sentences with the help of conjunctions,
relative pronouns or other means, in their interaction with the nature of the branching of
the sentence, can simultaneously perform important stylistic functions along with logical
ones:
Here is what D. H. Lawrence wrote about the problem we now call the acceleration
problem:
The girl who is going to fall in love knows all about it beforehand from books and the
movies... she knows exactly how she feels when her lover or husband betrays her or when
she betrays him; she knows precisely what it is to be a forsaken wife, an adoring mother, an
erratic grandmother. All at the age of eighteen.
A deeply branched complex with subordinate clauses, which are introduced by the words:
who, how, when, what, allows you to combine all the complexity of a woman’s personal life
in one sentence and then summarize the problem, opposing a complex with a one-part one:
All at the age of eighteen, and at the same time express the negative attitude of Lawrence
himself to the described situation.
Both the use and the absence of conjunctions can be significant. John Osborne describes a
country town: It is full of dirty blank spaces, high black walls, a gas holder, a tall chimney, a
main road that shakes with dust and lorries. (J. Osborne, Entertainer)
The absence of conjunctions in this description shows that the enumeration is not
exhaustive, the series is not closed. If a conjunction is introduced into the same sentence, the
series will remain open, but each element joined by the conjunction will be highlighted and
the whole statement will become even more expressive and, moreover, rhythmic: It is full of
dirty blank spaces and high black walls, and a gas holder, and a tall chimney, and a main
road that shakes with dust and lorries.
If the conjunction is introduced only before the last homogeneous member, the
enumeration will be completed and the whole statement will become more calm: It is full of
dirty blank spaces, high black walls, a gas holder, a tall chimney and a main road that shakes
with dust and lorries. It would be possible to combine these elements in pairs. This would
lead to the establishment of some commonality between wastelands and black walls, on the
one hand, and a gas tank and a factory chimney, on the other, would emphasize the relief of
the industrial landscape drawn by the author. Indeed, the pairwise connection of
homogeneous members is used to connect words that are close in meaning, to contrast
antonyms or words that name very distant concepts. This can create the effect of a very wide
scope of concepts, and sometimes surprise, i.e. deceived expectations.
2.2 Transposition as a powerful tool for writers to create a specific effect
It is clear that the correlation of the object notion to the speech situation, actualization,
reflecting subjunctive task of the speaker (writer) expresses the quality of subjectivity in the
usage of the article and the interpretation of the complicated category of article sometimes
depends of the reader's comprehension, his personal experience and may bring to the
multiplicity of possible understandings but of course doesn't mean any arbitrariness. The
richer thesaurus of the reader is the deeper this comprehension will be.
For the purpose of illustrating the role of transposition we consider the examples which are
taken mainly from the story Indian Summer by E.Hemingway.
The train passed very quickly a long red stone house with a garden and four thick pulm trees
with tables." (E. Hemingway)
Here the author begins the narration as if from the middle and it seems that he describes
objects, tells about events, which have already been known to the reader.
So the article is taken as a means of the situational information of correlation of the object
notion to the speech situation. Besides, the usage of articles reflects the subjective task of the
speaker (the writer).
The usage of the definite article with a noun not mentioned before is closely related to
the describable situation and brings the reader in the familiar atmosphere if it is used with
nouns in the very beginning of the descriptive text.
"The two Indians stood waiting" (E. Hemingway).
Hemingway tells a new important information in passing, as though it is not new (the two
Indians). and this gives Hemingway's style a special sharpness and expressiveness. The reader
doesn't know who "the two Indians" are. The perception becomes concrete. the reader looks
around with the eyes of the hero. Hemingway doesn't let him be a strange observer but
makes see everything that sees the hero and just the way he sees it.
The same function may be carried by the indefinite article as well.
At the lake shore there was another rowboat drawn up. (E. Hemingway)
A direct insertion of the indefinite article into narration from the first line warns the reader
about the presence of the first already mentioned boat, about which the reader may only
suppose and finds out in the further narration.
