Leaders and the Leadership Process

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

Chapter 09
Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

True / False Questions

1. Expected, accepted, and effective leadership varies by culture.

True False

2. Low power distance suggests that leaders make decisions simply because they are the
leaders.
True False

3. Short-term orientation is characterized by a low propensity to save.

True False

4. Murphy suggested that leadership is a function of an interaction between the leader, the
situation, and the follower.
True False

5. In cultures where an inference-based process prevails, to be perceived as effective, leaders

rely on fitting leader characteristics in their followers' implicit leadership prototypes rather
than just concentrating on organizational performance.
True False

6. Inference-based perception emphasizes the specific traits or features of leaders, as opposed

to functional aspects of leadership.
True False

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

7. The recognition-based perception process is not dependent on the use of pre-existing

knowledge.
True False

8. At the highest level, leadership is very general while the middle-level categories
incorporate situational information about leadership.
True False

9. A collectivist culture emphasizes the importance of group effort to success, and is not likely
to attribute failure to an individual person unless this person is the leader.
True False

10. Not conforming to social norms and values is likely to make followers quickly perceive a
leader as incompetent and not deserving of that position.
True False

11. The existence of large hierarchical differences typically indicates the existence of large
power distance in a society.
True False

12. In societies with low power distance, the relationship between the leader and the followers
tends to be perceived as equal.
True False

13. In masculine cultures, the quality of life, interpersonal relationships, and concern for the
weak are dominant values.
True False

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

14. In a high PD situation, attributing good performance to leadership will not necessarily
contribute to an actual increase of perceived leadership effectiveness.
True False

15. Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance scores tend to be highly intolerant of ambiguity,
and thus likely to be distrustful of new ideas or behaviors.
True False

16. In a culture low in uncertainty avoidance, conforming to the accepted norms and rules will
tend to increase the feeling of stability among followers, thus influencing them to more
willingly carry out orders and assignments from the leadership.
True False

17. In a culture with low fatalism, people tend to believe that achieving success or avoiding
failure depends on their own efforts and actions.
True False

18. In a culture where people are mostly fatalistic, adopting the leadership patterns that fit into
the leadership prototypes in the minds of followers will tend to be more effective in gaining
their acceptance and compliance.
True False

19. People in cultures that score low in collectivism, power distance, femininity, uncertainty
avoidance, and/or fatalism, may have a stronger orientation to adopt a recognition-based
process to perceive leadership.
True False

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

20. In cultures where a recognition-based process prevails, perceived leadership effectiveness

relies more on whether leadership characteristics fit the implicit leadership prototypes in the
minds of followers.
True False

Multiple Choice Questions

21. Culture, according to Hofstede, is defined as the:

A. collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one human group
from another.
B. outcome of the positive and negative conflicts that occur between individuals staying
together in a community.
C. outcome of interaction between two or more individuals with opposing beliefs and values.
D. result of a set of behaviors and perceptions about leadership and discipline.

22. Which of the following is an individualistic country?

A. Hong Kong
B. The United States
C. Japan
D. Mexico

23. High power distance suggests that leaders make decisions:

A. with respect to collective opinion.
B. based on expert opinions.
C. based on research and statistics.
D. simply because they are the leaders.

24. Which of the following countries is characterized by high uncertainty avoidance?

A. Australia
B. Canada
C. Japan
D. The United States

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

25. Masculinity is associated with an emphasis on:

A. assertiveness.
B. relationships.
C. quality of life.
D. caring for others.

26. According to Murphy, leadership is a function of:

A. interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts in the organization.
B. the skills, abilities, and specific traits of an individual.
C. an interaction between the leader, the situation, and the follower.
D. the behavioral characteristics of leaders and observational nature of followers.

27. Leadership is the process of being perceived by others as a leader. This definition implies
that:
A. fundamentally, leadership is an outcome of the social cognitive processes that people use
to label others.
B. leader traits could create favorable perceptions of leadership and leadership effectiveness.
C. follower traits are important in determining the effectiveness of leadership than leader
traits.
D. leaders should abstain from making decisions that are not popular among the followers.

28. Which of the following statements is consistent with the leadership perception theory
proposed and developed by Lord and Maher?
A. Leaders' traits are more important to leadership effectiveness than follower perceptions.
B. Recognition-based processes and inference-based processes are activated with different
mechanisms.
C. Establishment of leadership is a recognition-based process rather than an inference-based
process.
D. Change in organizational culture is unproductive for an organization.

