Chapter 4

Motivation
 Topics
Definition of Motivation
Theory of motivation
– Abrham Maslow’s theory of need
– ERG theory
– Theory of X and Y
– Herzberg Two factor theory
– McClelland’s Theory of need
– Expectancy Theory…
– Equity Theory …
– Re- inforcemet Theory ..
– Goal setting Theory ..
Although no need is ever fully gratified, a substantially
satisfied need no longer motivates (Abriham Maslow)
 4.1. What Is Motivation?
Motivation is the act of stimulating someone to
get a desired course of action.
Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of
effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by
the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.
Motivation refers to the forces within a person that
affect his or her direction, intensity, and persistence
of voluntary behaviour.
i. Direction -should benefit the organization (i.e.
quality of effort counts!).
ii. Intensity -how hard an employee tries to achieve a
goal.
iii. Persistence -how long can an employee maintain
his/her effort to achieve a goal.
Motivation is an internal force that energizes
behaviour, gives direction to behaviour, and
underlies the tendency to persist.
This definition of motivation recognizes that in order
to achieve goals, individuals must
Be sufficiently stimulated and energetic,
Have a clear focus or end in mind,
willing and able to commit their energy for a long
enough period of time to realize their aim.
 4.2. Early Theories of Motivation
1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Founded by Abraham Maslow
Hierarchy of needs theory identifies five distinct
levels of individual needs: from self-actualization and
esteem, at the top, to social, safety, and physiological
at the bottom.
Maslow assumes that some needs are more important
than others and must be satisfied before the other needs
can serve as motivators.
Maslow hypothesized that within every human being,
there exists a hierarchy of five needs:
1. Physiological- Physiological needs are those
required to sustain life, such as air, water,
nourishment and sleep.
2. Safety- safety and security in order to be free from
the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such
needs might be fulfilled by living in a safe area,
medical insurance, job security and financial
reserves.
3. Social need; Social needs are those related to
interaction with other people and may include need for
friends, need for belonging, need to give and receive
love.
4. Self-esteem; Esteem needs may be classified as
internal or external.
 Internal esteem needs are those related to self-esteem
such as self-respect and achievement.
 External esteem needs are those such as social status,
reputation and recognition.
5. Self-actualization - is the summit of Maslow's
hierarchy of needs.
It is the quest of reaching one's full potential
as a person.
Unlike lower level needs, this need is never
fully satisfied.
Self-actualized people tend to have needs such
as truth, justice and wisdom.
Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower
orders.
a. Physiological and safety needs, were lower-order needs,
and satisfied externally (by things such as pay, union
contracts, and tenure).
b. Social, esteem, and self-actualization were higher-order
needs. Higher-order needs are satisfied internally (within
the person).
 Implications of Maslow’s theory in the workplace
Physiological needs: Provide lunch breaks, rest breaks, and
wages that are sufficient to purchase the essentials of life.
Safety Needs: Provide a safe working environment,
retirement benefits, and job security.
Social Needs: Create a sense of community via team-based
projects and social events.
Esteem Needs: Recognize achievements to make employees
feel appreciated and valued. Offer job titles that convey the
importance of the position.
Self-Actualization: Provide employees a challenge and the
opportunity to reach their full career potential.
 2. Theory X and Theory Y
McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the
nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping
of assumptions.
The manager may see his/her subordinate
optimistically or pessimistically.
Theory X assumes that lower-order needs
dominate individuals.
Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs
dominate individuals.
McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y
assumptions were more valid than Theory X.
 3. Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory identifies job context as

the source of job dissatisfaction and job content as the
source of job satisfaction.
Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while
extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.
 Hygiene Factors
 The presence of hygiene factors would not cause
satisfaction, but their absence would cause
dissatisfaction.

Motivational factor
 When they are present the employees are satisfied,
when absent, the employees are not satisfied but not
dissatisfy.
Providing the hygiene factors will eliminate employee
dissatisfaction but will not motivate workers to high
levels of achievement.
Recognition, responsibility, and the opportunity to
achieve personal growth will promote satisfaction and
employee performance.
 4. ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory is an extension of

Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Alderfer suggested that needs could be classified into
three categories, rather than five. existence needs,
relatedness needs, and growth needs
Whereas Maslow’s theory follows rigid hierarchy ERG
theory follows flexible hierarchy.
In ERG theory an already satisfied lower level need can
become activated when a higher level need cannot be
satisfied, this is known as frustration-regression principle.
Unlike Maslow’s theory, ERG theory contends that
more than one need may be activated at the same time.
ERG theory demonstrates that;

1. More than one need may be operative at the same

time, and

2. If the gratification of a higher-level need is stifled,

the desire to satisfy a lower-need increases.

