SEMIOTICS AND

COMMUNICATION
UNIT 4 – DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS
DOCENTES A CARGO
 Prof. Luis Posadas

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SEMIOTICS AND COMMUNICATION – UNIT 4

Specific objectives
The student should be able to:
1. Understand the fundamentals of semiotic and epistemological principles that
support the discipline and serve as a basis for associated disciplines.
2. Establish relationships between semiotics and its various branches, with an
emphasis on human language and communication.
3. Address the complexity of human communication in some of its dimensions.
4. Recognize and analyze some pieces of discourse typical of today's society.

Contents
Introduction
1. Local coherence.
2. Global coherence: the mental elaboration of a summary as an exercise.
3. Situational coherence.

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INTRODUCTION
The objective of this part is to briefly explain what a text or piece of discourse is.
Sometimes a difference is made between the concepts of 'text' and ‘discourse', but
they are generally taken as synonyms and that is what we are going to do here.
For didactic and expository purposes, then, both expressions will be used to refer to
any oral, or written unit that constitutes a global unit of meaning in use.
The definition allows us to understand that the text obviously has a clear
communicative function. Any verbal unit is an example of text, from a simple
expression as Bless you! or even a book on Optics of more than 500 pages. Anything
that is said or that is written is said or written in a certain communicative context. For
this reason, the text examples are innumerable: notices, classifieds, polite and impolite
greetings, poems, phone calls, radio auditions, medical prescriptions, culinary recipes,
religious sermons, political harangues, advertisements for sausages, advertisements
on illuminated billboards, presentations at scientific conferences, declarations of love,
electricity bills, bank account statements... The list can be endless and it seems sensible
to end it here. In a rather traditional approach, the text is the linguistic unit of semantic
nature that is “beyond” the sentence. It is true that there may be texts constituted by
a single sentence and also that a text is not defined as such from the extension.
However, the most frequent and complex textual relations are usually noticed in texts
made up of several sentences that are connected to each other. Figure 1 summarizes
the model of textual analysis that will be develop in this part.

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Figure 1. Factors that determine textual coherence

TEXT COHERENCE

INTERNAL COHERENCE EXTERNAL COHERENCE

(OF THE TEXT WITH ITSELF) (OF THE TEXT WITH THE SITUATION)

1- LOCAL COHERENCE 2- GLOBAL COHERENCE (THE TEXT AS A WHOLE)

1.1 COHESION 1.2 RELATIONS OF CONEXITY 1.3 DISTRIBUTION OF INFORMATION

If the student can identify the aspects of figure 1, he/she will demonstrate that he has
understood the texts assigned to him. In didactic terms, our objective is to expose the
linguistic problems to which attention must be given attention in order to understand
a text. The concepts and definitions -in some cases quite intricate- fulfill an auxiliary
function. They are used to substantiate explanations and students are not expected to
replicate that technical analysis.
However, these aspects help us to become aware of the resources that a competent
reader identifies when they interpret a text. Below is a text of "linguistic reflection".
From this text and through examples, the topics with which we have threatened our
dear students will be developed.
The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
By Beatriz Lavandera
Another problem that comes from afar in contemporary linguistics is that of the so-
called "linguistic relativity" or "Sapir-Whorf hypothesis”. Basically, what supports this
hypothesis in its strong form is that the form, the structure of the language that is
spoken, determines the way in which it is thought. It is a formulation that encompasses

