Process metallurgy

Similarity considerations in the physical modelling of steel making tundish systems

Dipak Mazumdar, Guier Yamanoglu, Ramani Shankarnarayanan and Roderick I. L. Guthrie

To assess and quantify the relative importance of Reynolds and Froude numbers in reduced scale model studies (these cannot be simulta-
neously respected when the scale factor is less than unity), aqueous model investigations were carried out on three different laboratory scale
tundish models. The experimental tundish systems included two strand, five strand skewed delta shaped and six strand rectangular shaped
vessels. Experimental observations show that the depth of liquid in the model would only correspond to that in the full scale system, provided
the model flow rate is scaled in accordance with the relationship: Om = ,\5/2Q.s, in Which, ,\ is the geometrical scaling factor. Furthermore,
on the basis of residence time distribution measurements in two different configurations of the five strand tundish, it was demonstrated
explicitly that flow phenomena in tundish systems are largely dominated by inertial forces and are therefore, essentially Froude dominated.

Ahnlichkeitsbetrachtungen an physikalischen Modellen fOr GieBverteilersysteme. Um die Bedeutung der Reynolds- und Froudezahl
abzuschatzen und zu quantifizieren, wurden Laboruntersuchungen an drei unterschiedlichen Giel3verteilern mit Wasser als ModeliflOssigkeit
durchgefOhrt. Zu den Versuchsverteilersystemen zahlten Getafle fur Zwillingsgul3, fUnfadrige abqsschraqte dreieckige sowie sechsadrige
rechteckige Behalter. Es zeigte sich, dal3 der FIOssigkeitsspiegel im Modell nur dem betrieblich realen Schmelzenspiegel entspricht,
wenn der Volumenstrom in einem bestimmten Verhalmis eingestellt wird. Weiterhin ergaben Verweilzeitmessungen in zwei verschiede-
nen AusfUhrungen des fUnfadrigen Giel3verteilers, dal3 die Stromungsbedingungen in hohem Mal3e von Tragheitskraften und damit von der
Froudezahl bestimmt werden.

Liquid steel flow in continuous casting tundishes has

been recognised to be of great importance to the quality
of the cast products. The downcoming jet of liquid steel
from the ladle, e.g., see figure 1, tends to introduce turbu-
lent recirculatory motions in the tundish and these, in tum,
play important roles in bringing the non-metallic inclusions
up to the slag/metal interface for their removal to the slag, Tundish
(Domain of
thereby helping in the production of cleaner steel. Flow J J

control devices such as dams, weirs, baffles with holes,

= = present work)

etc., help modify liquid steel flows and thereby, improve

hydrodynamic performances of steelmaking tundishes con-
siderably. Consequently, in recent years, extensive physical
and mathematical modelling [1...10] has been carried out to
investigate flow phenomena such as efficiency of mixing,
inclusion removal, etc. in steelmaking tundishes.
Despite the large number of physical model studies
[1...6] on various aspects of melt flows in continuous cast-
ing tundishes, the physical modelling principles, particu-
larly the dynamic similarity between the model and the
full scale systems, have not been given their due attention. 'MOld
Thus, in a much earlier study, while Lai et al. [1] applied
a Froude based modelling criterion (viz., Qm = .\S/2Qfs) -'
for scaling the flow rates, a more recent study by Sahai
and Burval [5], indicates quite the opposite. The latter au-
thors went on to suggest that considerations of gravita-
tional forces in the physical modelling of isothermal tundish Figure 1. Scheme of the ladle-tundish-continuous casting system
operations are irrelevant and consequently, Froude based of relevance to the present study
modelling is inappropriate for such systems. Such contra-
dictions within the existing body of literature suggest that
currently applied modelling criteria for steelmaking tundish the anomalies in the published literature and to present ap-
systems are debatable and therefore, call for additional con- propriate scale-up/scale-down criteria. Towards this, rele-
siderations. vant theory of melt flows in metallurgical tundishes, to-
The purpose of the present work has therefore been to gether with experimental observations derived from three
address dynamic similarity between model and full scale different water model tundish systems (viz., a two strand,
tundish systems from a fundamental stand point, to resolve five strand and a six strand tundish, respectively) are pre-
sented in subsequent sections.
Professor Dipak Mazumdar, Ph. D., visiting professor, on leave from De-
partment of Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Derivation of scaling equations/modelling criteria
Kanpur, India; M. Eng. Guier Yamanoglu, research assistant; M. Eng.
Ramani Shankarnarayanan, doctoral candidate; Professor Roderick I. L.
Guthrie, Ph. D., Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Since hydrodynamic studies of melt flows in tundish are
McGill Metals Processing Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. often not concerned with thermal or chemical similarity ef-