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

29. In cultures where an inference-based process prevails, to be perceived as effective, leaders

rely on:
A. follower effectiveness.
B. intelligence and cognitive abilities.
C. leader characteristics.
D. good organizational performance.

30. Inference-based perception emphasizes the:

A. structural aspects of leadership.
B. specific traits of leaders.
C. specific features and aspects of leadership.
D. functional aspects of leadership.

31. _____ perceptual process helps people form leadership perceptions from the normal flow
of interpersonal activities.
A. Structural
B. Recognition-based
C. Inference-based
D. Attribution-based

32. _____ is a dimension of culture which is a cultural-level equivalent to the individual-level

locus of control.
A. Masculinity
B. Fatalism
C. Power distance
D. Uncertainty avoidance

33. _____ culture is not likely to attribute failure to an individual person even though this
person is the leader.
A. Individualistic
B. Masculine
C. Collectivist
D. Feminine

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

34. _____ societies are characterized by the value that inequalities between people should be
minimized, and to the extent that hierarchies exist in such societies and their organizations,
they exist only for administrative convenience.
A. Low power distance
B. High power distance
C. High uncertainty avoidance
D. Low uncertainty avoidance

35. In societies with low power distance, a hierarchical system:

A. does not exist at all.
B. exists primarily for convenience.
C. is relatively stronger than societies with high PD.
D. has a variety of functions.

36. In societies with high power distance, superiors:

A. make decisions that are most popular.
B. enjoy less power than usual.
C. adopt consultative or participative management styles.
D. are expected to lead paternalistically.

37. Being assertive, ambitious, competitive, striving for material success, and respecting the
big, strong and fast are values associated with _____ societies.
A. masculine
B. low power distance
C. fatalistic
D. collectivist

38. Anderson is a manager who attaches great importance to achievement and assertiveness.
He provides high importance to goals such as achievement, motivation, assertiveness, and
admiration for the strong. It is very likely that Anderson belongs to a society with a:
A. high feminine culture.
B. collectivist culture.
C. high masculinity culture.
D. fatalistic culture.

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

39. In a culture with _____, followers tend to show great obedience to the authority of their
leaders and expect their leaders to act according to the ways that are historically accepted.
A. high femininity
B. high uncertainty avoidance
C. high individualism
D. high fatality

40. In a culture with low fatalism, people tend to believe that achieving success or avoiding
failure:
A. depends on their own efforts and actions.
B. is the collective responsibility of team members.
C. is dependent on the leader of the group.
D. depends on the cultural values and system.

41. In a culture where people are mostly fatalistic:

A. organizational outcomes will be related to leadership.
B. leadership will receive credit only for bad outcomes.
C. organizational outcomes will gain acceptance of subordinates.
D. leadership will not receive much credit for good performance.

42. Consider using five straight lines to represent five cultural dimensions, with arrows
pointing to the direction of a higher degree of collectivism, femininity, power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, and fatalism. The center represents the maximum degree of
individualism and masculinity, and minimum degree of uncertainty avoidance, power distance
and fatalism. A larger area for a pentagon created by joining the points in the lines indicates
a:
A. weaker positive combined influence on a recognition-based process.
B. stronger positive combined influence on a recognition-based process.
C. stronger positive influence on an inference-based process.
D. weaker negative influence on an inference-based process.

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

43. Which of the following is an exemplary country which has the highest degree of
masculinity, strong uncertainty avoidance, large power distance, moderate collectivism, and
high fatalism?
A. Hong Kong
B. The United States
C. The United Kingdom
D. Japan

44. In cultures where a(n) _____ process prevails, perceived leadership effectiveness relies
more on whether leadership characteristics fit the implicit leadership prototypes in the minds
of followers.
A. recognition-based
B. inference-based
C. judgment-based
D. achievement-based

45. Which of the following countries has an individualistic, masculine culture with a low
degree of uncertainty avoidance, small power distance, and weak fatalism?
A. China
B. Italy
C. The United Kingdom
D. Japan

Essay Questions

46. Explain the time orientation dimension of cultural differences. Provide examples.

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

47. What is inference-based perception? What are the two types of inference-based perception
processes?

48. What is power distance? What are the characteristics of low PD societies and high PD
societies?

49. What is uncertainty avoidance? Explain the patterns of behavior of people in cultures with
varying uncertainty avoidance.