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both grammar and lexicon, but whose exemplification is almost always based on the
lexicon. A society that has many words to distinguish colors is going to have a
conception of color different from that of a society that has two or three words to cover
the whole spectrum.
This formulation led to a lengthy controversy. Since it is important to state that all
languages have an equally discriminating, equally rich-in-all-areas structure, strong
criticism, especially from linguists who support the equality of thinking abilities in
different cultures. To claim that a linguistic structure that is more discriminating in
the abstract area allows a more abstract thought than one that is not and, even more,
to maintain that a language of higher level of abstraction allows more abstract
thoughts than a lower level language abstraction, was seen by certain theorists as a
postulation that could lead to the creation or reinforcement of prejudice such as "this
culture is inferior because it cannot think of the same meanings that this other culture
cannot think of”.
The relationship between language and thought is conflictive. The response to the
postulate of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that “language conditions thought” was
immediate: “the issue is the other way around -some raised-: when people start to be
interested in the color spectrum, they start creating names to name them.” This
argument becomes very difficult to hold when thinking about the syntactic part, for
example. The position held by the ethnography of language today is what is called the
weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. I know it is a version that admits
diversity, be it linguistic or cultural, but that does not consider diversity as a limiting
force. What this new hypothesis sustains (and this is also the conception of this course)
is that there are groups that may possess certain skills or linguistic abilities that allow
them to handle themselves better in certain types of thoughts than in others, which
says nothing about the mental ability of its members.
Let's go to an example that we know: upper class social groups, in general more
"traveled" and "well-lived", relate to lower class groups in the social ladder and must
make themselves understood by them and also try to understand them. The current
hypothesis is that people exposed to different ways of speaking, this is to different
speech facts, as is the case of those who belong to upper classes, develop a repertoire
(in the ethnolinguistic sense) much broader than a person whose trade or whose place
in society determines that they handle fewer speech situations or speech events.
Without making a pejorative judgment, it could be said that the latter goes on to have
a smaller linguistic repertoire. And the number of speech events in which you can
participate and feel comfortable with will be more reduced. This is especially seen in
the case of bilingualism, for example in the case of Italian immigrants living in Buenos
Aires.

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SOURCE: Beatriz Lavandera (1985), Curso de lingüística para el análisis del

discurso, Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina. Páginas 21 y 22.
1. LOCAL COHERENCE
1.1. COHESION
Textual cohesion is simply the set of semantic relations between the constituents of
the different sentences of a text. A text is made up of sentences, but not a simple sum
of disconnected sentences. There must be semantic relations between them that
relate the constituents of one another. Let us consider two cases from the previous
text.
Examples 1 and 2
Another longstanding problem in contemporary linguistics is that of the so-called
"linguistic relativity" or "Sapir-Whorf hypothesis". Basically, what sustains this
hypothesis in its strong form is that the form, the structure of the language that is
spoken determines the way in which think.
Two expressions in the last sentence are in bold: 'this' (adjective, demonstrative
pronoun) and 'hypothesis' (noun). They stand out because their interpretation gives
cohesion to the text. Indeed, the demonstrative pronoun 'this' is interpreted, here, by
reference to 'the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis', which appears in the previous sentence.
Similarly, the repetition of the word 'hypothesis' provides cohesion to the text because
the choice of the lexical element is the most evident to maintain the subject that is
being treated.
Cohesion is therefore a semantic relationship between a constituent A of one sentence
and another constituent B of another sentence. The interpretation of that semantic
relationship is indispensable for the interpretation of both A and B. It is very important
to note that cohesive relationships exist between elements of different sentences,
because this shows that those different sentences are part of the same text.
Now let us consider the different types of cohesive relationships that can help us to
understand the process of textual comprehension.

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1.1.1. REFERENCE
Cohesive reference consists of a signal that the text provides so that the listener or
reader can interpret the meaning of a text constituent and, from it, the meaning of the
full text. The interpreter must look for the element to which a certain expression refers,
such as the pronoun personal 'they'. Thus, the interpretation of the pronouns takes
place and the effect is produced that the two passages are linked into a coherent unit:
they become part of a single text.
Example 3
Upper class social groups, in general more "traveled" and "well-lived", are related with
lower class groups in the social scale and must make themselves understood by them
and also try to understand them.
The word 'they' is a pronoun and, as such, its reference varies according to the use. In
this case, 'they' refers to 'lower class groups on the social scale'. (Obviously, in another
text the word 'they' could have a different reference).
The cohesive reference is realized, fundamentally, by means of personal, possessive
and demonstrative pronouns and through the use of the definite article.
1.1.2. ELLIPSIS
Ellipsis is the substitution of a constituent by “zero”, that is, the relationship between
what is not said and what was said before. Ellipsis is indicated by means of (E) in
examples 4 and 5.
Example 4
A: How old is the teacher of commission 4?
B: (E) Twenty-two.
A: (E) She is very young.
In the dialogue there are several cases of ellipses. Speaker B replies 'Twenty-two' to
her interlocutor A. That utterance, in isolation, does not seem to say much.
But it is perfectly consistent in the context of the dialogue, because from A's question
it presupposes 'the teacher of commission 4', 'she is' and 'years old'. This means that
B’s simple answer presents three cases of ellipses.
B: (E1) (E2) Twenty-two (E3).
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Reconstruction of B’s utterance: (E1 The teacher of commission 4) (E2 is)