To make his narration laconic and terse Hemingway makes a practice of "beginning from the
middle", i. e., he begins a chapter (a story, a novel) so, as if something had already been said
about the described events. In our text, the very first line demonstrates this method: 'another
boat’ could appear only if the first' had been mentioned. its single appearance does not exclude
the necessity of having 'the first boat' mentioned but leaves this first boat in implication; thus
receiving 'another boat' we take it for granted that the first one had already been spoken about.
The same concerns the definite article at the beginning the second sentence. It could appear
in this position also only if the same two Indians had at least once been referred to before. This
direct reference in the text is absent, it but we very naturally take it into consideration, for all our
previous experience has taught us this simple rule if the subject group is supplied with the
definite article, it is not the first time it is mentioned in the narration.
So the first small paragraph consisting of two simple sentences proves to carry much more
information than is outwardly expressed. Each sentence is loaded with additional, implied
significance. In the second paragraph, we are given two more details burdened with implication:
'the camp rowboat' shows that the first, unmentioned boat of the beginning belonged to this side
of the lake. Its permanent presence on the lake shore is so familiar to the narrator that he is
concerned only with another boat', which is 'the camp boat'.
Not often does Hemingway resort to Past Continuous, preferring Past Indefinite even in cases
when grammar textbooks rigorously demand Past Continuous. But when he employs the tense he
fully utilizes its grammatical meaning of a lengthy action in process: The Indian who was rowing
them was working very hard' emphasizes the fact of unabating efforts of the Indian and enhances
the atmosphere of tenseness and hurry, hinted at by several preceding details: 'started off in the
dark', 'quick strokes', etc.
The meticulous registration of every step in the outward development of events is described
according to the author's desire to present them as a single picture, to collect them in one
elaborated unity is syntactically expressed in the choice of one verbal tense for all the predicates:
even in those cases when grammar rules demand Past Perfect ('the timber was cut away') or Past
Continuous ('an old woman stood', 'who carried a lantern', etc.). Such a preference for a
grammatical form or category is generally characteristic of Hemingway and is always employed
to sustain the effect of oneness, of unity of the described events. In addition to the effect of unity,
repeated usage of the same form creates a definite rhythmic effect, thus enhancing the expressive
force of the narration.
When the indication at the duration of the action becomes as important as the indication as the
fact of the action itself, Hemingway, not to destroy the syntactical structure of the paragraph,
resorts to participial constructions: 'came out barking'; 'stood holding', 'walked following', etc.,
where the '-ing'-form of the second element implies that the first one also expresses a process.
The second part also begins as if it were not "the very beginning", because we left the characters
outside and now "the inside" part is given without any link between the two (e. g, the writer did
not tell us that they had gone in, we understand it ourselves from the very first word 'inside',
from the change of the rhythm, grammatical tense, etc.).
Paragraph eight masterfully presents the atmosphere of the shanty and the history of the sick
woman. Again, mainly short simple sentences, each carrying one concrete observation of Nick
constitute the paragraph. Here it is also necessary to mark the time of definite actions and their
duration, because the indication at the length and duration of the woman's sufferings and the help
of other women of the camp is as important as the mere denomination of both processes. Hence
the Past Perfect Continuous of 'to try to have a baby' and 'to help'. It is also important for a better
explanation of the future outcome to make a point of the fact that the husband had cut his foot
still before his wife began her painful delivery, so that he could not shut out her screams and was
practically forced to go through his wife's tortures. Hence the Past Perfect of "to cut" and
meticulous count of days: 'he had cut his foot three days ago', 'she had been trying... for two
days'.