14 steel research 66 (1995) NO.1

 Process metallurgy

fects, the equivalence between a model tundish and a full- Table 1. List of symbols
scale system can be adequately described via the geomet-
CD nozzle/orifice discharge coefficient
ric and dynamic similarities. Geometric similarity provides fs full scale
the necessary means for scaling the characteristic physi- g acceleration due to gravity, m/s 2
cal dimensions of the system. Such considerations, in the H depth of liquid in the tundish above the orifice, m
present situation, necessitate that in addition to the char- L characteristic length scale, m
m model
acteristic physical dimensions, the steady state bath height N number of strand
in the model corresponds exactly to that in the full-scale NEll Euler number (= p/(JU 2 )
system. Dynamic similarity, on the other hand, entails cor- NFr Froude number (= U 2/gL)
respondence among various forces (viz., inertial, viscous, NRe Reynolds number (= (JULlp)
P dynamic pressure (with reference to local hydrostatic
gravitational, surface tension, etc.) acting on the system. pressure), Pa
It is through the consideration of these forces and their Q volumetric flow rate of liquid, m3/s
equivalence between the model and full scale systems that r radius of inlet/outlet nozzle, m
appropriate dynamic similarity criteria can be derived. U velocity of liquid, m/s
(J density of fluid, kg/m'
In any flow system (e.g., BOF's, ladle, tundish, etc.), the p viscosity of fluid, kg/ms
balances among the various forces acting on a fluid ele- A geometrical scale factor
ment can be described via the Navier-Stokes equation [11].
For single phase, three dimensional flows in metallurgi-
cal tundishes under steady state and isothermal conditions,
the force balance in compact tensorial notation can be ex- In terms of the corresponding volumetric flow rates of li-
pressed as (for list of symbols see table 1): quid, equation (4) can also be expressed as:

Qexit,m
(1) (5)
Qexit,f.s

or alternatively, if a reduced pressure is considered, such
that, P = P - rgixi, equation (1) can also be expressed as:
(2)
Since geometric similarity between model and full scale
tundish systems necessitates that DO,m = CO,f.s as well as
Hm/H f s = rexit.m/rexit,f.s = A, equation (5) can be expressed
solely in terms of the geometric scale factor, A, according
to:

Qexit.m = A~ (6)
As pointed out already, geometrical similarity requires that Qexit,f.s .
the depth of liquid in the model and the full scale tundish
systems also corresponds (e.g., Hm/H cs = Lm/L f s = A).
However, steady state bath depth is a function of the liquid On the basis of volume continuity principles, for steady
flow rates through the ladle nozzle (inlet) and the tundish steady state operation, it logically follows from equation
nozzles (exit) and consequently, boundary conditions at the (6) that:
inlet and outlets are important and need to be specified a
priori in order to uniquely define the present problem via Qinlet,m = A~ . (7)
equation (1). To this end, it is important to note that field Qinlet,f.s
values of hydrodynamic variables (e.g., u, v, p, etc.) in any
given tundish are defined completely via geometrical con- Equation (7), which has been derived on the basis of equa-
figurations of the system, the governing flow equation and tion (3) has the effect of gravity implicitly contained within
the associated boundary conditions. Consequently, all these and therefore, one can also write on the basis of equations
are to be taken into consideration in order to derive these (3) and (7) an identity of the type:
criteria needed for dynamic similarity between model and
full scale tundish systems. Thus, similarity criteria derived
solely on the basis of governing equation, having a form (
U;nlet ) = (U;nlet) , (8)
similar to equation (2), as resently suggested [5] are insuf- gL m gL f.s

ficient and potentially misleading.