twenty-two (E3 years old).
Something similar happens with the final comment made by A, where there are ellipses
of 'the professor of commission 4’. The ellipsis constitutes a typical resource of
communication and therefore of the organization of texts in general. It does not merely
consist of a device that "improves the style", but, first of all, of a resource that allows
communication to be more effective.
Example 5
Basically, what sustains this hypothesis in its strong form is that the form, the structure
of the language that is spoken determines the way in which we think. (E) It is a
formulation that encompasses both grammar and lexicon, but whose exemplification
is almost always based on the lexicon.
Recall that (E) indicates a case of ellipsis. It is understood that the subject of the second
sentence is 'this hypothesis'. Here the reader must relate “what is not is” with “what
was written before” so that the expressions make sense in the text. Otherwise we
would ask ourselves: “what is a formulation?”. In synthesis, the ellipsis forms a type of
cohesive relationship in which zero must be interpreted in relation to another
preceding element in the text.
1.1.3. LEXICAL COHESION
Another way to create cohesion in a piece of discourse, along with reference and
ellipsis, is the choice of related constituents in terms of the vocabulary.
Basically, two types of lexical cohesion can be recognized: reiteration (for repetition
and synonymy) and collocation.
1.1.3.1. REITERATION BY REPETITION
The most obvious form of lexical cohesion is the repetition of a word. Reiteration is a
form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical item, at one end of
the scale; the use of a general word to refer back to a lexical item, at the other end of
the scale; and a number of things in between – the use of a synonym or near-synonym,
or super-ordinate (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 278).

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Example 6
The relationship between language and thought is conflictive. Against the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis that language conditions thought, action was immediately taken.
Between the two realizations of 'language' a link of cohesion is established by means
of repetition. In this way, the text acquires cohesion because it repeats a constituent
in different sentences. We can consider that, for example, 'language' and 'linguistics'
are realizations of the same lexical constituent since, although they are not the same
word, they share the same root.
1.1.3.2. REITERATION BY SYNONYMY
Lexical cohesion is also the result of the choice of a lexical constituent that is
synonymous with another.
Example 7
Since it is important to state that all languages have a structure equally discriminating,
equally rich in all areas, woke up strong criticism, especially from linguists who support
equality of thinking capacities in different cultures. To claim that a linguistic structure
that is more discriminating in the abstract area allows a more abstract thought than
one that is not and, even more, to maintain that a language of higher level of
abstraction allows more abstract thoughts than a language of lower level of abstraction
was seen by some theorists as an application that could lead to the creation or
reinforcement of prejudice such as “This culture is inferior because it cannot think of
the same meanings that it does not you can think of this other”.
There are also relations of synonymy when there are relations of partial synonymy by
“superordination”, that is, an expression that expresses a category that includes
another. Obviously there are many theorists of disciplines quite different from
linguistics. However, in this context, the words highlighted in bold are synonyms and,
what is essential for our analysis, they give cohesion to the text.
1.1.3.3. COLLOCATION
The last type of lexical cohesion is collocation. Here, the words do not refer to the same
thing nor do they maintain synonymous relationships. Collocation is the tendency for
two or more expressions to appear together. For example, in a linguistics text it is
expected that the words 'syntax', 'lexicon', 'ethnography', etc appear. In academic
texts, lexical cohesion by collocation is possibly one of the most outstanding resources,

