INTRODUCTION TO

CIVIL ENGINEERING
(COURSE NOTES)

Prepared by

Prof. Dr. Nevzat Yıldırım

Çankaya University
Civil Engineering Department

ANKARA

2022

i
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Course Contents:
1- Introduction
Engineering, engineer, Engineering fields and Civil
Engineering

2- Concept of Unit and Dimension

3- Concept of coordinate systems, vectors relating to force,
distance, velocity, acceleration, moment, impulse etc.
4- Main branches of Civil Engineering
5- Hydraulic Engineering
6- Structural Engineering
7- Steel Structures
8- Mechanical Engineering
9- Earthquake Engineering
10- Geotechnical Engineering
11- Transportation Engineering
12- Construction Management and Design stages of a
structure
13- Construction mechines
14- Principles of writing of engineering report and paper
(article, essay)
15- Environmental Engineering
16- Safety in constructions of civil engineering structures

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Engineering:in general the word of “engineering” involves the need, imagination,
development, planning, analysis, design, drawing, computation, management, administration
and realization of projets by considering the economy, safety, environment, ecology and
aesthetics. This may be a broad definition for “engineering”.

All these contents of the engineering require especially technical and non-technical
knowledge, skill and vision that are gained through both the theoretical and practical-field
education, training and experiences. A person having these necessary technical and non-
technical knowledge, skill and vision to realize projects is called the “engineer”. It is clear that
to have the necessary technical and non-technical knowledge, skill and vision to realize projects
an engineer must have a good theoretical background that involves good education of both
mathematics and physics, and the skill of application of mathematics to physics to formulate,
analize, and solve the problems. Very valuable field experiences are gained by working in
practice relating to application of the project. Field experience is also necessary for both the
practice and in the simplification solution of the problems obtained by means of theoretical
analysis.

Nowadays there are so many engineering fields and branches such as civil, mechanical,
endustrial, electrical, chemical, electronical, agricultural, bio-medical, mechatronics,
environmental, etc. engineering. As the advancement in the fields of technology, industry, etc.
cantinues several new engineering fields are to come.

In this course our concern is the field of civil engineering.

Civil Engineering: The word of “civil” covers the word of “civilization”. Considering
the meanings of both the “civil” and the “engineer” explained above, it is obvious that the
word of their combination “civil engineering” may be considered as the “civilization
engineering” (medeniyet mühendisliği, bayındırlık mühendisliği, uygarlık mühendisliği) in a
broad sense.

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 CHAPTER 2
BOYUT KAVRAMI (CONCEPTS OF UNIT AND DIMENSION)
Gerçek hayatta fiziksel büyüklüklerin (mesela, uzunluk, hız, kuvvet, zaman v.s. gibi) miktarlarını belirtmek,
anlamak ve anlam kazandırmak için “boyut” veya “birim” kavramı kullanılır. Gerçekte “boyut” birden fazla
“birimi” içerir. “Birim” ve “boyut” bazen birbirlerinin yerine kullanılmaktadır. “Boyut” kavramının kullanılması
tercih edilir. Mesela, uzunluk ölçüsü olarak kullanılan “metre”, zaman ölçüsü olarak kullanılan “dakika” birer
“birim” dir. İki şehir arasındaki yolun uzunluğu “150 kilometre (km)” dendiği zaman, bu yolun ne kadar uzun
veya kısa olduğu izlenimi, 150 rakamının yanına yazılmış bulunan ve uzunluk “birimi” olan “kilometre (veya
metre, santimetre vs. )” den anlaşılır. Boyutsuz yazılmış 150 rakamı tek başına, yolun uzunluğu hakkında akılda
yeterli ve anlamlı bir izlenim bırakmaz. Bir arabanın hızı 75 “km/saat “ yazıldığında buradaki “km/saat” birden
fazla “birim” (km ve saat) içerdiğinden “boyut“ olarak adlandırılır. Bilhassa mühendislik de “boyutsuz” veya
”birimsiz” yazılmış bir rakamın hiçbir anlamı yoktur (mühendislikte kullanılan çok az sayıdaki bazı boyutsuz
büyüklükler hariç). Bu nedenle herhangi bir büyüklük, değer veya sayı yazıldığında, hemen yanına “boyutu”
veya “birimi” de yazılmalıdır. Bir mühendis bu alışkanlığı ve anlayışı mutlaka kazanmalı ve elden bırakmamalıdır.

“Boyut”un işareti büyük parantez [ ] dir. Herhangi bir A büyüklüğünün “boyutu” [A] şeklinde gösterilir. [A]
işareti, “A nın boyutu” demektir. Mesela, hız V nin boyutu [V] = metre(m)/saniye(s), yani [V] = m/s dir.

Boyut homojenliği (eşit boyutluluk, boyut özdeşliği):

Herhangi bir eşitlikte; “eşitliğin her iki tarafında varsa toplanan veya çıkartılan büyüklüklerin boyutları” aynı
olmalıdır. İşte bu şarta “boyut homojenliği” denir. Teorik (analitik, yani matematiksel) olarak bulunan ifadelerde
boyut homojenliği şartı mutlaka sağlanmalıdır. Eğer, boyut homojenliği şartı sağlanmıyor ise o takdirde ya
ifadenin veya eşitliğin çıkartılışında yada yazımında mutlaka gözden kaçan hata var demektir. Varsa, hata
bulunmalı ve ifadenin doğruluğu sağlanmalıdır. Ancak, bazen mühendislikte teorik olarak değil de, tecrübe ile
veya deneme-yanılma ile veya deneysel olarak elde edilmiş “ampirik” ifadeler “boyut homojenliği” şartına
uymayabilirler veya uyabilirler. Ampirik bir ifadenin kullanım şartları ve bünyesinde bulunan her bir büyüklüğün
boyutunun ne olduğu bilinmeli veya verilmelidir. Boyut homojenliği konusunu daha iyi anlamak için aşağıda
verilen misalleri inceleyiniz (aşağıdaki ifadelerde A, B,C,D, E, G, H, J, K, T, S, Y ve Z birer fiziksel büyüklük; a,
b, c, d ve f ise boyutsuz sabit üslerdir).

1) A = B + C + D - E ise, boyut homojenliği gereği A, B, C, D ve E nin boyutları eşit olmalıdır. Yani, [A] =
[B] = [C] = [D] = [E] dir.

2) M.N.Uf - A .B .E = G.H.Yb.Zc + J.Kd + T + S ise,

[M.N.Uf] = [M][N][U]f = [A.B.E] = [A][B][E] = [G.H.Yb.Zc] = [J.Kd] = [T] = [S]

= [G][H][Y]b[Z]c = [J][K]d dir.

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3) A = 0.5 Ba ise, [A] = [0.5Ba] = [0.5][B]a dir. Dikkat edilirse 0.5 sabitinin de boyutu var olabilir veya
olmayabilir. Mesela, hız V = 0.2 X + 0.1 ifadesi göz önüne alınsın. Buradaki X; alınan yol (uzunluk) olarak
verilmiş olsun . Hızın boyutu “metre/saniye (m/s)”, yolun boyutu “metre (m)” olduğundan [V] = [0.2][X] veya
[0.2] = [V]/[X] olup buradan [0.2] = (m/s)/m = 1/s veya [0.2] = s -1 dir. 0.1 sabitinin boyutu ise [0.1] = [V] = m/s
dir. Demek oluyor ki ifadelerdeki sabitlerin (sayıların) boyutları olabilir. Eğer V = 0.2 (X/t) olarak verilmiş ve
t = zaman (saniye) ise o takdirde [0.2] = [V]/[X/t] = (m/s)/(m/s) = boyut yok (boyutsuz). Görüldüğü gibi böyle bir
ifade de 0.2 sabit katsayının boyutu yoktur (boyutsuzdur). Bu neticeler gösteriyor ki ifadelerdeki sabitlerin
boyutlarının olup olmadığına ve varsa boyutlarının ne olduğuna dikkat etmek gerekir.