Thus, the discharge velocity through the tundish exit noz- which entails Froude number equivalence between the
zles (see figure I) is gravity dominated and can be ex- model and the full scale tundish systems. The preceding
pressed via the well known correlation [11]: discussion, therefore, clearly indicates that in order to main-
tain a geometrically similar bath height in the model (e.g.,
H m = ,\Hcs), the inlet flow rate in the model tundish sys-
U exit = C oj2gH. (3) tem must be scaled in accordance with equation (7). Con-
sequently, one of the necessary conditions for similarity
Applying equation (3) between the model and the full scale between model and full scale tundish systems is obtained
tundish systems, the following identity is obtained: from the boundary conditions to the governing flow equa-
tion and expressed as:
o,«; CO.m~
(4)
Uexit,f.s CO .f s V 2gH f s · (9)

steel research 66 (1995) NO.1 15

Process metallurgy
An additional condition that must be fulfilled between the
model and the full-scale tundish systems, is obtained from
the governing equation of melt flows (viz., equation (2»,
represented in dimensionless form according to:
(0)
Applying equation (0) between the model and the full-
scale systems results in:
(1)
Equations (0) and (1) essentially indicate that in or-
der to have identical ratios of pressure force to inertial
force in the model and the full scale tundish systems (e.g.,
(NEu»m = (NEu)f.s), Reynolds number equivalence must
also be maintained between the two.
Assuming that all physical dimensions of the model cor-
respond to those of the full scale system, equation (11)
(obtained from the governing equations of fluid flow) in
conjunction with equation (9) (obtained from the bound-
ary conditions to governing equation), define the necessary
conditions and state that for kinematic similarity, both
Reynolds and Froude number equivalence must be main-
tained between the two systems. Since equation (1) can
be expressed as ¢(NEu,NRe,NFr) = 0, the preceding ana-
lysis shows that regardless of the definition of the dynamic
pressure in the governing flow equation, the Froude num-
ber follows as a dimensionless parameter for isothermal
tundish operations. Consequently, it is wrong to conclude
[5], that the Froude criterion for isothermal flow modelling
in metallurgical tundish systems is meaningless on the basis
of equation (2), in that the latter does not explicitly embody
gravitational forces (in equation (2), the gravitational force
is "hidden" within P).
Nevertheless, with typical reduced-scale aqueous models
employed in fluid studies (e.g., A = 0.1 to 0.4), it is im-
possible to respect both Reynolds and Froude similarities
simultaneously. This follows, since the kinematic viscos-
ity of steel at 1600 °C is practically equivalent to that of
water at room temperature. As a consequence, in reduced
scale fluid model studies, the influence of one of these two
dimensionless groups on the induced flow is commonly
ignored. The relative importance of Reynolds (N Re) and
Froude numbers (N Fr) with reference to the physical mod-
elling of tundish systems is addressed later.
Experimental work
To investigate the relative importance of Reynolds vs.
Froude modelling, as applied to the physical simulation of
steelmaking tundish systems, aqueous modelling of three
different industrial tundishes were carried out in the present
study. To this end, appropriately scaled down geometrically
similar models of three different designs of industrial bil-
let/slab casting tundishes, including a two strand, a five
strand and a rectangular shaped six strand tundish systems
were built.
In the water model tundish systems, residence time dis-