 5. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Exercise; You’ve got one beanbag and there are five targets
set up in front of you. Each one is progressively farther away
and, hence, more difficult to hit. Target A is a cinch. It sits
almost within arm’s reach of you. If you hit it, you get
$2. Target B is a bit farther out, but about 80 percent
of the people who try can hit it. It pays $4. Target C
pays $8, and about half the people who try can hit it.
Very few people can hit Target D, but the payoff is $16
if you do. Finally, Target E pays $32, but it’s almost
impossible to achieve. Which target would you try for?
David McClelland proposed that an individual's specific
needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's
life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as
achievement, affiliation, or power.
 Need for achievement (nAch) is the desire to do better,
solve problems, or master complex tasks, the drive to
excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive
to succeed.
 Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and
warm or close relations with others.
 Need for power (nPower) is the desire to control others
and influence their behavior.
 Implications for Management
People with different needs are motivated differently.
High need for achievement - those person prefer
individual responsibilities, challenging goals, and
performance feedback, so the manager should give
challenging projects with reachable goals and frequent
feedback.
High need for affiliation -those individuals are drawn
to interpersonal relationships and opportunities for
communication, so the manager should offer a
cooperative environment.
High need for power - Those persons are seeks
influence over others and likes attention and
recognition so the management should provide
power seekers the opportunity to manage others.
 6. Goal setting Theory
This theory was developed by Edwin Locke and
Gary Latham (1990).
Goal-setting theory emphasizes the importance
of specific and challenging goals in achieving
motivated behavior.
 Specific performance goals are much more
effective than those in which a person is told to
do your best.
Goals that are both specific and challenging
are more motivational than vague goals or
goals that are relatively easy to achieve.
This theory also performs powerful dreams
(specific and difficult) inspire powerful actions.
Factors influencing the goals–performance
relationship:

Goal Commitment
Self-efficacy
Task characteristics
National culture
 7. EQUITY THEORY
Developed by J. Stacy Adams.
Equity theory is based on the phenomenon of
social comparison and is best applied to the
workplace.
Adams argues that when people gauge the
fairness of their work outcomes relative to
others, any perceived inequity is a motivating
state of mind.
There are 4 referent comparisons
1. Self-Inside-an employee's experiences in a different
position inside his current situation.
2. Self-outside-an employee's experiences on a position
outside his current organization.
3. Other inside-another individual inside the
employee’s organization.
4. Other outside-another individual outside the
employee’s organization.
Felt negative inequity exists when an individual
feels that he or she has received relatively less than
others have in proportion to work inputs.
Felt positive inequity exists when an individual
feels that he or she has received relatively more than
others have.
When either feeling exists, the individual will likely engage
in one or more of the following behaviors to restore a sense
of equity.
 Change work inputs (e.g., reduce performance efforts).
 Change the outcomes (rewards) received (e.g., ask for a raise).
 Leave the situation (e.g., quit).
 Change the comparison points (e.g., compare self to a
different co-worker).
 Psychologically distort the comparisons (e.g., rationalize that
the inequity is only temporary and will be resolved in the
future).
 Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the
comparison person (e.g., get a co-worker to accept more work).
Research indicates that people who feel they are
overpaid (perceived positive inequity) increase
the quantity or quality of their work, whereas
those who feel they are underpaid (perceived
negative inequity) decrease the quantity or
quality of their work.
 STEPS FOR MANAGING THE EQUITY PROCESS
 Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in
the workplace.
 Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are
given.
 Communicate clear evaluations of any rewards given.
 Communicate an appraisal of performance on which
the reward is based.
 Communicate comparison points appropriate in the
situation.
 8. Reinforcement Theory Of Motivation

Founded by B.F. Skinner (1974).

This theory also known as contingency theory.

Holds that by designing the environment properly,

individuals can be motivated or employees are
motivated by external factor rather internal factors.
 The basic principles of the theory are:
 Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated,

 Reward is more effective than punishment,

 Feedback is necessary for improvement

 Rewards should be given without delay, and

 Rewards should be given for successive

approximations of the desired behavior
Generally speaking, there are two types of reinforcement:
positive and negative.
1. Positive reinforcement; when the occurrence of a
valued behavioral consequence has the effect of
strengthening the probability of the behavior being
repeated.
Example of positive reinforcement might be a
salesperson that exerts extra effort to meet a
sales quota (behavior) and is then rewarded
with a bonus (positive reinforcer).
2. Negative reinforcement; when an undesirable
behavioral consequence is withheld, with the effect of
strengthening the probability of the behavior being
repeated.
Example negative reinforcement a
salesperson that exerts effort to increase
sales in his or her sales territory (behavior),
which is followed by a decision not to
reassign the salesperson to an undesirable
sales route (negative reinforcer).
 Difference between negative re- inforcement and
punishment
Negative Punishment attempts to decrease
the probability of specific
reinforcement behaviors.
attempts to
increase desired Example; demoting an employee
behavior. who does not meet performance
goals or suspending an employee
without pay for violating work rules.
 EXPECTANCY THEORY
Founded by V. H. Vroom (1964).
It is also known as VIE theory.

This theory suggested that people consciously choose

particular courses of action, based upon perceptions,
attitudes, and beliefs, as a consequence of their desires
to enhance pleasure and avoid pain.
Vroom's Expectancy Theory is written as a formula:
Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality = Motivation
Valence (Reward) = the amount of desire for a goal (What is
the reward?)
Expectancy (Performance) = the strength of belief that
work related effort will result in the completion of the task
(How hard will I have to work to reach the goal?)
Instrumentality (Belief) = the belief that the reward will be
received once the task is completed (Will they notice the
effort I put forth?).
 Example

If the employee believes that high performance will

result in good reviews, then the employee has a
high expectancy. However, if the employee believes the
company will not promote from within, then the
employee has low instrumentality, and the employee
will not be motivated to perform better.
CHAPTER SEVEN - CULTURE AND DIVERSITY
7.1.Culture and cultural diversity Group one
7.2. Globalization and people at work

CHAPTER 8- POWER AND POLITICS IN AN

ORGANIZATION
8.1.A definition of power Group Two
8.2.Contrasting leadership and power
8.3. Base and sources of power
8.4. Power in group coalitions

CHAPTER NINE - ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN AND

STRUCTURE
9.1. The essence of OD and structure Group Three
9.2. Key organization design process
9.3. Types of organization structure
9.4 Technology and job design