4) A .B.E = G.H.Yb.Zc ve mesela, A nın boyutunun ne olduğu aranıyor ise

b c b c
[G ][ H ][Y ]b [ Z ]c
[A.B.E] = [A][B][E] = [G.H.Y .Z ] = [G][H][Y] [Z] , buradan [A] =
[ B ][ E ]

Mühendislikte genellikle üç adet “boyut sistemi” kullanılmaktadır. Bunlar;

1- Santimetre Gram Saniye (CGS) sistemi

2- Metre Kilogram Saniye (MKS) sistemi
3- Milletlerarası sistem (SI)
CGS sisteminde kuvvetler çok küçük olduğundan genellikle kimya, elektrik ve elektronik mühendisliği dallarında
tercihen kullanılabilirken, kuvvetlerin çok büyük olduğu inşaat mühendisliğinde vs. kullanılmamaktadır. MKS ve
SI sistemleri mühendislikte çok kullanılır. 1960’lı yıllarda milletlerarası yapılan bir anlaşma ile tüm milletler SI
sistemini kabul etmişlerdir. 1960 yılından sonra, kolay ve kullanışlı oluşu nedeniyle tüm Dünya mühendisleri SI
sistemini kullanmaya başladılar. Yeni yapılan projeler, yazılan tüm teknik makaleler, kitaplar ve mühendis
yetiştiren okullar günümüzde SI sistemini kullanmaktadır. MKS sistemi terk edilmişse de, MKS sistemi halk
arasında hala etkisini sürdürmektedir. Fakat yakın gelecekte tamamen terk edileceği şüphesizdir. MKS sistemini
bilhassa öğrenciler sevmemektedir. Bunun asıl sebebi ise MKS sisteminin kuvvet birimi olan “kilogram kuvvet
(kgk)” ile kütlenin birimi olan “kilogram (kg)” kavramlarının karıştırılmasıdır. Mesela, manavdan 2 kg elma aldım
demek halk arasında mana taşıyıp anlaşılırken mühendislikte bu söyleyiş yanlış olur. Çünkü mühendislik diline
göre 2 kg elma aldım değil de, 2 “kilogram kuvvet (kgk)” elma aldım demek MKS sisteminde doğru olur. MKS
sisteminin terk ediliş sebebi işte bu karmaşıklığa sebep olmasıdır. Böyle bir karışıklığın olmadığı SI sistemi ise
sade ve kullanışlı oluşu nedeniyle tercih edilmektedir. Fakat SI sisteminin de normal halk arasında anlaşılması ve
benimsenmesi güç olmaktadır. Çünkü bu sefer de SI sisteminde manavdan şu kadar “kilogram” elma aldım değil,
şu kadar “Newton” elma aldım demek gerekir ki normal halk da bunu hiç benimseyecek gibi gözükmüyor. Hatta
halk bunu bu sıralarda gülünç ve manasız buluyor. Bakalım gelecekte ne olacak.

Uygulamada en çok şu dört ana fiziksel büyüklüğe rastlanır. Bunlar; “kütle”, “uzunluk”, “zaman” ve “sıcaklık”
dır. Bu dört ana fiziksel büyüklüğün birimlerine veya boyutlarına, “ana boyutlar” veya “temel boyutlar” veya
“esas boyutlar” denir. Diğer fiziksel büyüklüklerin boyutları, bu “ana” veya “temel” fiziksel büyülüklerin
boyutlarından türetilir. Dolaysıyla, “esas (ana) boyutların veya ana fiziksel büyüklüklerin” dışındaki boyutlara
veya fiziksel büyüklüklere “ikincil” veya “bağımlı” boyutlar veya fiziksel büyüklükler de denir.

CGS, MKS ve SI sistemlerinde kullanılan temel boyut ve büyüklükler bir tablo halinde aşağıda verilmiştir.

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 Esas (ana) boyutlar

Güç =
Kütle Uzunluk Zaman Sıcaklık Kuvvet Gerilme İş = Enerji
iş/zaman

Nevton (N.m/s) =
(N/m2) = (N.m) =
SI kilogram metre saniye Kelvin (K) (N) Watt (W) =
Paskal = Pa; Joule (J);
sistemi (kg) (m) (s) K=C+273.15 Joule/s (J/s);
1Pa = 1N/m2 1J = 1Nm

kilogram
MKS metre saniye
kgk.s2/m C(K) kuvvet kgk/m2 kgk.m kgk.m/s
sistemi (m) (s)
(kgk)

CGS Gram santimetre saniye Dyne.cm/s

C(K) Dyne Dyne/cm2 Dyne.cm
sistemi (gr) (cm) (s)

Bütün cisimler (kütleler) Newton’un hareket denklemi olan, kuvvet (F) = kütle(m)  ivme(a), yani F = m.a ya
uyar. Dikkat, gerek yukarıdaki gerekse aşağıdaki işlemlerde “kütle”yi temsilen kullanılan m (veya m) simgesi ile
uzunluk birimini “metre” yi temsilen kullanılan “m”simgesi birbirleriyle karıştırılmamalıdır.

CGS sistemi:

Bu sistemde Newton kanunu F = m.a şeklinde doğrudan kullanılır. F = m.a da ki m, cismin gerçek kütlesi olup
boyutu da gram (gr) dir. Bu sistemde kuvvet birimi “Dyne” dir. Dyne kuvvetin tarifi şöyledir. 1 Dyne kuvvet;
kütlesi 1 gram olan bir cisme 1 cm/s2 lik ivme verdirerek hareket ettiren kuvvettir.

1 Dyne = 1 gr .1 cm/s2 ; veya Dyne = gr.cm/s2

CGS sisteminde “kuvvet” bağımlı (ikincil) boyut ve büyüklüktür.

MKS sistemi:

Bu sistemde kuvvet birimi “kilogram kuvvet (kgk)” dir. Kilogram kuvvetin tarifi şöyledir. 1 kilogram kuvvet
(1kgk); kütlesi 1 kilogram (1kg) olan bir cisme sadece ve sadece Dünya’nın yer çekim ivmesi olan 9.81 m/s 2’ ye
eşit bir ivme vererek hareket ettirebilen kuvvettir. 1kgk = 1 kg  9.81 m/s2 veya 1 kgk = 9.81kg.m/s2 dir. Dikkat
edilirse bu ifadenin sağındaki 1 solundaki 9.81 değerine eşit yazılmaktadır (1 eşit değil 1’e !!!). MKS sistemindeki

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karmaşanın esas sebebi işte bu noktadır. Eşitliğin solundaki 9.81 değerini 1’ e indirgemek ve böylece eşitliğin
sağındaki 1’ e eşit yapmak ( 1 eşit 1) yapmak için eşitliğin sol tarafı gc = 9.81 kg.m/(kgk.s2) sabitine bölünür.
Dolaysıyla, MKS sisteminde Newton’un hareket kanunu F = m.a şeklinde doğrudan uygulanmayıp aşağıdaki gibi
kullanılmaktadır (görüldüğü üzere, MKS sisteminde Newton’un hareket kanunu, SI ve CGS sistemlerindekinden
biraz farklıdır).

a m  𝑚
𝑘𝑔× 2
F m  a → [𝑔𝑐 ] = [𝑚][𝑎] = 𝑠
=
𝑘𝑔.𝑚

g c  g c
(1.1)
[𝐹] 𝑘𝑔𝑘 𝑘𝑔𝑘 .𝑠 2

Burada gc boyutlu bir sabit katsayı olup aşağıda verildiği gibidir.

g c  9.81
kg m
kgk s 2

 9.81kg.m / kgk.s 2  (1.2)

gc’nin varlığının sebebi (1.1) eşitliğinin her iki tarafının “boyutunun” homojen olmasını sağlamaktır.

Yukarıda ki (1.1) eşitliğinde görülen m, cismin gerçek kütlesi olup kilogram (kg) dır. Ancak ifade (1.1), Newton
formülü F = m.a ile karşılaştırıldığında görülüyor ki ifade (1.1) de cismin gerçek m (kg) kütlesi yerine, değişikliğe
uğratılmış ve (m/gc)’ye eşit suni bir kütle büyüklüğü getirilmiş ki bu suni kütlenin boyutu da kilogram (kg) değil
de [m/gc] = kgk.s2.m-1 dir. Kısacası, MKS sisteminde kuvvet, ivmeye bölünürse elde edilen değer, cismin gerçek
kütlesi m olmayıp suni veya değiştirilmiş kütle olan (m/gc) değeridir. İstenirse cismin gerçek kütlesi m = (m/gc).gc
den bulunabilir.

Dikkat edilirse CGS, MKS ve SI sistemlerinin tümünde kuvvet F = m.a şeklinde yazılabilir ancak dikkat
edilmelidir ki MKS sisteminde burada ki “m” gerçek kütle olmayıp değişikliğe uğratılmış kütle olmak
mecburiyetindedir [yani; (gerçek kütle/gc) olup boyutu da “kgk.s2.m-1” olmalıdır].

SI sistemi:

SI sisteminde Newton kanunu F = m.a şeklinde doğrudan kullanılır. F = m.a da ki m, cismin gerçek kütlesi
olup boyutu da kg dir. SI sisteminde kuvvet birimi Newton (N) dur. Newton (N) kuvvetin tarifi şöyledir. 1 Newton
kuvvet (1 N); kütlesi 1 kg olan bir cisme, 1 m/s2 lik ivme vererek hareket ettirebilen kuvvettir.