tributions (RTD) were measured using an electrical con-
ductivity measurement technique. A scheme of the ex-
perimental apparatus applied for RTD measurements is
16
Strip-chart recorder
Figure 2. Scheme of the experimental system applied towards
residence time measurements
shown in figure 2. The apparatus consisted of a conductiv-
ity probe, a conductivity meter and a strip chart recorder.
The recorder was used to dynamically monitor the varia-
tion in conductivity vs. time at the sampling location (e.g.,
in the vicinity of the exit nozzles). Thus, in each experi-
ment, a pre-determined amount of sulphuric acid (H2S04 )
was added to the ladle shroud and, as mentioned already,
the concentration of acid was then measured dynamically at
one of the exit nozzles, by means of the conductivity probe
via the strip chart recorder. These measurements were con-
tinued until the concentration of acid in the bath was re-
duced to practically zero. From the recorded variation of
conductivity vs. time, the average residence time of a fluid
element in the reactor (defined as: fooo oc
Ctdt/ fo Cdt) was
estimated. Furthermore, knowing the corresponding theo-
retical residence time of the fluid in the tundish (= volume
of fluid in the tundish/volumetric flow rate of water), all the
measured residence times were converted into their equiva-
lent dimensionless forms. For each experimental condition,
a minimum of two and a maximum of four measurements
were made at each exit nozzle and from these, a mean resi-
dence time was determined for each individual strand. The
maximum deviation between successive measurements was
always less than ± 12 %.
Results and discussion
As mentioned above, water model experiments were car-
ried out in three different tundish designs for a wide range
of operating conditions. The laboratory scale models (e.g.,
a 0.15 scale model of a two strand slab casting tundish,
a 0.33 scale skewed delta shaped model of a five strand
tundish and a 0.15 scale rectangular shaped model of a
six strand billet casting tundish systems, respectively) were
constructed respecting geometrical similarities with the in-
dustrial systems (e.g., their physical dimensions were es-
timated on the basis of the chosen geometrical scale fac-
tor, A and the corresponding full scale dimensions). During
experimental observations using each of the three model
tundish systems, the inlet water flow rate was regulated via
a flow meter such that, a steady bath depth, geometrically
similar to the full-scale system (viz., H m = ),Hrs) was es-
tablished in each of the model vessels. To ensure this, the
depths of liquid in the model vessels were monitored care-
fully for about a period of 45 to 60 min. Once steady state
conditions had been achieved, corresponding liquid flow
rates were recorded from the flow meter. In this way, ge-
ometric similarity between the models and the full scale
systems were established for each experiment. The charac-
steel research 66 (1995) No.1
 Process metallurgy

Table 2. Characteristic values of various parameters in three different full scale and corresponding model tundish systems

Parameters 2 strand tundish 5 strand tun dish 6 strand tundish

full scale 0.15 scale full scale 0.33 scale full scale 0.15 scale
model model model

length, m 8.0 1.2 5.36 1.76 9.99 1.52

depth of liquid, m 0.93 0.14 0.711 0.24 0.61 0.091
flow rate of liquid 230 1.86 33.16 1.9 46.42 0.38
to maintain the
required bath
depth", m 3Is (x 10 4)
tundish nozzle dia., 65 10 15 5 16.6 2.5
mm
average bath 1562 8 N.A 3 N.A 9
temperature, °c
volume of fluid in 6.58 0.022 3.8[ 0.125 4.53 0.0153
tundish, m'
theoretical 572 236 [[49 658 975 402
residence time, s
fluid steel water steel water steel water