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because many “technical” words appear, that is, words belonging to a discipline in
particular. In Beatriz Lavandera's text there are, predictably, numerous linguistic
expressions.
Example 8
Another problem that comes from afar in contemporary linguistics it is that of the so-
called “linguistic relativity” or “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis”.
Basically, what sustains this hypothesis in its strong form is that the form, the structure
of the language that is spoken determines the way in which think. It is a formulation
that covers both the grammar and the lexicon, but whose exemplification is almost
always based on the lexicon. A society that has many words to distinguish colors, you
will have a conception of color different from that of a society that has two or three
words to cover everything the spectre.
Some of the expressions that are related by collocation. All of them show a strong
tendency to appear together, because they refer to basic concepts of linguistics. As
many linguistics-related terms appear in practically all sentences, it is said that the text
acquires cohesion because of these relations of meaning.
1.2 Relationships of connection or conjunction.
The relationships of connection or conjunction are the logical and functional
relationships established between two or more sentences of the same text.
These textual relationships are usually expressed by means of a connector, that is, a
constituent of the text that indicates the type of conjunctive relationship. in the
examples 9, 10 and 11 there is, between the two sentences, a cause-consequence
relationship indicated by a causal connector, which appears in bold.
Example 9
Upper-class people are exposed to different ways of speaking. Therefore, they develop
a broader linguistic repertoire than people who do not have that exposure.
Example 10
Upper-class people are exposed to different ways of speaking. Thus, they develop a
broader linguistic repertoire than people who do not have that exposure.
Example 11
Upper-class people are exposed to different ways of speaking. Consequently, they
develop a broader linguistic repertoire than people who don't have that exposure.
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In the three examples above, the first sentence expresses the cause and the second
the consequence. Connectors in bold indicate that the relationship between both
sentences is cause-and-result. The same relationship can be established in another
order and with another connector.
Example 12
Upper-class people develop a broader linguistic repertoire than lower class people
because they are more exposed to different ways of talking.
Here, the first sentence expresses the consequence and the second the cause. The
connector because also indicates that the relationship between the two sentences is
one of cause-consequence. It is important to note that conjunctive relationships are
realized very frequently without there being any connectors that make the relationship
explicit.
Specifically, the causal relationship between the sentences in example 13 (where no
connector is used) is the same as the previous ones.
Example 13
Upper-class people are exposed to different ways of speaking; they develop a broader
linguistic repertoire than people who do not have that exposure.
In this case, there is also a conjunctive relationship of cause and consequence, although
no connector appears to indicate the causal relationship.
Therefore, generally, the appearance of connectors makes the text more
"cooperative". It is clear that conjunctive relations present very different types. For
expository purposes, it has been exemplified with only one.
1.3. DISTRIBUTION OF INFORMATION
1.3.1. DISTRIBUTION OF INFORMATION: WHAT IS GIVEN AND WHAT IS NEW IN THE
TEXT
The concepts of the old (given) and the new define the distribution of information in a
text. The given, also known as “old” or “shared”, means "known information" while the
new means “unknown information”. Now, by given and new what is meant is not what
the reader or listener really knows or does not know, but the way in which the
speaker/writer deals with information. Actually, the function "given" means “treated
by the speaker as retrievable information”, that is, information that is expected to be
extracted by the listener for himself from the text or from the situation. For its part,