1 N = 1 kg x 1 m/s2 = 1 kg.m/s2 , yani N = kg.m/s2 dir.

Görüldüğü üzere SI sisteminde eşitliğin her iki tarafı da 1’e eşit olup herhangi bir karmaşa yoktur. Kuvvetdeki m,
cismin geçek kütlesidir. SI sisteminde “kuvvet” bağımlı (ikincil) boyut ve büyüklüktür. 1 kiloNewton (1kN) =
1000 N; 1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa); 1 kiloPascal (kPa) = 1000 Pa; 1 N.m = 1 joule (J), 1 N.m/s = 1 Watt, 1 kiloWatt
= 1000 Watt.

MKS sisteminde 1 kgk = 1kg (kütle)  9.81 m/s2 = 9.81 kg.m/s2. Halbuki SI sisteminde 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2. Yani N
= kg.m/s2. O halde, 1 kgk = 9.811 kg.m/s2. Dolaysıla;

1 kgk = 9.81 N dir. (1.3)

İşte bu bağıntı, MKS ve SI sistemleri arasındaki dönüştürme veya çevirme bağıntısıdır.

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Problem 1.1

Bir yerde asılı duran bir cismin kütlesi 3 kg ve ağırlığı ise 24 N’dur (ağırlık bir kuvvettir). Söz konusu yerde yer
çekim ivmesi nedir?

Çözüm:

Cismin kütlesi 3 kg, cismin ağırlığı 24 N olarak veriliyor. Söz konusu yerdeki yer çekim ivmesini g ile gösterelim.
Formül (1.4) den,

W = m.g

24 N = 3 kgg

g = 8 N/kg

N = kg.m/s2 olduğundan istenirse,

kg.m / s 2
g 8  8m / s 2 bulunur.
kg

Problem 1.2

Bir cismin Dünyadaki ağırlığı 80 kilogram kuvvettir (kgk). Bu cismin Ay’ daki ağırlığı ne kadardır? Ay’ın yer
çekim ivmesi Dünyanın yer çekim ivmesinin 1/6 kadardır. Dünyanın yer çekim ivmesi ise 9.81 m/s2 dir.

Çözüm:

Cismin kütlesi m bilinmiyor. O halde önce kütlesi m bulunmalıdır.

Cismin Dünya da ki ağırlığı W = 80 kgk olarak veriliyor. Bilindiği gibi MKS sisteminde kuvvet birimi olan kgk’in
tarifi gereği,

1 kgk = 1kg  9.81 m/s2 dir. Bu eşitliğin her iki tarafı 80 ile çarpılırsa,

80 kgk = 80 kg  9.81 m/s2 ( dikkat 80 eşitmidir 80 9.81 = 784.8 değerine !!!!!!)

(kuvvet) (kütle) (ivme)

O halde 80 kgk’lik kuvvet; kütlesi 80 kilogram (kg) olan bir cisme, Dünyanın yerçekimi olan 9.81 m/s2’ lik ivme
veren kuvvet demektir. Görülüyor ki, ağırlığı W = 80 kgk olan bir cismin kütlesi de m = 80 kg dır. Dikkat edilirse
MKS sisteminde kuvvetin sayısal değeri (80) ile kütlenin sayısal değeri (80) aynıdır (fakat sadece boyutları
farklıdır).

[Açıklama: İşte bu nedenledir ki bir müşteri, manava 10 kg elma verirmisin? dediği zaman [ki aslında manava
10 kilogram kuvvet (kgk) elma verirmisin? veya 10 kg kütle elma verirmisin? demesi gerekir], manavın tartıp

6
müşteriye verdiği elmanın ağırlığı 10 kgk olup 10 kg değildir. Manavın, müşteriye verdiği elmanın kütlesi 10
kilogram (10 kg) dir. Burada, müşterinin ve manavın anlaşılmış oldukları sadece 10 sayısıdır. Çünkü, bu 10 sayısı
hem ağırlık (kuvvet) hem de kütle için aynı sayıdır. Bu nedenle müşteri ile manav (veya halk) arasında bir
anlaşmazlık olmaz. Mühendislikte ise, 10 kgk ile 10 kg arasında çok önemli anlam ve kavram (kuvvet ve kütle
anlamında) farkı vardır. Çünkü, mühendislik diline göre 10 kg elma aldım değil de, 10 “kilogram kuvvet” elma
aldım demek MKS sisteminde doğru olur].

Veya, MKS sisteminde Newton hareket kanunu olan formül (1.1) ve (1.2)’den,

a
W=F=m (cismin Dünya da ki ağırlığı için a = g = 9.81 m/s2, Dünya’nın yer çekimi)
gc

m Bu ifadeden, cismin kütlesi m = 80 kg bulunur.

80kgk   9.81m / s 2
kg.m
9.81
kgk.s 2

Cismin aydaki ağırlığı Way da kiağırlık = m×gay = 80 kg×gdünya/6 = (80 kg×9.81m/s2) /6 = 80 kgk/6 = 13.3333 kgk .

Veya

𝑚 80 9.81
𝑊𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎 𝑘𝑖 = 𝑘𝑔.𝑚 𝑔𝑎𝑦 = ( ) = 80/6 = 13.3333 kgk = 13.3333 kgk × 9.81 = 130.8 N
9.81 9.81 6
𝑎ğ𝚤𝑟𝑙𝚤𝑘 𝑘𝑔𝑘.𝑠2

Veya

Way da kiağırlık = m×gay = 80 kg×(9.81/6) = 130.8 N = 130.8 N / 9.81 = 13.3333 kgk

[Açıklama: Cismin kütlesi yerden yere, gezegenden gezegene değişmez, sabit ve aynı kalır. Çünkü cismin kütlesi
yer çekim ivmesine bağlı değildir (ivmeye bağlı değildir). Yer çekime bağlı olan cismin ağırlığıdır. Bu nedenle,
yer çekim ivmesi yerden yere veya gezegenden gezegene değişirse cismin ağırlığı da yerden yere veya gezegenden
gezegene değişir (kütle ise değişmez hep aynı sabit değerdedir)].

Problem 1.3

Dünyada kütlesi 15 kg olan bir cisim, yerçekim ivmesi 1.6 m/s2 olan bir gezegene götürüldüğünde,

a) Cismin ağırlığını kilogramkuvvet (kgk) ve Newton (N) cinsinden bulunuz.

b) Söz konusu gezegende bu cisme 5 m/s2 lik bir ivme vermek için ne kadar kilogram kuvvet (kgk) gerekir?

Dünya da yerçekim ivmesi 9.81 m/s2 dir.

Çözüm:

a) Cismin kütlesi m, gezegenin yerçekim ivmesi gu ve cismin gezegendeki ağırlığı da Wu ile gösterilsin.

Wu = m.gu = 15 kg1.6 m/s2 = 24 N

7
Açıklama: Görüldüğü gibi hiçbir çevrim yapmadan W u değerine doğrudan kilogram kuvvet (kgk) denilemedi.
Çünkü, kilogram kuvvetin tarifi gereği, ivmenin 9.81 m/s 2 (Dünya gezegenin yerçekim ivmesi) olması şartı
gerekiyor.

1 kgk = 1 kg  9.81 m/s2 = 9.81 N

(kuvvet) (kütle) (ivme)

Halbuki gezegenin yerçekimi ivmesi (gu = 1.6 m/s2)  9.81 m/s2

Şayet cismin Dünyadaki ağırlığı hesaplasaydı, Dünyadaki yer çekim ivmesi 9.81 m/s 2 değerine eşit olduğu için
ağırlık doğrudan kgk olarak bulunacaktı.

Bilindiği gibi 1 kgk = 9.81 N dur. O halde şimdi bu basit çevrim yardımıyla yukarıda bulunmuş olan W u değeri;

24 olur.
Wu  24 N  kgk  2.446 kgk
9.81

Veya, Wu = m.gu/gc = 15 kg (1.6m/s2)/9.81 = 2.446 kgk.

b) Cisime gezegende ivme vermek için gereken kuvvet Fu ve verilecek ivmede a ile gösterilirse,

75
Fu  m  a  15 kg  5 m / s 2  75 N  kgk  7.645 kgk
9.81

Prob. 1.4

Yağmur yağışından dolayı bir bölgede metre kareye 50 kg yağış suyu geldiği söyleniyorsa acaba bölgenin herbir
noktasına (veya 1m2 alan üzerine yayılı) gelen yağmur suyu derinliği ne kadardır? Yağmur yağışı (fırtınası) 15
dakika sürmüşse yağmurun şiddeti ( birim zaman için yağmur suyu derinliği) ne kadardır? Yağmur suyunun
yoğunluğu (birim hacim kütlesi) ρ = 1000 kg/m3 tür.

