Study Notes

Theories of Motivation –
Classical Theories
 Classical Theories of Motivation

Theories of Motivation

Contemporary/Process Theories
Classical/Content Theories
"Emphasis on actual process of
“Emphasis on what motivates individuals”
Motivation"
•Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs •Cognitive Evaluation Theory
•Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory •Goal-setting Theory
•Gregor’s Theory X & Theory Y •Self-efficacy Theory
•William Ouchi's Theory Z •Reinforcement Theory
•Alderfer’s ERG Theory •Adam's Equity Theory
•McClelland’s Theory of Needs •Vroom's Expectancy Theory
•Porter Lawler Model
•Self-Determination Theory

Classical Theories are building blocks of cotemporary theories.

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Given By – Abraham Maslow

Basic Theory-
This theory is based on the idea that human behavior is goal-directed. It causes goal-
directed behaviour. With the help of motivation, we can handle needs and tackle them. This
can be understood by understanding the hierarchy of needs of individuals. The needs of
an individual serve as a driving force in human behaviour. Maslow has proposed “The Need
Hierarchy Model”
 Hierarchy of five needs
within an individual
 Physiological and Safety
Needs are referred to as E.g. - Challenging job; growth
opportunity to rise up the ladder
Basic Needs or lower order
needs; these are satisfied
externally.
 Love & belongingness and
Self-esteem needs are
E.g. – higher
Psychological needs; Self-
job title
actualization is self-fulfillment
need; these are also referred
E.g. –
as higher order needs and teamwork;
satisfied internally. social events
 Individuals are motivate by
unsatisfied needs; as one is
satisfied, the next need
emerges
E.g. – Retirement
benefits, job security, E.g. – salary; lunch breaks
safe and hygienic work
environment

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Classical Theories of Motivation

Later Maslow modified the hierarchy later to include three other needs at the top taking the
total to eight – cognitive needs, aesthetic needs and transcendence needs.

Under this extended model, the first four needs, Maslow identified as deficit needs i.e. if the
needs are not met, they make us uncomfortable and we are motivated or driven by these
needs in as much as we are able to sufficiently fulfill these needs.

The last four needs, he identifies as growth needs: i.e. we never get enough of these. We
are constantly motivated by these needs as they pertain to our growth and development.

He also arranged them in a hierarchy such that we are motivated primarily by a need only if
lower level needs have been met. Thus, before one is motivated by cognitive or self-
actualization needs, one should have taken care of basic deficit needs like physiological,
security, belonging and esteem.

The deficit needs mean the same as under the original f-level model. The growth needs are
as follows:

1. Cognitive needs: Maslow believed that humans have the need to increase their
intelligence and thereby chase knowledge. Cognitive needs is the expression of the
natural human need to learn, explore, discover and create to get a better
understanding of the world around them. This growth need for self-actualization and
learning, when not fulfilled leads to confusion and identity crisis. Also, this is
directly related to need to explore or the openness to experience.
2. Aesthetic needs: Based on Maslow’s beliefs, it is stated in the hierarchy that
humans need beautiful imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to
continue up towards Self-Actualization. Humans need to refresh themselves in the
presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their
surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer. This need is a higher
level need to relate in a beautiful way with the environment and leads to the
beautiful feeling of intimacy with nature and everything beautiful.

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 Classical Theories of Motivation

3. Self-actualization needs: Self-actualization is the instinctual need of humans to

make the most of their abilities and to strive to be the best they can. This need when
fulfilled leads to feeling of generativity.
4. Self-transcendence needs: Maslow later divided the top of the triangle to add self-
transcendence which is also sometimes referred to as spiritual needs. Spiritual
Needs are a little different from other needs, accessible from many level. This need
when fulfilled, leads to feelings of integrity and take things to another level of being.

Problems with Maslow’s theory:

 According to Maslow, a satisfied need no longer motivates. Therefore, as each
of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next one becomes dominant.
However, In real life scenario, no need is ever fulfilled completely. A satisfied
need can arise again in future.