* liquid flow rates at the exit in the full scale system were inferred from the dimension of the mould and the corresponding casting speed (e.g., from
the t/h/nozzle operating data)

teristics of the three model tundish systems together with indicating, essentially, that the differences between theo-
operating parameters of relevance to the present investiga- retical and experimental flow rates as reflected in table 3,
tion are summarised in table 2. It is important to mention can indeed be attributed to dissimilar discharge coefficients
here that reproducibility tests indicated water flow rates, li- in the model and full scale systems. On the basis of this
quid bath depths, etc., represented in table 2, were bounded therefore, it is legitimate that the actual and theoretical flow
by a maximum uncertainity limit of about ± 15 %. rates for the models, illustrated in tables 2 and 3, would
A comparison of the applied inlet water flow rates (viz., have been equivalent provided corresponding nozzle dis-
table 2) with the corresponding theoretical estimates de- charge coefficients had been identical.
duced via equation (7) (viz., Qrn = >.5/2Qfs) is illustrated in As orifice discharge coefficients in models are often dif-
table 3. There, theoretical and experimental flow rates are ferent (less) than those for full scale systems, these are
seen to be practically identical. Results presented so far also expected to affect to some extent, geometric and dynamic
indicate that the Froude modelling criterion (viz., equation similarities between the two. For example, if the theoreti-
(8)) is automatically satisfied between model and full-scale cal flow rate of 12.4 1/min were applied in the five strand
systems, once a geometrically similar (Hrn = Hfs>') bath tundish, the required bath depth of 0.24 m could not be
depth is maintained in the model. Referring back to table maintained, since model and full-scale discharge coeffi-
3, it can be seen that the applied flow rates for all three
cases are somewhat lower than the corresponding theoret-
ical estimates. Consequently, it can be anticipated that ac- Table 3. Operating flow rates in the full scale and model tundish
tual volumetric flow rates of liquid through the models' exit systems and the corresponding scaled down theoretical flow rates
nozzles were also smaller than the corresponding theoreti- derived via equation (6)
cal outflow rates (e.g., equation (5)). The probable reason
Tundish systems liquid flow rates, m ' Is (x 10- 4 )
for this were lower discharge coefficients associated with full - scale model
the models' exit nozzles (sharp edged) versus higher coef- experi- theore-
ficients for nozzles manufactured in the full scale systems mental tical
(e.g., CO,rn < CO,f.s). two strand rectangular shaped 230 1.86 2.00
Thus, assuming the volumetric outflow rates of liquid five strand skewed delta shaped 33.16 1.9 2.07
through all exit nozzles are equivalent (e.g., equal to QIN, six strand rectangular shaped 46.42 0.38 0.40
N being the number of strands), values of discharge coeffi-
cients for the three tundish systems can be readily estimated
using the experimental data summarised in table 2. Since Table 4. Estimated discharge coefficients of the exit nozzles in
steady bath depth, nozzle dimensions etc. were known with the model and the full scale systems of the three tundish types
reasonable certainty, discharge coefficients could be back investigated in the present study
calculated according to:
Tundish systems estimated mean discharge
coefficient
CO,m Qm x . I5
(12) model, CO,m full-
CO/.s o..
scale, COXs
Values of discharge coefficients thus obtained are sum-
two strand rect- 0.71 0.81 0.88 0.92
marised in table 4 for the three different tundish systems. angular shape
This table also includes the ratio of discharge coefficients five strand skewed 0.89 0.99 0.90 0.9[
in the model and full scale systems (Co,rn/CO,fs), together delta shaped
with the quantity [Qrn/Qfs]>.-5/2 (e.g., equation (5)). There, six strand rect- 0.96 0.985 0.97 0.96
angular shaped
these two quantities are seen to be practically equivalent

steel research 66 (1995) No.1 17

Process metallurgy

.-- 0=11.4Ijmin
(0)

12.5 mm dla. ill'

5c
c T
L=O.24 m
--------------------~ -1,',- ----------------1-----
,
:
.2
c
l.-
e
.l tU;n~/_s_ _
c'"
v
o
U