Çözüm

Bu problem farklı şekillerde çözülebilir.

Birim metrekareye (1 m2 ye) gelen yağmur suyu kütlesi 50 kg olduğundan 1 m2 ye gelen yağmur suyunun ağırlığı
W = m.g = 50 kg× 9.81 m/s2 = 50 kgk dir veya W = 50 kg×9.81m/s2 = 490.5 N

Kütle (m) = yoğunluk (ρ) × hacim (Ɐ) olduğundan 50 kg = 1000 kg/m3 ×Ɐ; buradan 1 m2 ye gelen yağmur suyu
hacmi Ɐ = 0.05 m3 bulunur. Bölgenin her bir noktasına gelen toplam yağmur suyu derinliği “h” ile gösterilirse ,

Ɐ = h× 1 m2 = 0.05 m3 den h = 0.05 m = 5 cm dir.

Yağmurun şiddeti (birim zaman için yağmur suyu derinliği) = toplam yağmursuyu derinliği / yağış süresi

= 5 cm /15 dakika = 0.333cm/dakika dır.

8
 CHAPTER 3
Concept of vectors, coordinate systems, vectors relating to distance or position vector,
velocity, acceleration, force, and moment.
In physics and mathematics (thereby in engineering) the quatities may be of three types that are as follows.

1. Scalar or numerical (sayısal büyüklük)

2. Vector (vectorial) (vektörel büyüklük)
3. Tensor (neither a vector nor a scalar (if a physical quantity has magnitude, direction and a plane in which
it acts it is called a tensor. Tensor is neither a scalar nor a vector. For example “stress and strain are good
examples for tensor (tensor is not the topic of this course therefor it is not explained or studied in this
course)

Both the scalar and the vectorial quantities can be presented or indicated in a scale(s). Let us separately study the
“scalar quantity” and the “vectorial quantity”.

Scalar (numerical) quantity

A scalar quantity is a real number . A scalar or numerical quatity does not change by direction (numerical
quantity is independent of direction). A scalar quantity can carry a sign of negative (-) or positive (+). A scalar
quantity remains identical in every direction. In brief, a scalar quantity has no direction. There for, a scalar quantity
does not give or indicate any information about the dirction. A scaler quantity may or may not have unit or
dimension. For example, “5 apples”, your body-mass is 70 kg, or speed of a car is 85 km/h, or age of a person
is 80 years, or temperature in a room is 25 C̊ or – 10 C° , or distance between two locations is 2 km, volume of a
tank is 30 m3 etc. As you see all these scalar quantities do not contain or indicate any direction. It may be stated
that the scalar quantities are directionless (not containing any direction, direction is not considered). For example
consider that the distance between two locations namely A and B is 5 km can be in any form as indicated in the
figure given below.

Note that the scalar quantities are easily added, subtracted, multiply and divided with other
scalar quantities in a known simple arithmetical way.

The most common scalar physical quantities are length, area, volume, time, mass,
temperature, energy or work, power, frequency, probability etc.

9
Vector (Vectorial) Quantity

A vector (or vectorial quatity) has both the magnitude (scalar magnitude) and associated
direction. A vector changes with direction (vectorial quantity depends on direction). A vectorial
quantity does not remain identical in every direction. In brief, a vectorial quantity has a
direction. There for, a vectorial quantity gives and indicates information about the direction.
The direction of a vector is denoted by the sign of “arrow” or “spearhead” of “ →” (for example
a vector AB is written as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 as indicated in the figure given below) or it is written in solid-bold
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is also written as AB) or it is written as with the sign of
face type (for example a vector 𝐴𝐵
“~" or “˄” at the top or bottom of the name of the vector (for example a vector AB is also

written as or . The direction of the arrow is the direction of the vector and the
length of the arrow (in terms of chosen or known unit of measure) is the magnitude of the
vector. The magnitude of a vector is also known as the “modulus” of the vector.

Keep in mind that the magnitude (modulus, length ) of vector is always positive (+). The sign
of the magnitude is always “+”. Notice the difference between the scalar quantity and the
magnitude ( modulus). A scaler quantity can be positive (+) or negative (-) but the “magnitude”
is always positive (because the magnitude is the absolute of the scalar quatity). Therefor, if a
scalar quantity is positive its magnitude is also positive (thereby the scalar quatity is identical,
same, equal to its magnitude). But, if a scalar quantity is negative its magnitude is positive
(thereby the scalar quantity is not same with its magnitude).

For example, a vector of AB is indicated with the symbol of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 , and the magnitude (modulus)
of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is denoted by AB or ̅̅̅̅̅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | (means 𝐴𝐵 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 𝑜𝑟 |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐀𝐁| = they
𝐴𝐵 = |𝐴𝐵
have same meaning of magnitude).

10
A vectorial quantity may or may not have a unit or dimension but it must have both the
magnitude (modulus) and direction. If a physical or mathematical quantity is of a vector, then
one has to indicate and mention both its magnitude and its direction. For example , if a car has
a velocity of magnitude of 85 km/h one must indicate in what direction it is traveling or going.
For example if a car is traveling between Ankara and Kayseri with the velocity magnitude
(speed) of 85 km/h it is necessary to state the velocity (speed) of 85 km/h together with the
direction of its travel whether it is going from Ankara to Kayseri or from Kayseri to Ankara. If
the car is going from Ankara towards Kayseri, it should be said that velociy vector of the car is
85 km/h in magnitude with direction from Ankara towards Kayseri.

In engineering most of the main physical and mathematical quantities [force, velocity,
weight, momentum, displacement (specifying its direction), acceleration, etc.] are of
“vectorial” characters and natures. There for, vectorial quantities or vectors are very important
in engineering. Every engineer has to have good knowledge of vector analysis that is a very
vast physical, mathematical and mechanical field. Due to this reason herein we are going to
review the main properties of vectors.

Since in engineering field, physics, and mathematics vectors are important and they require
directions and magnitudes relating to their positions or location in space it became necessary to
develop and utilize the concept of so called the “coordinate system” or “reference system”.
There are a few types of different coordinate systems. For the mathematical analysis of the
problems in engineering, physics, and mathematics the most commonly used coordinate
systems (refrence systems) are as follows.

1-Number line (single line axis)

2-Cartesian coordinate system

3.1.Two dimensional (rectangular, rectilinear) coordinate system

3.2.Three dimensional (rectilinear) coordinate system

3-Polar coordinate system

4-Cylindrical coordinate system

5-spherical coordinate system

6-Curvilinear coordinate system

7-Other coordinate systems (coordinate surfaces, planes, etc.)

11
 Not to forget that whole coordinate systems must have an initial (starting) point that is
generally called the “origin point” at which the magnitudes of the coordinates are zero).
Also by means of geometry and trigonometry one convert the coordinat systems into each
other (one can pass from one coordinate system to another coordinate system).

One may ask why there are different coordinate systems. The main reason for having different
systems is as follows. Depending on the nature and the type of the problem, the mathematical
and engineering analysis, derivation and solution of the equations become simple, convenient
and easy if a particular suitable coordinate system is chosen or used for the problem. So,
depending on the nature of the problem one determines which type of coordinate system is to
be preferred and used. For example for a problem relating to a fluid flow in a circular-cross
section pipe the polar or cylindrical coordinate system is preferred to other coordinate systems.
Similarly, for a problem relating to a fluid flow in a rectangular-cross-section canal, Cartesian
coordinate system is to be preferred to other coordinate systems. To analize an engineering
problem having a spherical nature (for example structural analysis of a spherical-sector shape
dome-shell) the spherical coordinate system is preferred to others. To analize a rectangular-
cross-section baeam the Cartesian (rectilinear) coordinate system is convenient to use rather
than other coordinate systems.

Let us briefly and separately study or review the coordinate systems stated above.

12
1-Number line (or single line-axis)

If a physical quatity changes in only one direction (in all other dirctions it does not change) in
that case only one single-line axis along which the physical quatity changes is sufficient to use
to analize the problem as indicated in the figure given below.

Or;

2.1 – Cartesian Two Dimensional (Rectangular, rectilinear) Coordinate System

If the physical quantity (variable) changes in one plane only (it does not change in other planes)
in that case a coordinate system of two coordinate axes (for example x-axis and y-axis) normal
to each other on the same plane is used due to which it is also called the “rectangular coordinate
system) as indicated in the figure given below (x- axis is called the “abscissa”, y-axis is called
the “ordinate”).