 Needs of every human being are different. Therefore, it is not necessary that
needs of all humans will be satisfied in the same hierarchy as mentioned. It is
possible that a person might move on to higher level need without the lower level
need being satisfied.

 Another criticism of Maslow’s theory is that there is no empirical evidence behind

the theory, no evidence that needs are organised in a particular manner.

2. Two-Factor Theory

Given By – Frederick Herzberg

Also called – Motivator-hygiene theory

Basic Theory
 Certain factors in workplace cause job satisfaction while certain cause
dissatisfaction
o Hygiene factors/maintenance factors/dissatisfiers - presence of these factors
causes job satisfaction but not necessarily motivate; absence of these factors
causes job dissatisfaction
o Motivators - Absence does not necessarily dissatisfy but presence leads to
higher motivation

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 Classical Theories of Motivation

 According to Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction” and the

opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction”.

Figure 1: Two-factor theory

The Two-Factor theory implies that there should be adequacy of the hygiene factors to avoid
employee dissatisfaction. Also, the work should be stimulating and rewarding so that the
employees are motivated to work and perform better. This theory emphasizes upon job-
enrichment to motivate the employees. Focusing on the motivational factors can improve
work-quality.

Problems with two-factor theory:

1. It overlooks situational variables.

2. The theory’s reliability is uncertain.
3. There is no comprehensive measure of satisfaction.
4. The theory ignores blue-collar workers.

3. Theory X & Theory Y

Given by – Douglas McGregor

Basic Theory –

McGregor said that there are 2 distinct views of human beings- one negative, labelled as
theory X and the other positive, labelled as theory Y. Manager’s deal with employees on
the basis of assumptions they hold for category X and Y people.

 Under Negative view, managers believe that employees inherently dislike work, and
must be coerced or directed to perform it (Theory X).
 Under positive view, managers believe that employees view work as natural as play
or rest and people can be given responsibility to work (Theory Y)

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Classical Theories of Motivation

Assumptions of Theory X

 An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to escape it
 Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled, or
warned with punishment A close supervision is required
 Employees generally dislike responsibilities.
 Employees resist change.
 Employees needs formal direction.

Assumptions of Theory Y

 Employees perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical
and mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.
 Employees use self-direction and self-control to achieve the organizational
objectives.
 If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees’ loyalty and
commitment to organization.
 Employee is willing to take responsibility

Two types of employees:

Theory X Aspect Theory Y

(Pessimistic View) (Optimistic View)
Dislike work; find work boring; want Attitude towards Enjoy work; take interest in the work
to avoid work; are lazy work
Must be forced or coerced into Direction Self-directed towards achievement of
compliance goals
Need to be directed; avoid Responsibility Thrive on responsibility
responsibility
Motivated by money, fear, negative Motivation Motivated by desire of self-
incentives development
Little creativity Creativity Highly creative, innovative
Resist change Change Accept and mould as per changed
environment

As such the management style is chosen differently for theory X and Theory Y employees:

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 Classical Theories of Motivation

Problems with Theory X and Y

 It is very difficult to categorise people into type X and Y.

 A person can exhibit characteristics of both the groups X and Y.
 Human behavior is complex and dynamic. It might not fit into two just categories.

4. William Ouchi’s Theory Z

 The Theory Z was developed by the American management professor William Ouchi,
following the X and Y theory by Douglas McGregor
 Theory Z is more aligned towards Japanese style of management as compared to
that of American style.
 The theory is based on the following underlying assumptions:
o Employees are motivated when they can enter into a long-term partnership with
an organization.
o Employees expect support from the organization. Employees believe that they
can give their best with the support of the organizations
o Empoyees are motivated by a good work-life balance. Employees value family,
culture, etc. similar to the working conditions offered by an organization
 Theory Z is an approach to management characterized by long-term job security,
consensual decision making, slow evaluation and promotion procedures, and
individual responsibility, etc.