50. Discuss the implications of cultural influences in leadership.

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

Chapter 09 Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context Answer Key

True / False Questions

1. (p. 216) Expected, accepted, and effective leadership varies by culture.

TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

2. (p. 217) Low power distance suggests that leaders make decisions simply because they are the
leaders.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy

3. (p. 217) Short-term orientation is characterized by a low propensity to save.

TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

4. (p. 220) Murphy suggested that leadership is a function of an interaction between the leader,
the situation, and the follower.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

5. (p. 224) In cultures where an inference-based process prevails, to be perceived as effective,

leaders rely on fitting leader characteristics in their followers' implicit leadership prototypes
rather than just concentrating on organizational performance.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium

6. (p. 224) Inference-based perception emphasizes the specific traits or features of leaders, as
opposed to functional aspects of leadership.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium

7. (p. 225) The recognition-based perception process is not dependent on the use of pre-existing
knowledge.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy

8. (p. 225) At the highest level, leadership is very general while the middle-level categories
incorporate situational information about leadership.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

9. (p. 226) A collectivist culture emphasizes the importance of group effort to success, and is not
likely to attribute failure to an individual person unless this person is the leader.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

10. (p. 226) Not conforming to social norms and values is likely to make followers quickly
perceive a leader as incompetent and not deserving of that position.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

11. (p. 227) The existence of large hierarchical differences typically indicates the existence of
large power distance in a society.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium

12. (p. 227) In societies with low power distance, the relationship between the leader and the
followers tends to be perceived as equal.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

13. (p. 228) In masculine cultures, the quality of life, interpersonal relationships, and concern for
the weak are dominant values.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy

14. (p. 228) In a high PD situation, attributing good performance to leadership will not
necessarily contribute to an actual increase of perceived leadership effectiveness.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

15. (p. 228) Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance scores tend to be highly intolerant of
ambiguity, and thus likely to be distrustful of new ideas or behaviors.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium

16. (p. 229) In a culture low in uncertainty avoidance, conforming to the accepted norms and
rules will tend to increase the feeling of stability among followers, thus influencing them to
more willingly carry out orders and assignments from the leadership.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium

17. (p. 229) In a culture with low fatalism, people tend to believe that achieving success or
avoiding failure depends on their own efforts and actions.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

18. (p. 229-230) In a culture where people are mostly fatalistic, adopting the leadership patterns
that fit into the leadership prototypes in the minds of followers will tend to be more effective
in gaining their acceptance and compliance.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

19. (p. 231) People in cultures that score low in collectivism, power distance, femininity,
uncertainty avoidance, and/or fatalism, may have a stronger orientation to adopt a
recognition-based process to perceive leadership.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

20. (p. 231-232) In cultures where a recognition-based process prevails, perceived leadership
effectiveness relies more on whether leadership characteristics fit the implicit leadership
prototypes in the minds of followers.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy

Multiple Choice Questions

21. (p. 215) Culture, according to Hofstede, is defined as the:

A. collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one human group
from another.
B. outcome of the positive and negative conflicts that occur between individuals staying
together in a community.
C. outcome of interaction between two or more individuals with opposing beliefs and values.
D. result of a set of behaviors and perceptions about leadership and discipline.

Difficulty: Easy

22. (p. 217) Which of the following is an individualistic country?

A. Hong Kong
B. The United States
C. Japan
D. Mexico

Difficulty: Easy

23. (p. 217) High power distance suggests that leaders make decisions:
A. with respect to collective opinion.
B. based on expert opinions.
C. based on research and statistics.
D. simply because they are the leaders.

Difficulty: Easy

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

24. (p. 217) Which of the following countries is characterized by high uncertainty avoidance?
A. Australia
B. Canada
C. Japan
D. The United States

Difficulty: Medium

Difficulty: Easy

26. (p. 220) According to Murphy, leadership is a function of:

A. interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts in the organization.
B. the skills, abilities, and specific traits of an individual.
C. an interaction between the leader, the situation, and the follower.
D. the behavioral characteristics of leaders and observational nature of followers.

Difficulty: Easy

27. (p. 223) Leadership is the process of being perceived by others as a leader. This definition
implies that:
A. fundamentally, leadership is an outcome of the social cognitive processes that people use
to label others.
B. leader traits could create favorable perceptions of leadership and leadership effectiveness.
C. follower traits are important in determining the effectiveness of leadership than leader
traits.
D. leaders should abstain from making decisions that are not popular among the followers.