13
2.2-Cartesian Three dimensional (rectilinear) coordinate system

If the physical quantity varies in three different directions (three axes namely x, y and z
axis ) normal to each other (one is vertical the other two are in horizontal) three dimensional
linear coordinate system consisting of three axis such as x (horizontal), y (vertical) and z
(horizontal) normal to each other can be used. This type of Cartesian coordinate system is also
called the “rectilinear coordinate system”. It is also called the “right-handed system or triad”.

14
 3-Polar coordinate system (kutupsal koordinat sistemi)

If a physical quantity varies in a plane only then it can be expressed interms a radial
distance (position) vector 𝑟 and the angle “Ө” made by the radial distance vector 𝑟 with
an axiss (reference) line in the same plane as indicated in the figure given below.

4-Cylindrical coordinate system

If a physical quantity varies in a plane and the direction normal to the plane then it can be
expressed interms a radial distance or position vector 𝑟 and the angle “Ө” made by the
radial distance or position vector 𝑟 with an axiss (reference) line in the same plane, and the
axis say “z” normal to the plane as indicated in the figure given below.

15
Note that the geometrical locations of the points having same (identical) “r” is a cylindrical

surface that is the reason why this coordinate system is called the “cylindrical coordinate
system”.

5-spherical coordinate system

Or; spherical coordinates

16
6-Curvilinear coordinate system

If a physical quantity varies in curve planes normal to each other it can be expressed interms
of curved-axis (curvy coordinates) as indicated in the figure given below.

So far we have briefly reviewed the coordinate systems.

Let us review the properties of vectors and the related issues.

17
PROPERTIES OF VECTOR(S)
Some properties of vectors are as follows.

a) Vectors having same magnitude and same directions are called the “equal vectors”. For
⃗ have same magnitude and same directios as indicated in the
example if the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
figure they are “equal” vectors. Let 𝐴𝑥 denotes the vectorial component (projection) of
the vector 𝐴 in x-direction; 𝐴𝑦 denotes the vectorial component (projection) of the vector

𝐴 in y-direction, and 𝐴𝑧 denotes the vectorial component (projection) of the vector 𝐴 in z-

⃗ 𝑥 denotes the vectorial
direction as indicated in the figure given below. Similarly 𝐵
⃗ in x-direction; 𝐵
component (projection) of the vector 𝐵 ⃗ 𝑦 denotes the vectorial component

⃗ in y-direction, and 𝐵
(projection) of the vector 𝐵 ⃗ 𝑧 denotes the vectorial component
⃗ in z-direction as indicated in the figure given below.
(projection) of the vector 𝐵
⃗ ; and 𝐵
If 𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 ⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑥 + 𝐵
⃗𝑦 +𝐵 ⃗
⃗ 𝑧 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘

⃗ vectors are “equal vectors” if and only if

𝐴 and 𝐵
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵𝑥 ; 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐵𝑦 ; 𝐴𝑧 = 𝐵𝑧 .

⃗ has same magnitude of a vector 𝐴 but it

b) If a vector 𝐵
⃗ is said
has opposite dircetion of 𝐴 then the vector 𝐵
to be the negative of 𝐴 and it is denoted as -𝐴 as
indicated in the figure.

c) If a given vector has no fixed position in the plane then this vector can be carried or
moved or displaced somewhere else by keeping it parallel to its original given position.
⃗ given in Fig.(a). They can be displaced so
For example consider two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
as to have a common initial (tail or beginning) point P as in Fig. (b) provided that they
⃗
are kept parallel to their given original positon or the initial point of the vector 𝐵
coincides with the end (head) point of the vector 𝐴 as shown in Fig. (c) (note that in
⃗ is kept parallel to its original given position).
doing so the vector 𝐵

18
d) If a vector 𝐴 is multiplied by a scalar quantity say “c”, in this case c𝐴 is also a vector
that has the same direction as 𝐴 and magnitude equal to “c” times magnitude of 𝐴 (if
“c” is positive). If “c” is negative then the direction of the vector c𝐴 is opposite to the
direction of 𝐴 and its magnitude is equal to |c| times the magnitude of 𝐴.

e) If a vector has a fixed initial (beginning) point of A and an end point of P then the
vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 is called the position vector of P relative to A (position vector of P with
respect to A) as indicated in the
figure given below. A position vector
is also called the “tied vector”. Since
the initial point A and the ednd point
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P are fixed, the position vector 𝐴𝑃
can not be moved or displaced.

f) If a vector has no defined fixed initial point and has no

defined end point (this means a vector representing
quantities not related to a fixed position) it is called the
“free vector” as shown in the figure given below. For
⃗ is a free vector x
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 5 𝑘
example a vector 𝐴𝐵
= 3, y = 2 and z = -5 don’t define the initial point A and
the end point B of the vector . A free vector can be moved, carried or displaced (on the
same plane) parallel to its given original position and direction.

19
 1- VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSION

Consider the Cartesian coordinate

system of three axis (x, y, z). In practice,
in the analysis of vectors for
convenience “unit vectors” of
𝑖, ⃗⃗⃗𝑗, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗𝑘 are defined in x, y and z
directions respectively as indicated in
the figure given below. Each unit vector
has the magnitude of “1” and the same
direction as the axis it belogs to
(corresponds to). 𝑖, ⃗⃗⃗𝑗, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗𝑘 unit vectors have the same dirctions of x, y, and z axes (it is
also called the “right-handed system or triad”), respectively.

Let us consider a vector of 𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃 with initial point of “O (0, 0, 0)” and end point of P (x,
y, z) as indicated in the figure given below. The coponents of the vector 𝐴 in x, y and z axise
directions are the projections of 𝐴 on these axes. Let 𝐴𝑥 denotes the vectorial component
(projection) of the vector 𝐴 in x-direction; 𝐴𝑦 denotes the vectorial component (projection)

of the vector 𝐴 in y-direction, and 𝐴𝑧 denotes the vectorial component (projection) of the
vector 𝐴 in z-direction as indicated in the figure given below.

20
Ax = scalar component (projection) of the vector 𝐴 in x-axis (Ax carries a sign); 𝐴. 𝑖 = 𝐴𝑥
𝐴𝑥 = vectorial component (projection) of the vector 𝐴 in x-axis direction. 𝐴𝑥 = (𝐴. 𝑖). 𝑖 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖
Ay = scalar component (projection) of the vector 𝐴 in y-axis (Ay carries a sign); 𝐴. 𝑗 = 𝐴𝑦
⃗ . 𝑗). 𝑗 = 𝐴𝑦 𝑗
𝐴𝑦 = vectorial component (projection) of the vector 𝐴 in y-axis direction. 𝐴𝑦 = (𝐴

Az = scalar component (projection) of the vector 𝐴 in z-axis (Az carries a sign); 𝐴. 𝑘⃗ = 𝐴𝑧

⃗ . 𝑘). 𝑘 = 𝐴𝑧 𝑘
𝐴𝑧 = vectorial component (projection) of the vector 𝐴 in z-axis direction. 𝐴𝑧 = (𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ with the initial point of “O (0, 0, 0)” and the end point of P (x, y, z)
Since the vector 𝐴 = 𝑂𝑃

Ax = (x-0) = x; Ay = (y-0) = y; and Az = (z-0) = z

One can write

⃗ = 𝑧𝑘
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 . 𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 ; 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 . 𝑗 = 𝑦𝑗 ; 𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑧 . 𝑘 ⃗ ; and

⃗
𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘

It should be mentioned herein that vector 𝐴 is also sometimes written in the form of a colum
(column vector) that is as follows .
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑥
vector (𝐴𝑦 ) 𝑜𝑟 [𝐴𝑦 ] or it is written in a row < 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 >.
𝐴𝑧 𝐴𝑧
From geometry in the figure;
2 2 2 2 2 2
⃗ | = 𝐴𝑥 |𝑖|2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 |𝑗|2 + 𝐴𝑧 2 |𝑘
𝐴2 = (𝐴) = |𝐴| = | 𝐴𝑥 𝑖|2 + | 𝐴𝑦 𝑗| + | 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 ⃗|
2
⃗ | = 1 ; then |𝑖|2 = |𝑗|2 =|𝑘
Since |𝑖| = |𝑗|= |𝑘 ⃗| =1

Thus; 𝐴2 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

Thereby, the magnitude of the vector 𝐴 is

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝐴 = 𝐴 = |𝐴| = |𝑂𝑃

It should be stated herein that a vector (for example the vector 𝐴 ) may or may not pass from
the origin point “O” of the coordinate system as it is explained a little later. In reality the
vector 𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 passing from the origin point “O” in the figure given above is the “position
vector” of the point P with respect to (relative to) the origin point “O”.