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 Classical Theories of Motivation

•Employees are motivated when organizations provide long-term job security which
in turn brings stability in the organization as well
•Employees are motivated when organizations look after the well-being of their
Job Security
employees and family

•Employees prefer consensus in decision making

•Employees like working in groups which inturn increases their moral obligations
Consensus

•Organizations which have mechanism for slow evaluation and promotion are more
Slow preffered by employees as compared to short-term evaluations
Evaluation

Individual
•Organizations which places importance on individual achievements and responsibility
are likely to motivate the employees
Responsi-
bility

•Management should have confidence and trust in the abilities of its employees which
will enable employees to participate in decision making
Confidence

 Further, Theory Z emphasises on job rotation, training and formalized measures

adoption by organizations to motivate employees. Workers should focus on
becoming generalists rather than specialists as they are expected to understand
various aspects of their organizations for participating in the decision making
 However, the theory is criticized on the grounds such as
o Providing long-term job security may bring down the employee productivity
o Participative decision making may not always be feasible in every type of
organzations such as those which requires performing of similar routine task
o Slow promotions may act as a deterence for high-achieving kind of employees

5. Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Given By – Clayton Alderfer

Basic Theory
Re-categorization of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs into three needs:
 E – Existence needs- it includes an individual’s physiological and physical safety
needs.
 R – Relatedness needs- Maslow’s social needs and external component of
esteem needs fall in this class of need.
 G - Growth needs- Maslow’s of self-actualization needs and intrinsic component
esteem needs constitute growth needs

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 Classical Theories of Motivation

Existence Needs Satisfaction Relatedness Needs Progression Growth Needs

Desire for physiological Desire for satisfying Desire for self-
and material well-being interpersonal relationships development and personal
Frustration Regression growth

Difference between Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 ERG Theory states that at a given point of time, more than one need may be
operational. Maslow’s theory states that at a given point of time, only one need can
be operational
 ERG Theory states that if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is subdued, there is an
increase in desire for satisfying a lower-level need. As per Maslow’s theory, a higher
level need does not arise until the lower level need is fulfilled.
 According to Maslow, an individual remains at a particular need level until that need
is satisfied. While according to ERG theory, if a higher- level need aggravates, an
individual will revert to increase his satisfaction of a lower- level need. This is known
as frustration- regression aspect of ERG theory.
For example - when growth need aggravates, then an individual might be motivated
to accomplish the relatedness need and if he cannot fulfill relatedness needs, then he
will be motivated by the existence needs. Thus, frustration/aggravation can result in
regression to a lower-level need.
 While Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is rigid as it assumes that the needs follow
a specific hierarchy ERG Theory of motivation is very flexible.

6. McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Given By – David McClelland

Also Called – Achievement Motivation Theory
Basic Theory
 Human behavior is affected by three needs – Need for Power, Need for Achievement,
Need for Affiliation

Need for Power Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

(nPow) (nAch) (nAff)
•want to control and •sets and accomplishes •wants to belong to a
influence others challenging goals group
•want to lead •takes calculated risks •effective in a team
•likes to win arguments •likes regular feedback on •wants to be liked and
•enjoys competition and their progress demand blind loyalty and
winning •likes to work alone harmony
•motivated by status and •wants to be on top and •prefers collaboration over
recognition, self-esteem receive credit competition
•fears failure •do not like high
•called Gamblers risk/uncertainty

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Classical Theories of Motivation

 Need for Power: Generally, people with high need for power turn out to be more
efficient and successful managers. Need for power should not always be taken
negatively. It can be viewed as the need to have a positive effect on the
organization and to support the organization in achieving various goals.

 Need for Achievement: The individuals who possess high achievement needs are
highly motivated by competing and challenging work. They perceive
achievement of goals as a reward, and value it more than a financial reward.

 Need for Affiliation: The individuals who get motivated by affiliation have a very
high urge for a friendly and supportive environment. Such individuals are
effective performers in a team.

Comparison of Content Theories

Figure 2: Comparison of Content Theories

Source: google images

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