!Configuration. A I N Fr =1.0, NRe=28X10sl

.-- 0=14.41/mln

(b)
~

c:
~
12.5mm dia.illi
.. i

.ci
I.- ---------------------- ~- ----------------------
.s
c
.2
"0 T i
i

tUln = 1.95 m/s

nnnn
l.-
L=O.39 m
e
'"
v
c
0
U
1
15 10
Time. min
0
IConfiguration - BIN Fr =0.99, NRe=76X10
S
!
Figure 3. Experimentally obtained residence time distribution Figure 4. Schemes of the two different configurations of the five
curves in the five strand tundish; a) at a flow rate of 11.4 I/min, strand tundish applied to assess the relative importance of Froude
b) at a flow rate of 12.4 I/min vs. Reynolds modelling

cients were not alike. This is of concern, particularly when
model results are required to be scaled up. To investigate
this further, residence time distribution measurements were
carried out in the five strand tundish at two different flow
rates of 11.4 and 12.4 l/min (viz., table 3), respectively. It
is important to mention that when the flow rate was in-
creased to 12.4 l/min (e.g., equivalent to the theoretical
flow rate in table 3), the steady-state bath depth in the
model tundish also increased somewhat (e.g., 0.268 m as
opposed to 0.24 m). As such, the model became slightly
"distorted".
Experimentally obtained RTD curves for these two liquid
flow rates (11.4 and 12.4 l/min) are shown in figures 3 a,
b, respectively. These show that the two residence time dis-
tribution characteristics are practically identical. The mean
residence times estimated from figure 3 differ by about
7 %, this being practically equivalent to the corresponding
difference between the two sets of theoretical residence
times (658 s for 11.4 l/min and 708 for 12.4 l/min). These
experimental results therefore suggest that the influence of
discharge coefficients on the overall flow phenomena is rel-
atively minor and not critical to the physical model studies
of steelmaking tundish systems. Thus, within reasonable
limits, the precise values of CD.m and CD.fs are expected
to influence results only marginally and therefore, can be
ignored for all practical purposes. Despite dissimilar CD
values, kinematic similarity between model and full scale
tundish systems can be reasonably respected, as the present
work indicates.
The residence time of a fluid element in the tundish, as
the governing equations of fluid flow and their associated
boundary conditions indicate, is dependent on the inertial,
viscous and gravitational forces (e.g., on the characteristic
values of Reynolds and Froude numbers respectively). To
quantify these dimensionless groups in a given tundish sys-
tem, an appropriate characteristic length scale in the tundish
must first be identified. Towards this, it is important to
recognise that exit flow rates (proportional to H 1/2 ) affect
liquid drainage rates. At steady state (e.g., when there is an
equilibrium between the inflow and net outflow rates), this
leads to a constant bath depth in the tundish. From such
standpoints, it can be argued that in a given tundish geo-
metry, the height of liquid above nozzle outlet is the most
significant length scale. Therefore, to estimate Reynolds
and Froude numbers, the height of liquid above the exit
nozzle was applied as the characteristic length scale.
To experimentally demonstrate the relative importance
of Reynolds and Froude numbers in physical model stud-
ies of steelmaking tundish systems, the orifice type exit
nozzles in the five strand tundish were modified by attach-
ing drainage tubes having a length of 0.15 m. The drainage
tube increased the liquid head from 0.24 m to about 0.39 m,
and by this means, water outflow rates (e.g., proportional to
H I /2 ) . This, in turn, led to a decrease in the depth of liquid
in the model tundish. Consequently, in order to sustain the
original bath depth (= 0.24 m), inlet water flow rate was
increased and a water flow rate of 14.4 I/min (as opposed
to 11.4 l/min when no drainage tube was used) had to be
applied.
The two configurations of the five strand tundish (e.g.,
with and without drainage tube) are illustrated schemati-
cally in figure 4. There, values of important experimental
parameters such as, the characteristic length and velocity
scales, together with the estimates of Reynolds and Froude
numbers, are provided. This indicates, that while the values
of Froude numbers are practically identical between the two