21
Example: If a vector of ⃗ is given find the magnitude of this vector.
𝐴 = =−3𝑖 + 5𝑗 + 7𝑘

solution : Ax = -3 unit; Ay = 5 unit; and Az = 7 unit then the magnitude of the vector 𝐴 is

⃗⃗ | = √(−3)2 + (5)2 + (7)2 = √83 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

|𝑨

So far, the vectos whose beginning (initial, starting, tail) point coincides with origion point
of the coordinate system is considered. In practice, generaly there may be a vector whose
beginning (initial, tail) point (also its end point) can be different than the origion point of the
coordinate system. The topic of position vector whose beginning (initial, tail) point (also its end
point) can be different than the origion point of the coordinate system is explained and studied
a little later.

Important Note

Do not mix-up the scalar projection (scalar component) of the vector with the magnitude of
scalar component (scalar projection) of the vector. Scalar projection (scalar component or
component) of a vector is the scalar projection of the vector on the axis under consideration.
Therefor, scalar component (component) of the vector carries a “sign” (negative sign “-“ or
positive sign “+”). But, the magnitude of the scalar component (magnitude of the component,
magnitude of scalar projection) of the vector is always positive (the magnitude of the
component of a vector always has the sign of “+”) because a “magnitude” is an absolute
quaqntity (magnitude is the absolute of the scalar quantity).

If the scalar component (component, scalar projection) of a vector is positive (has the sign of
“+”) in that case the scalar component (component) becomes equal to (same, identical) to the
magnitude of the scalar component (component) of the vector. But if the scalar component
(component, scalar projection) of a vector is negative (has the sign of “-”) in that case the scalar
component (component) is not equal to the magnitude of the scalar component (component) of
the vector (there is a “sign” difference). Notice the difference between the scalar quantity and
the magnitude. Keep in mind that the magnitude (modulus, length ) of vector is always positive
(+). The sign of the magnitude is always “+”.

A scaler quantity can be positive (+) or negative (-) but the “magnitude” is always positive
(because the magnitude is the absolute of the scalar quatity). Therefor, if a scalar quantity is
positive its magnitude is also positive (thereby the scalar quatity is identical, same, equal to its

22
magnitude). But, if a scalar quantity is negative it is not equal to its magnitude (because its
magnitude is positive).

Example:

⃗ . Find its scalar components (scalar porojections, componets)

A vector 𝑅⃗ = −5𝑖 + 6𝑗 − 8𝑘
and their magnitudes in x, y and z axes- directions.

Solution: 𝑅⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑥 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ = −5𝑖 + 6𝑗 − 8𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑅𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑅𝑧 𝑘
𝑅𝑦 + 𝑅 ⃗

On both sides of a vectorial equality corresponding components must be equal (same) (it means x-components on
both sides must be equal; y- components must be equal, z-components must be equal).

Hence;

Vectorial component of the vector⃗⃗⃗𝑅 in x-axis direction is 𝑅⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 = −5𝑖

Vectorial component of the vector⃗⃗⃗𝑅 in y-axis direction ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦 𝑗 = 6𝑗
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Vectorial component of the vector 𝑅 in z-axis direction 𝑅𝑧 = 𝑅𝑧 𝑘 ⃗ = −8𝑘 ⃗

Therefor,

Vectorial component of the vector⃗⃗⃗𝑅 in x-axis direction is 𝑅

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 = −5𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 = −5𝑖 = vectorial component (vectorial projection) of the vector 𝑅 ⃗ in x-axis
𝑅𝑥 = −5 = scalar component (scalar projection or component) of the 𝑅⃗ vector in x-axis
The magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑥 is |𝑅⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 | = √(𝑅𝑥 )2 = √(−5)2 = 5 (see that scalar component Rx = -5 is not equal to its
magnitude Rx = 5 because the scalar component has the sign of negative “-“ herein).

Vectorial component of the vector⃗⃗⃗𝑅 in y-axis direction ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑅𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦 𝑗 = 6𝑗
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦 𝑗 = 6𝑗 = vectorial component (vectorial projection) of the vector 𝑅 ⃗ in y-axis
𝑅𝑦 = 6 = scalar component (scalar projection or component) of the 𝑅⃗ vector in y-axis
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 is |𝑅
The magnitude of 𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 | = √(𝑅𝑦 )2 = √(6)2 = 6 (see that scalar component Ry = 6 is equal to its magnitude
Ry = 6 because the scalar component has the sign of positive “+“ herein).

Vectorial component of the vector⃗⃗⃗𝑅 in z-axis direction ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ = −8𝑘

𝑅𝑧 = 𝑅𝑧 𝑘 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ = -8𝑘
𝑅𝑧 = 𝑅𝑧 𝑘 ⃗ in z-axis
⃗ = vectorial component (vectorial projection) of the vector 𝑅
𝑅𝑧 = −8 = scalar component (scalar projection or component) of the 𝑅⃗ vector in z-axis
The magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑧 is |𝑅⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 | = √(𝑅𝑧 )2 = √(−8)2 = 8 (see that scalar component Rz = -8 is not equal to its
magnitude Rz = 8 because the scalar component has the sign of negative “-“ herein).

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Make sure that each vector used in the addition (or subtraction) process must have same length and direction
(parallel) as in its given original-form.
Note that the head point (arrow-head point) of the resultant vector 𝑅⃗ is the as the head point (arrow-head point)
of the added vector (herein vector 𝐶 ), and the tail point (initial point) of the resultant vector 𝑅⃗ is the same as the
⃗ ) to which the vector is added (herein vector 𝐶 ).
tail point (initial point) of the vector (herein vector 𝐵

If there are three vectors namely 𝐴, 𝐵 ⃗ and 𝐶 , and a scalar say “c” then the followings can be
written.
𝐴+𝐵 ⃗ = 𝐵 ⃗ + 𝐴 (Commutative law)
𝐴 + (𝐵⃗ + 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ ) + 𝐶 (Associative law)
𝑐(𝐴 + 𝐵⃗ ) = 𝑐𝐴 + 𝑐𝐵 ⃗ (Distributive law)
𝑐𝐴 = 𝑐(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 ) = 𝑐𝐴𝑥 + 𝑐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑐𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧

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 ⃗ =𝑪
⃗⃗⃗𝑩. 𝑪 ⃗ .𝑩
⃗⃗ = |𝑩 ⃗ | 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = |𝑪
⃗⃗ |. |𝑪 ⃗ |. |𝑩
⃗⃗ | 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝑪. 𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝑩. 𝑪. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

⃗⃗⃗𝑩. ⃗𝑪 = (𝑩𝒙 𝒊 + 𝑩𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑩𝒛 ⃗𝒌). (𝑪𝒙 𝒊 + 𝑪𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑪𝒛 ⃗𝒌) = 𝑩𝒙 𝑪𝒙 (𝒊.

⃗ 𝒊) + 𝑩𝒙 𝑪𝒚 (𝒊.⃗ 𝒋) + 𝑩𝒙 𝑪𝒛 (𝒊. ⃗𝒌)
+ 𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒙 (𝒋. ⃗ 𝒋) + 𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒛 (𝒋. ⃗𝒌)
⃗ 𝒊) + 𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒚 (𝒋.
+𝑩𝒛 𝑪𝒙 (𝒌.⃗⃗⃗ 𝒊) + 𝑩𝒛 𝑪𝒚 (𝒌.
⃗⃗⃗ 𝒋) + 𝑩𝒛 𝑪𝒛 (𝒌
⃗ . ⃗𝒌)
= 𝑩𝒙 𝑪𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒚 + 𝑩𝒛 𝑪𝒛
⃗
⃗⃗⃗𝑩.𝑪 𝑩𝒙 𝑪𝒙 +𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒚 +𝑩𝒛 𝑪𝒛
⃗ = 𝑩𝒙 𝑪𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒚 + 𝑩𝒛 𝑪𝒛 = |𝑩
Thus, ⃗⃗⃗𝑩. 𝑪 ⃗ | 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 thereby 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 =
⃗⃗ |. |𝑪 =
⃗⃗ |.|𝑪
|𝑩 ⃗| ⃗|
⃗⃗ |.|𝑪
|𝑩

Note: In vector analysis the angle θ is the angle between

the dirctions of two vectors when their directions
both converge or diverge as indicated in the figure.