Difficulty: Medium

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

28. (p. 224) Which of the following statements is consistent with the leadership perception
theory proposed and developed by Lord and Maher?
A. Leaders' traits are more important to leadership effectiveness than follower perceptions.
B. Recognition-based processes and inference-based processes are activated with different
mechanisms.
C. Establishment of leadership is a recognition-based process rather than an inference-based
process.
D. Change in organizational culture is unproductive for an organization.

Difficulty: Medium

29. (p. 224) In cultures where an inference-based process prevails, to be perceived as effective,
leaders rely on:
A. follower effectiveness.
B. intelligence and cognitive abilities.
C. leader characteristics.
D. good organizational performance.

Difficulty: Easy

30. (p. 224) Inference-based perception emphasizes the:

A. structural aspects of leadership.
B. specific traits of leaders.
C. specific features and aspects of leadership.
D. functional aspects of leadership.

Difficulty: Easy

31. (p. 225) _____ perceptual process helps people form leadership perceptions from the normal
flow of interpersonal activities.
A. Structural
B. Recognition-based
C. Inference-based
D. Attribution-based

Difficulty: Easy

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

32. (p. 226) _____ is a dimension of culture which is a cultural-level equivalent to the
individual-level locus of control.
A. Masculinity
B. Fatalism
C. Power distance
D. Uncertainty avoidance

Difficulty: Easy

33. (p. 226) _____ culture is not likely to attribute failure to an individual person even though
this person is the leader.
A. Individualistic
B. Masculine
C. Collectivist
D. Feminine

Difficulty: Easy

34. (p. 227) _____ societies are characterized by the value that inequalities between people
should be minimized, and to the extent that hierarchies exist in such societies and their
organizations, they exist only for administrative convenience.
A. Low power distance
B. High power distance
C. High uncertainty avoidance
D. Low uncertainty avoidance

Difficulty: Easy

35. (p. 227) In societies with low power distance, a hierarchical system:
A. does not exist at all.
B. exists primarily for convenience.
C. is relatively stronger than societies with high PD.
D. has a variety of functions.

Difficulty: Medium

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

36. (p. 227) In societies with high power distance, superiors:

A. make decisions that are most popular.
B. enjoy less power than usual.
C. adopt consultative or participative management styles.
D. are expected to lead paternalistically.

Difficulty: Medium

37. (p. 228) Being assertive, ambitious, competitive, striving for material success, and respecting
the big, strong and fast are values associated with _____ societies.
A. masculine
B. low power distance
C. fatalistic
D. collectivist

Difficulty: Easy

38. (p. 228) Anderson is a manager who attaches great importance to achievement and
assertiveness. He provides high importance to goals such as achievement, motivation,
assertiveness, and admiration for the strong. It is very likely that Anderson belongs to a
society with a:
A. high feminine culture.
B. collectivist culture.
C. high masculinity culture.
D. fatalistic culture.

Difficulty: Easy

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

39. (p. 229) In a culture with _____, followers tend to show great obedience to the authority of
their leaders and expect their leaders to act according to the ways that are historically
accepted.
A. high femininity
B. high uncertainty avoidance
C. high individualism
D. high fatality

Difficulty: Easy

40. (p. 229) In a culture with low fatalism, people tend to believe that achieving success or
avoiding failure:
A. depends on their own efforts and actions.
B. is the collective responsibility of team members.
C. is dependent on the leader of the group.
D. depends on the cultural values and system.

Difficulty: Easy

41. (p. 229-230) In a culture where people are mostly fatalistic:

A. organizational outcomes will be related to leadership.
B. leadership will receive credit only for bad outcomes.
C. organizational outcomes will gain acceptance of subordinates.
D. leadership will not receive much credit for good performance.

Difficulty: Medium

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

42. (p. 230) Consider using five straight lines to represent five cultural dimensions, with arrows
pointing to the direction of a higher degree of collectivism, femininity, power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, and fatalism. The center represents the maximum degree of
individualism and masculinity, and minimum degree of uncertainty avoidance, power distance
and fatalism. A larger area for a pentagon created by joining the points in the lines indicates
a:
A. weaker positive combined influence on a recognition-based process.
B. stronger positive combined influence on a recognition-based process.
C. stronger positive influence on an inference-based process.
D. weaker negative influence on an inference-based process.