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the function "new" is exactly the opposite: what the speaker treats as non-recoverable
information.
Example 14
Another long-standing problem in contemporary linguistics is that of the so-called
“linguistic relativity” or “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis”.
Basically, what this hypothesis sustains, in its strong form, is that the form, the structure
of the language that is spoken determines the way in which we think. It is a formulation
that encompasses both grammar and lexicon, but whose exemplification is almost
always based on the lexicon.
In the second sentence the demonstrative pronoun 'this' is used, which as we saw
refers to the 'Sapir-Whorf hypothesis', which, in the first sentence, is new information.
But the use of the pronoun 'this' is an indicator that the ‘Sapir-Whorf hypothesis’
becomes given information in the second. In the third sentence, the 'Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis' is spoken of again by means of the resource ellipsis. In short, the 'Sapir-
Whorf hypothesis' is treated as new information in the first sentence and it goes on to
be treated as given information given from the second sentence onwards. It is clear
that in the first sentence, the 'Sapir-Whorf hypothesis' is a new element while it
constitutes a given element in the second and in the third: it has already become a
recoverable element.
Example 15
Another longstanding problem in contemporary linguistics is that of the so-called
“linguistic relativity” or “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis”.
Let us remember that what is given is what the text presents as “retrievable”, because
it was mentioned before. In example 14, the expression 'Sapir-Whorf hypothesis' per
se becomes retrievable from the second sentence. In this example, instead, 'linguistics'
is assumed to be contextually retrievable, that is, the reader is supposed to know what
linguistics is about. In effect, the way of presenting the term 'linguistics' seems to
assume that the reader knows, at least in a general way, what this subject is about.
Perhaps, fortunately for them, there are readers who do not know what linguistics is,
but the text treats the concept of 'linguistics' as a recoverable element. The examples
are useful because they allow us to notice that the texts have incorporated the figure
of the reader. In this case, the text is intended for a reader to able to follow the way by
which a new element is made given to the purpose of linguistic relativity. This is why it
has been said that a reader has to strive to live up to the text.

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1.3.2. DISTRIBUTION OF INFORMATION: THEMATIC PROGRESSION

In the organization of textual information, it is also important to analyze the
relationship between theme and rheme. The theme is what the sentence deals with,
the pillar on which the message is transmitted through the sentence; therefore, it is in
initial position. The rheme is what is in secondary position, the body of the message,
"the complement".
Example 16
This formulation led to a lengthy controversy.
The subject is what is in bold. That ('This formulation', the hypothesis Sapir and Whorf
hypothesis) is what the sentence is about. The rest appears as complementary but
more “dynamic” information, because it allows the advancement of information.
Indeed, the relationship between theme and rheme collaborates with the
development of the information throughout the text.
Example 17. Analysis of the progress of information in a paragraph.
In each sentence, the subject is what appears in bold. Sentence 1 is about “the
relationship between language and thought”; therefore, it is in initial position.
1. The relationship between language and thought is conflictive.
2. Faced with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that language conditions thought, action
was immediate:
3. “the question is the other way around” -some claimed-:
4. when people start to be interested in the color spectrum, they start creating names
to name them.”
5. This argument becomes very difficult to sustain when one thinks of the syntactic
part, for example.
Note that in all the sentences, the theme of the relationship between language and
thought, with different nuances, is maintained.
1. The relationship between language and thought
2. ...language conditions thought...
3. the question (language-thought link)

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4. when people start to be interested in the spectrum of colors

5. This argument (the question of sentence 3).
In conclusion, the conservation of the theme in the different sentences of the piece of
discourse is another aspect that contributes to textual coherence.
More often than not, what is given coincides with the theme. Indeed, this coincidence
is the most common, but it is not mandatory. If it was compulsory there would be
reasons to distinguish new-given from rheme-theme.
Example 18. On the separation of theme and rheme.
Basically, what sustains this hypothesis in its strong form is that the form, the structure
of the language that is spoken determines the way in which it is thought.
The subject of this sentence is the adverb 'Basically'. It is non-retrievable information:
it has not been previously mentioned in the text. The appearance of an element like
this in thematic position is not accidental. Through 'basically' we want to emphasize
that the explanation is general, that they are no longer side subtleties or precisions.
In this sense, it should be noted that the sentence always has a theme and a rheme.
For its part, the sentence also has to have a new element, because in this way
information advances. On the contrary, there are some sentences in which you can
miss the given element, as is often the case with the opening sentences of children's
stories in the style of "Once upon a time there was a very bad ogre who lived in the
port".
2. GLOBAL COHERENCE: THE MENTAL ELABORATION OF A SUMMARY AS ACTIVITY
In section 1, aspects of local coherence were analyzed, that is, the relationships of
meaning that are established between the parts of the text.
In this section we will deal with global coherence, that is, with the meaning of the text
as a whole. It is interesting to note here that "understanding a text" does not mean
staying in the isolated parts, but it is essential to carry out some kind of summary. This
is precisely what we will deal with now. The "global structure" of a text is nothing more
than the reconstruction theory of notions equivalent to those of theme or subject of a
speech. From this notion, it is explained what is “the most important thing in the text”
as a whole.
Through the notion of theme, in this case, reference is made to the meaning of the
discourse as a whole or globally, and even to the sub-themes of passages, fragments,