18 steel research 66 (1995) No. 1

 Process metallurgy

experimental systems (1.0 : 0.99), the corresponding mag- Table 5. Residence time distribution characteristics for two differ-
nitude of Reynolds numbers are markedly different (28 x ent configurations of the five strand tundish
106 : 76 x 106 ) . Results ofresidence time distribution mea-
Strand tundish dimensionless residence time distribution
surements carried out at all five nozzle exits in these two number configuration characteristics
tundish configurations (e.g., A and B in figure 4) are sum- emin epeak e av
marised in table 5. There, minimum breakthrough times,
Brnin , the time at which peak concentration is reached, Bpeak, I A 0.04 0.07 0.55
B 0.05 0.066 0.55
and average residence times, Bav , are represented as dimen-
sionless numbers (e.g., dividing all relevant time scales by 2 A 0.02 0.04 0.57
the corresponding theoretical residence time). This clearly B 0.02 0.03 0.52
indicates that residence time distribution characteristics (a 3 A 0 0.02 0.50
direct measure of hydrodynamic performance) of the two B 0 0.015 0.50
tundish configurations are practically equivalent, confirm-
4 A 0 0.02 0.50
ing that flow phenomena in steelmaking tundish systems are B 0 0.015 0.45
largely dominated by inertial forces and, therefore, Froude
dominated. Experimental results presented so far, conclu- 5 A 0.02 0.02 0.54
B 0.02 0.014 0.53
sively demonstrate that in physical modelling of isothermal
flows in tundish systems, Froude modelling is indeed jus-
configuration A: tundish without drainage tube at a flow rate of 11.4 1/min
tified and not meaningless, as recently proposed [5]. (theoretical residence time = 658 s); configuration B: tundish with drainage
Finally, while governing equation of fluid flow consid- tube at a flow rate of 14.41/min (theoretical residence time = 521 s); emin
ered earlier is only truly applicable to laminar flow situ- - dimensionless minimum breakthrough time, e peak - dimensionless time
ations, it is well known that molecular viscous forces in at which peak concentration is reached, and e ov - dimensionless mean
residence time
tundish systems are much less important than their inertial
counterpart (i.e., flows in tundish are turbulent, as numer-
ous model studies confirm (e.g., [1]). Such considerations,
in any way, are not expected to invalidate the conclusions numbers as modelling criteria were also investigated ex-
drawn in the present study, provided the size of the model perimentally. Through RTD measurements in a 0.33 scale
tundish, as well as the operating flow rates ensure an iner- aqueous model of a five strand tundish, it was confirmed
tial flow dominated condition within the reactor vessel (viz., through experimental demonstration that flow phenomena
the scale factor, >.., must not be too small). Since geometric in metallurgical tundish systems are largely dominated by
similarity is a pre-requisite in such physical model studies, intertial and gravity forces, rather than viscous forces which
this simultaneously requires that the flow rate of liquid in
are relatively unimportant in such systems.
the model is scaled in accordance with the Froude criterion
e.g., Qrn = Qf.s>..5/2. Consequently, choosing an appropriate
scale factor must ensure turbulent (inertial) flow conditions (A 00 970; received: 21. June 1994;
and this, in tum, will maintain similar turbulent character- in revised form: 28. September 1994)
istics/fields in the model and the full scale systems.

Conclusions
The physical modelling of metallurgical tundish systems
has been investigated both theoretically and experimentally.
Starting with the governing equations of fluid flow and
the associated boundary conditions relevant to such sys-
tems under isothermal conditions, it is demonstrated that
Froude modelling is the key to maintain kinematic simi-
larity between the model and full scale tundish systems.
Aqueous model studies on three different tundish systems
confirmed that the depths of liquid in the model and the
full scale tundish systems would correspond, provided the
flow rate of liquid in the model is scaled according to
Qrn = Qf.s>..5/2, (e.g., Froude similarity criterion is to be
respected). The relative influence of Reynolds and Froude
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