Difficulty: Hard

43. (p. 231) Which of the following is an exemplary country which has the highest degree of
masculinity, strong uncertainty avoidance, large power distance, moderate collectivism, and
high fatalism?
A. Hong Kong
B. The United States
C. The United Kingdom
D. Japan

Difficulty: Medium

44. (p. 231-232) In cultures where a(n) _____ process prevails, perceived leadership effectiveness
relies more on whether leadership characteristics fit the implicit leadership prototypes in the
minds of followers.
A. recognition-based
B. inference-based
C. judgment-based
D. achievement-based

Difficulty: Easy

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

45. (p. 233) Which of the following countries has an individualistic, masculine culture with a
low degree of uncertainty avoidance, small power distance, and weak fatalism?
A. China
B. Italy
C. The United Kingdom
D. Japan

Difficulty: Medium

Essay Questions

46. (p. 217) Explain the time orientation dimension of cultural differences. Provide examples.

Long-term orientation is characterized by a long-range perspective coupled with a concern for

thrift and weak expectations for quick returns on investments (Pacific Rim countries).
Short-term orientation is characterized by demands for immediate results and a low
propensity to save (Canada and the United States).

Difficulty: Easy

47. (p. 224) What is inference-based perception? What are the two types of inference-based
perception processes?

Inference-based perception emphasizes the functional aspects of leadership, as opposed to

specific traits or features. Attribution is crucial; people assume that a major function of a
leader is to produce good performance outcomes, and people infer leadership from knowledge
of successful group or organizational performance. Inference-based processes are used to link
leadership perceptions to key organizational events.
There are two types of inference-based perception processes. The first is the automatic
inferential process that occurs when causal linkages are made based on salience and
proximity. The second is the controlled inferential process, and reflects a more careful,
deliberate analysis of likely causal agents for organizational outcomes.

Difficulty: Medium

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

48. (p. 227) What is power distance? What are the characteristics of low PD societies and high
PD societies?

Power distance (PD) is a major cultural feature that is associated with leadership. PD refers to
the way in which societies handle the problem of human inequality. Low PD societies are
characterized by the value that inequalities between people should be minimized, and to the
extent that hierarchies exist in such societies and their organizations, they exist only for
administrative convenience. Subordinates and superiors regard each other as like (or
equivalent) people, who have equal rights and representation.
By contrast, high PD societies are characterized by the acceptance of inequality and its
institutionalization in hierarchies that locate people in their "rightful places."

Difficulty: Easy

49. (p. 228-229) What is uncertainty avoidance? Explain the patterns of behavior of people in
cultures with varying uncertainty avoidance.

Uncertainty avoidance (UA) reflects a culture's stance toward the authority of rules. Cultures
with high UA scores tend to be highly intolerant of ambiguity, and thus likely to be distrustful
of new ideas or behaviors. They stick dogmatically to historically tested patterns of behavior,
which in the extreme become inviolable rules that are used by people as a way to reduce
uncertainty. Followers tend to show great obedience to the authority of their leaders, and they
also expect their leaders to act according to the ways that are historically accepted.
People from a low UA society are more tolerant of deviations from group or social norms.
They are more tolerant of uncertainty and open to new ideas. They attach more importance to
the outcome of a behavior than whether it conforms to rules and norms. Entrepreneurship is
frequently nurtured in such an environment. Leadership is often perceived not because of a
leader's maintenance of and compliance with tradition but because of the leader's
performance.

Difficulty: Hard

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Chapter 09 - Leadership in the Cross-Cultural Context

50. (p. 231-232) Discuss the implications of cultural influences in leadership.

Leadership perception orientation varies with cultures. In some cultures, people tend to rely
more on a recognition-based process to perceive leadership; in other cultures, people may be
more likely to adopt an inference-based process to perceive leadership. Five well-developed
and well-tested cultural dimensions exist—collectivism/individualism, power distance,
masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and fatalism.
Leadership effectiveness, in terms of follower perception of a "good" or "effective" leader, is
also related to cultural influences. In cultures where a recognition-based process prevails,
perceived leadership effectiveness relies more on whether leadership characteristics fit the
implicit leadership prototypes in the minds of followers. The better the fit, the more effective
the leadership is perceived to be by followers.
In contrast, in cultures where an inference-based process prevails in leadership perception,
where performance outcome is the most important attributional standard, to be perceived as
effective, leaders must rely on good performance rather than just fitting into some selected
leadership characteristics. The better the performance outcomes, the more effective the
leadership is perceived to be.

Difficulty: Hard

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