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paragraphs, chapters, etc. Topics of a piece of discourse or passages of that discourse

are made explicit through a global semantic structure.
Below we present the global semantic structure of the text on linguistic relativity. For
each passage, a “topic sentence” is written that summarizes the content of the text.
Paragraphs 1 and 2
TOPIC SENTENCE 1: The “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis” holds that the language we speak
determines the way we think.
paragraph 3
TOPIC SENTENCE 2: The hypothesis could lead to the installation of prejudice, for
example, about the superiority of certain languages and cultures over others.
paragraph 4
TOPIC SENTENCE 3: Contrary to the hypothesis, other linguists argued that the physical
environment and the interests of the speakers determine language and thought.
paragraph 5
TOPIC SENTENCE 4: Current linguistics accepts the weak version of the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis: language conditions but does not limit thought.
Paragraph 6
TOPIC SENTENCE 5: Exposure to different linguistic situations allows further
development of communication skills.
The five thematic sentences consigned express the summary of the text about linguistic
relativity. How is it possible to compile a summary of these features? How do you get
past the semantic relationships between sentences specific to the summary of all those
parts? In short, what allows the “jump” from local coherence to “global coherence”?
The answer to these questions lies in a psychological hypothesis: in the minds of
readers (or listeners) there are skills that allow them to find the global structure of the
text.
These skills are “mental” strategies of textual comprehension that consist of the
following steps:
1. Delete less important information.
2. Generalize, that is, develop a concept that encompasses the ideas of the text or a
passage of the text.
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3. Construct a sequence of global sentences that express the most important

information in the text.
These three operations (“delete”, “generalize”, “construct”) are mental strategies that
we actually use to put together a summary. beyond the terminology or labels, which
appear in this unit to support the practice of textual comprehension. We are interested
in demonstrating that, in order to elaborate the first summary, the strategies have
been applied. Obviously, that application is only possible because we handle certain
encyclopedic information, because we also have in our mind certain knowledge about
the world and that knowledge allows us to understand certain types of text. To
exemplify these questions, let us take the first two paragraphs of “The Hypothesis
Sapir-Whorf”.
Example 19: Application of the strategies in paragraphs 1 and 2
1. Delete
The least important is omitted:
- that the "Sapir-Whorf hypothesis" comes from afar
- that the exemplification of the hypothesis covers both grammar and lexicon, but that
its exemplification is almost always based on the lexicon.
- the example that a society that has many words to distinguish colors, will have a
conception of color different from that of a society that counts on two or three words
to cover the entire spectrum.
So, it remains:
- the so-called "linguistic relativity" or "Sapir-Whorf hypothesis"
- what sustains this hypothesis in its strong form is that the form, the structure of the
language you speak determines the way you think.
2. Generalize
A general concept is elaborated that encompasses the ideas of the paragraph: the
fundamental is what sustains the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
3. Build
Topic sentence 1 is constructed: The “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis” holds that the language
we speak determines the way we think