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Also note that as every vector the unit normal vector 𝑛⃗ of an area vector 𝐴 can be written as

⃗ ; and 𝑛⃗. 𝑖 = 𝑖.
𝑛⃗ = 𝑛⃗𝑥 + 𝑛⃗𝑦 + 𝑛⃗𝑧 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑛𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑛𝑧 𝑘 ⃗ ). 𝑖 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑖. 𝑖 + 𝑛𝑦 𝑗. 𝑖 + 𝑛𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ 𝑛⃗ = (𝑛𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑛𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑛𝑧 𝑘 𝑘. 𝑖 = |𝑛⃗||𝑖|. cos 𝛼 = 𝑛. cos 𝛼 = 𝑛𝑥

nx = scalar component (scalar projection) of 𝑛⃗ in x-axis; 𝑛⃗𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑖 = vectorial component of 𝑛⃗ in x-axis direction;
ny = scalar component (scalar projection) of 𝑛⃗ in y-axis; 𝑛⃗𝑦 = 𝑛𝑦 𝑗 = vectorial component of 𝑛⃗ in y-axis direction;
⃗ = vectorial component of 𝑛⃗ in z-axis direction;
nz = scalar component (scalar projection) of 𝑛⃗ in z-axis; 𝑛⃗𝑧 = 𝑛𝑧 𝑘
If α, β, and ϕ are the angles made by the unit normal vector 𝑛⃗ with x, y and z axis, then

𝑛⃗. 𝑖 = ⃗𝑖. 𝑛⃗ = |𝑛⃗||𝑖| = 1.1. cos 𝛼 = cos 𝛼 = 𝑛𝑥 = scalar component (scalar projection) of 𝑛⃗ in x-axis and the vectorial component of 𝑛⃗ in x-
axis direction is 𝑛⃗𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑖 = cos 𝛼 . 𝑖 = 𝑖 cos 𝛼
Similarly, 𝑛⃗ . 𝑗 = 𝑗.⃗ 𝑛⃗ = 1.1. cos 𝛽 = cos 𝛽 = 𝑛𝑦 = scalar component (scalar projection) of 𝑛⃗ in y-axis and the vectorial component of 𝑛⃗ in y-
axis direction is 𝑛⃗𝑦 = 𝑛𝑦 𝑗 = cos 𝛽 . 𝑗 = 𝑗 cos 𝛽
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛⃗. 𝑘 = 𝑘. 𝑛⃗ = 1.1. cos 𝜙 = cos 𝜙 = 𝑛𝑧 = scalar component (scalar projection) of 𝑛⃗ in z-axis and the vectorial component of 𝑛⃗ in z-axis
direction is 𝑛⃗𝑧 = 𝑛𝑧 𝑘 ⃗ = cos 𝜙 . 𝑘
⃗ = 𝑘
⃗ cos 𝛼
𝑛⃗ = 𝑛⃗𝑥 + 𝑛⃗𝑦 + 𝑛⃗𝑧 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑛𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑛𝑧 𝑘⃗ = 𝑖 cos 𝛼 + 𝑗 cos 𝛽 + 𝑘
⃗ cos ∅
Thus the unit normal vector can be written as ⃗𝒏 = 𝒊 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 + 𝒋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷 + 𝒌 ⃗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅

(also see the explanation relating to the “direction cosines of a vector” given a little later).

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 2- EXAMPLES: ADDITION OF VECTORS ON SAME PLANE
(in two dimension)

(Kaynak: Mühendisler için Vektör Mekaniği- Statik; Ferdinand P.Beer; E. R. Johnston, E. R.

Eisenberg; Çeviri : Ö. Gündoğdu; H. R. Öz, O. Kopmaz; Güven Bilimsel Kitab evi-İzmir)

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DIRECTION COSINES OF A VECTOR

⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅⃗𝑦 + 𝑅⃗𝑧 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑅𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑅𝑧 𝑘⃗ making

Cosider a vetor R
angles α ,β, and ϕ with x, y, and z axses directions, respectively as
shown in the figure given below. In the figure note how α ,β, and ϕ
are measured (how they increase).⃗⃗⃗𝑅𝑥 , 𝑅⃗𝑦 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅⃗𝑧 are the vectorial

components of the vector 𝑅⃗ in x, y, and z axes directions,

respectively. Note that Rx , Ry and Rz in x, y and z axses,
respectively are the “scalar components (scalar projections) of the
vector ⃗R. Therefore the scalar components Rx , Ry and Rz carry
sign of negative (-) or positive (+).
𝑅 2 = 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 + 𝑅𝑧 2

Or; R = 𝑅 = |𝑅⃗ | = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 + 𝑅𝑧 2

𝑅⃗ . 𝑖 = 𝑖. ⃗R = ( 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑅𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑅𝑧 𝑘⃗ ). 𝑖 = 𝑅𝑥 (𝑖. 𝑖) + 𝑅𝑦 (𝑗. 𝑖) + 𝑅𝑧 (𝑘⃗ . 𝑖) = 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅. cos 𝛼

𝑅
= |𝑅⃗ |. |𝑖|. cos 𝛼 = |𝑖|. |𝑅⃗ |. cos 𝛼 = 𝑅. cos α = 𝑅𝑥 ; cos 𝛼 = ⃗𝑥 ;
|𝑅|

Similarly;
𝑅𝑦
𝑅⃗ . 𝑗 = 𝑗. ⃗R = |𝑅⃗ |. |𝑗|. cos 𝛽 = |𝑗|. |𝑅⃗ |. cos 𝛽 = 𝑅. cos 𝛽 = 𝑅𝑦 ; cos 𝛽 = ⃗|
|𝑅
𝑅𝑧
𝑅⃗ . 𝑘⃗ = 𝑘⃗ . ⃗R = |𝑅⃗ |. |𝑘⃗ |. cos ∅ = |𝑘⃗ |. |𝑅⃗ |. cos ∅ = 𝑅. cos ∅ = 𝑅𝑧 ; cos ∅ = ⃗|
|𝑅

cos α; cos β, and cos ϕ are called the “direction cosines”. From above equalities ıt can be writtern as
𝑅 2 = 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 + 𝑅𝑧 2 = (𝑅. cos 𝛼)2 + (𝑅. cos 𝛽)2 + (𝑅. cos ∅)2 = 𝑅 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅)
This equality gives
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛂 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛃 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 ∅ = 𝟏 (this relation between α, β, and ϕ is called the
“direction cosines relation” of the vector ⃗R).
It is obvious that α, β, and ϕ depend on each other to satisfy this expresion. The “direction cosine”
relation must be satisfied by every vector.
𝑅⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅⃗𝑦 + 𝑅⃗𝑧 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑅𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑅𝑧 𝑘⃗ = (𝑅. cos 𝛼)𝑖 + (𝑅. cos 𝛽)𝑗 + (𝑅. cos ∅)𝑘⃗.
⃗
𝑅
This gives 𝑅
= 𝑖. cos 𝛼 + 𝑗. cos 𝛽 + 𝑘⃗ . cos ∅ .
⃗
𝑅
Note that 𝑅
= unit vector parallel to the vector 𝑅⃗ (or in same dirction of 𝑅⃗ 𝑜𝑛 𝑅⃗ ) let us name it as unit

⃗ (that has magnitude of 1 and same direction as the vector 𝑅⃗), then 𝑅⃗ = 𝑅. 𝑢
vector 𝑢 ⃗ = |𝑅⃗ |. 𝑢
⃗

⃗ parallel to vector ⃗R (or in same direction of 𝑅⃗ on 𝑅⃗) can be written as

Hence, the unit vector 𝑢
⃗ = 𝑖. cos 𝛼 + 𝑗. cos 𝛽 + 𝑘⃗ . cos ∅ (unit vector parallel to R
𝑢 ⃗ or in same direction of 𝑅⃗ on 𝑅⃗).

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Position Vector

Consider the position vector of the point B relative to the point A (position vector of point B
with respect to point A)
that is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 whose beginning
point (initial point, tail,
starting point) and end
point (head, terminal point)
are A(xA , yA , zA) and B(xB
, yB , zB ), respectively as
shown in the figure.

For a better understanding if one takes the projections of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 on both the horizontal and
vertical planes a rectangular prism is obtained as indicated in the figure given below. Note
that not to make the figure crowded the coordinates of the points C, D, G, K and M are not
written in the figure.

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Magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 | = √(9 × 1 + 6 × 1 + 4 × 1 + 6 × 12 )2 = 25 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑠 |𝑎

Magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 | = √(18 × 12 + 12 × 1 × 1 + 10 × 5 − 4 × 12 )2 = 76 𝑚/𝑠 2

𝑎𝑦 is |𝑎

Magnitude 𝑎𝑦 is
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 | = √(5 − 20 × 1 × 5 + 8 × 13 )2 = 87 𝑚/𝑠 2
|𝑎

The END

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STRESS (GERİLME)
If there is no external force applied to an object (body-material of the object) the body-material of the object is in its equlibrium
condition or pposition due to the molecular-bonding forces within the molecular structure of the object (intermolecular forces
or interatomic forces). When an external force is applied to the body-material of the object; the object is forced to change
shape or size (strain) due to which an internal reaction force opposite to (but equal to) the external force developes within the
body-material of the object trying to preserve its molecular structure (against the changes in molecular structure or against
occurence of strain). This internal force per unit cros-section area is called the “stress”. Note that stress direction is opposite to
the direction of the external force causing the strees. There are different tpe of stresses. The most common types of stresse are
as follows. Notice the difference between the concepts of the “internal reaction force” and the “external forcrce”.