Another point worth mentioning is one of Hemingway's favorites-word of extremely wide
semantics-'anything. The word embraces the whole situation, its realization completely depends
upon the context, and this contextual concreteness of an otherwise semantically vaguely outlined
word, which enables the speaker to use it in unlimited number of situations and makes it a
characteristic lexical unit of oral speech, creates or enhances the colloquial character of
Hemingway's narration. Though the narration is not conducted in the first person singular, we
realize from various hints (mentioned above) that it is Nick through whose eyes we are observing
events. This type of presenting a picture of life as if perceived by a character creates the so-
called effect of immediate presence, which in classical Latin rhetorical books was called the ad
oculos effect.
Conclusion

Summing up the results of the final work, we have come to the following conclusion
Transposition is a process in which the syntactic structure of a sentence is changed, while its
meaning remains largely intact. This can often result in a shift in emphasis or a change in the
stylistic effect of the sentence.
This is grammar of constant movement. Not only is it multimodal in scope. It also suggests an
alternative to categorically rigid and language-centered understandings of meaning. A
transpositional grammar recognizes that meanings shift backwards and forwards across and
between different forms, the one form complementing the other for the peculiarities of its
media—its affordances.
Expressive re-evaluation of sentences can be connected with shifts of their syntactic content.
Each of the following types of sentences (declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory)
may be used in the meaning of the other type and as a result acquire emotive and expressive
connotation.
The shifts in the usage of syntactic structures resulting in additional emotional characteristics
are called transposition in syntactical structures.
Transposition of syntactic structures is a process of changing the word order or grammatical
structure of a sentence or phrase while still retaining the same meaning. It is often used as a
rhetorical device in literature, poetry, and public speaking to create a more memorable and
impactful effect on the audience.
Transposition in grammar refers to the process of changing the normal word order or
structure of a sentence or phrase. This can be done for a variety of reasons, including to
emphasize certain words or ideas, to create a specific tone or mood, or to add complexity or
interest to the language.RHETORIC///

Meaning extension is a natural and common occurrence in language, as words are constantly
being adapted and repurposed to fit new contexts and situations. It is a key aspect of the
flexibility and adaptability of language.
Overall, transposition in grammar can be powerful tool for writers and speakers to create
specific effects or emphasize certain aspects of language. However, it should be used carefully
and purposefully to avoid confusing or alienating the reader or listener.
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Equinox Publishing, Sheffield, 2008 p. 237
6. G.B.Shaw. Pygmalion, New York, Simon & Schuster.1912 p.82
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United Kingdom, 1798,
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INTERNET RESOURCES
1. https://phdessay.com/stylistic-potential-of-the-english-noun/

2. https://www.amazon.com/ref=nav_logo

3. https://studfile.net/preview/8856272/page:52/
4. https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1433981
5. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/51001/lines-written-in-early-spring
6. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016757
7. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25000191
Additional
Expressive re-evaluation of sentences can be connected with shifts of their syntactic content.
A few typical examples are:
As if I ever told him about it!
Syn. I never told him about it.
Higgins: As if I ever stop thinking about the girl and her confounded vowels and consonants.
syn. I never stop thinking... (Shaw)
"As if it wasn't trouble enough hatching the eggs", said the Pigeon, "but I must be on the
lookout for serpents night and day." (Carroll)
"Me, indeed!"—cried the Mouse who was trembling down to the end of his tail.
"As if I would talk on such a subject!" (Carroll)
Examples of pseudo-subclauses of condition functioning as independent units are:
"Well, if you aren't a wonder," Drouet was saying, complacently, squeezing Carrie's arm.
"You are the dandiest little girl on earth." (Dreiser)
If there isn't Captain Donnithorne a-coming into the yard! (Eliot) — here the direct and the
indirect negations cancel each other, the result being positive (he is coming).
A special case of functional re-evaluation of sub-clauses of condition will be found in "wish-
sentences":
That wasn't what he had meant to say. If only he knew more, if only he could make others
feel that vision, make them understand how they were duped into hatred under the guise of
loyalty and duty. (Aldington)
If only Fleur and he had met on some desert island without a past — and Nature for their
house! (Galsworthy)