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Example 19 presents a summary in terms of the paragraphs because paragraphing is

supposed to be an indicator of overall text structure. In any case, there is no reason to
believe that a summary should always do it that way. In this case, the first two
paragraphs are joined given the brevity of the first, which works as I propose. Now, the
strategies can be reapplied over a summary to build a “summary of the summary” or,
if you prefer, an even more general summary that includes the most important ideas
without considering the organization in paragraphs. That is what example 20 is about.
Example 20: Summary of summary, or “recursion” of strategies
1. Delete
The least important is omitted. Topic sentence 3 adds information to what was raised
in 2. In the same way, 5 develops a theme already raised in 4.
2. Generalize
A general concept is elaborated that encompasses the fundamental ideas of the text:
(1) statement of the hypothesis; (2) risks of the hypothesis; (3) current position. In this
way, the ideas expressed in sentences 2 and 3, on the one hand, and 4 and 5, on the
other.
3. Build
Topic sentences that account for the most important information in the text are
constructed.
1. The “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis” holds that the language we speak determines the way
we think.
2. This idea could lead to the installation of false prejudice, for example, the superiority
of certain languages and cultures over others.
3. To defend the equality of languages, current linguistics accepts that language
conditions but does not limit thought.
In short, summaries such as those shown in examples 19 and 20 express the coherence
of the text as a whole.

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3. SITUATIONAL COHERENCE
In sections 1 and 2, the internal coherence of a text was explained. Now it is convenient
to complete the panorama of figure 1 and determine what situational coherence is
and, above all, what that situational context is like.
By “situation” of a text we mean a “type of situation”. The structure of a type of
situation is represented as a complex of three concepts coming from anthropology:
“field”, “tenor” and “mode”. The field is the action where the text arises, which
includes the theme. The tenor is the set of relationships between the participants in
the interaction, and includes the level of formality. The mode is the series of resources
that are used to produce a text appropriate to the situation; the mode includes the
medium: oral or written. Field, tenor and mode configure the register, which defines
the situational coherence of the text: it is of the variety of language determined
according to the context of situation.
It is essential to keep in mind that the resources that are appropriate for one record
may not be for another. A vulgar expression, for example, may be inappropriate in a
classroom, but it is usually perfectly appropriate, effective, even desirable, in a chat
between friends, where there is no formality.
Naturally, a text is not only a piece of writing more or less conventional. A conversation
or a joke are not special cases or secondary but, as seen in the previous examples, there
are "oral texts".
Linguists generally consider that the potential of the system is revealed with greater
strength and complexity in orality than in writing. This is so because orality has an
unconscious nature and because writing, although it is denser by its lexical content, is
grammatically simpler.
The situational coherence of the text on linguistic relativity based on the relevant facts
of the context of situation
FIELD
Type of text: academic exposition, from a book on linguistics.
Topic: hypothesis of linguistic relativity, "language conditions, but does not limit, to
thought."

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 LICENCIATURA EN INGLÉS

TENOR
Issuer: the author Beatriz Lavandera (linguist). She openly adopts the role of expositor:
she makes it manifest that she exposes ideas of others, summarizes, also adopts her
own approach, gives examples, warns the reader.
Level of formality: it is a formal text, designed for students of college level. However, it
is not solemn and uses resources similar to those of an oral explanation, for example
the direct speech: it could lead to the creation or reinforcement of prejudice such as
"this culture is inferior because it cannot think the same meanings that this other one
cannot think”.
MODE
Medium: written.
Characteristic resources: (1.1.) Cohesion. Lexical cohesion by collocation is highlighted:
terms of linguistics.
There are examples of other cohesive relationships: reference, ellipsis, conjunction,
reiteration and synonymy.
(1.2.) Thematic progression
There is a continuous thematic progression: in all the paragraphs the subject of the
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
(1.3.) Distribution of information
A topic is made manifest as "given" (for example, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) and new
information is then provided. Most of the information is textually retrievable. Still,
there are ideas which are considered contextually recoverable, for example the term
linguistics.
(2) Overall Structure
1. Definition of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: Language conditions thought.
2. Statement of the risk of the hypothesis: It can promote the installation of false
prejudice, for example, about the superiority of certain languages and cultures over
others.
3. Conciliatory conclusion: Language conditions but does not limit thought.

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