1-Normal stresses (due to the external normal force acting on the cross-setion area of the body-material of the object)
a-Tension (tensile) stress (due to the force trying to elongate the body of the object) (çekme gerilmesi). Çekme kuvvetinden
dolayı gelişen çekme gerilmesi.
b-Compression stress (due to the external force trying to shorten the body of the object (basma kuvvetinden dolayı oluşan
“basınç gerilmesi). One should not mix-up the “compression stress” with the “pressure” in a fliuid (“basınç gerilmesi”
akışkanlarda ki “basınç” ile karıştırılmamalıdır çünkü bu iki kavram birbirlerinden farklıdır).
Normal stress is generally denoted by “σ”.
2-Shear stress (kayma gerilmesi, sürtünme gerilmesi, kesme gerilmesi) due to the force trying to shear or cut the body-material
of the object. The shear stress is generally denoted by “τ” it lays on the plane surface area of A.
3-Other stresses (i.e., “torsion stress” due to the torsion moment) (burkma momentinden dolayı oluşan burkulma gerilmesi)
The stress is a tensor because it has a magnitude, direction, it acts in a plane surface area of A , and it can not be added as
vectors (since the stress satisfies all these conditions it is a tensor quantity, in reality the stress is not a vector).
𝐹 (𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)
Normal stress σ = ; or since internal normal reaction force F is to be equal to the
𝐴 (𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)
external normal force F, the external normal force vector can be written as 𝐹 = 𝜎. 𝐴 = 𝜎. 𝐴. 𝑛⃗ in which 𝑛⃗ is the unit normal
vector of the surface area of A whose direction is towards the surface area A for a compression force, and outwards from the
surface area for a tension force.
𝐹𝑠 (𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)
Shear stress 𝜏 = ; or since internal normal shear force Fs is to be equal to the external shear
𝐴 (𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)
force, the external shear force can be written as ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑠 = 𝜏. 𝐴. 𝑠 in which 𝑠 is the unit vector in the direction of the external friction
force vector ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑠 .

PRESSURE (BASINÇ): As it is proved in the course of the “Fluid Mechanics”, the magnitude of the pressure at a point in a
fluid media is same in every direction and it acts towards the point in every direction (since it is independent of direction and
also it is not an internal reaction) the pressure (p) is a scalar quantity. Due to which the pressure force vector (pressure force
is not an internal reaction force, the pressure force is an external force) 𝐹 = 𝑝. 𝐴 = 𝑝. 𝐴. 𝑛⃗ in which 𝑛⃗ is the unit normal vector
of the surface area A whose direction is towards the surface area A.

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 CHAPTER 4
MAIN BRANCHES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
The main subfield (branches) of civil engineering are as follows.
1- Hydraulic Engineering (Hidrolik Mühendisliği)
1.1.Fluid Mechanics (Akışkanlar Mekaniği)
1.2.Water Resources (Su Kaynakları, Hidroloji, Groundwater)
1.3.Hydraulic Structures (Su Yapıları, Hidrolik Yapılar)
1.4.Harbor-off-shore or Maritime Structures (Deniz Yapıları)

2- Structural Engineering (Yapı Mühendisliği)

2.1.Structure (Yapı)
2.1.1.Reinforced Concrete Structures
2.1.2.Steel Structures (Çelik Yapılar)
2.1.3.Timber Structures (Ahşap Yapılar)
2.1.4.Composite Structures (Karma Malzemeli yapılar)
2.2.Material Science (Yapı Malzemeleri)
2.3.Earthquake Engineering (Deprem Mühendisliği)

3- Mechanical Engineering (Mekanik Mühendisliği)

3.1.Statics
3.2.Dynamics
3.3.Rigid Bodies, Deformable Bodies

4- Geotechnical Engineering (Zemin Mekaniği Mühendisliği)

4.1.Soil Mechanics (Zemin Mekaniği)
4.2.Geology, and Rock Mechanics (Jeoloji ve Kaya Mekaniği)
4.3.Foundation Engineering (Temel Mühendisliği)
4.4.Subsurface (Underground) Structures (Yeraltı Yapıları)

5- Transportation Engineering (Ulaşım Mühendisliği)

5.1.Highway Engineering (Ulaşım Mühendisliği)
5.2.Traffic Engineering (Trafik Mühendisliği)
5.3.Railway Engineering (Raylı taşınım Mühendisliği)
5.4.Air-port Engineering (Hava alanı Mühendisliğ)
5.5. Maritime Engineering (Deniz ulaşım Mühendisliği)

6- Construction Management (Yapı planlama, inşaat Yapı Yönet., Şantiye)

7- Environmental Engineering (Çevre Mühendisliği) (Water Supply, Waste
Water, Water Treatment, Water Distribution, Pollution, Environmental Impacts)

These Civil Engineering branches are separately explained below.

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 CHAPTER 5

HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

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HOOVER DAM (COLORADO RIVER, ARIZONA, USA)
(ARCH DAM) (SIDE CHANNEL SPILLWAY)

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HOOVER DAM (COLORADO RIVER, ARIZONA, USA)
(ARCH DAM) (SIDE CHANNEL SPILLWAY)

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HOOVER DAM (COLORADO RIVER, ARIZONA, USA)
(ARCH DAM)

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HOOVER DAM (COLORADO RIVER, ARIZONA, USA)
(ARCH DAM)

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HOOVER DAM (COLORADO RIVER, ARIZONA, USA)
(POWER HOUSE)

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GÖKÇEKAYA DAM (SAKARYA RİVER) (ARCH DAM)

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ERMENEK DAM (KARAMAN)
(ARCH DAM)

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ERMENEK DAM (KARAMAN)
(ARCH DAM)

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ERMENEK DAM (KARAMAN)

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DERİNER DAM (ARCH DAM)

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KARAKAYA DAM (ARCH-GRAVITY
DAM) (OGEE-SPILLWAY)
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KARAKAYA DAM
(OGEE-SPILLWAY)

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KEBAN DAM (EART FILL-
CONCRETE GRAVITY DAM)
(CHUTE CHANNEL SPILLWAY)

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ELMALI DAM (İSTANBUL)(BUTTRESS DAM)

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ATATÜRK DAM (EARTH-FILL DAM)

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ATATÜRK DAM (EART-FILL DAM)
(CHUTE CHANNEL SPILLWAY)

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BOYABAT DAM (SİNOP)
(CONCRETE GRAVITY DAM)
(OGEE SPILLWAY)

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MENZELET DAM (MARAŞ-ANTEP)
(EARTFILL DAM) (CHUTE
CHANNEL SPILLWAY)

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ILISU DAM (HASANKEYF) (CHUTE
CHANNEL SPILLWAY)

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DEMİRCİ REGÜLATÖRÜ
(WEIR, BAĞLAMA)

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BİNGÖL YUKARI KALEKÖY DAM
(COCRETE GRAVITY DAM (CHUTE
CHANNEL SPILLWAY)

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MECHANICAL PIPING IN AN EARTH – FILL DAM

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MECHANICAL PIPING IN AN EARTH – FILL DAM

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MECHANICAL PIPING IN AN EARTH – FILL DAM

Fig. 6.7 (Continues)

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MECHANICAL PIPING IN AN EARTH – FILL DAM

Fig. 6.7 (continues)

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 Fig. 6.11

An arch dam may have single or multiple centers of curvature or their radii may be constant or
various that depend on the local conditions of the valley (Fig.6.11). Arch dams may have single
curvature (i.e., in horizontal plane) or it may have more than one curvature (i.e., in both
horizontal and vertical planes). Spillways may be in the form of free-fall or ski-jump. Arch
dams may not be preferred in very cold regions where freezing and melting frequently (heaving
effects) occur due to which damage in the concrete of the faces of the dam happens and that
may endanger the thin shell-structure of the dam. Due to their thin structure feature, the arch
dams are sensitive to the Earthquake and blasting forces. Stability of an arch dam should be
checked for overturning, sliding, settlement, overstress of concrete, stability (sliding) and
bearing stress (allowable stress) of the abutment (side) soil (rock) and the foundation soil rock)
of the valley similar to that explained for gravity dams. A typical arch dam is shown in Fig.6.11.
Arch dams can be much higher than the gravity dams. There are several arch dams in the World
and Turkey (for example Oymapınar, Yusufeli, Eğrek kaya, Karakaya, Gökçekaya etc).

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