Critical Reading Skills
within its original historical or cultural context. As a
Critical reading means that a reader applies
certain processes, models, questions, and theories that
result in enhanced clarity and comprehension. There is
more involved, both in effort and understanding, in a
critical reading than in a mere "skimming" of the text.
As a student, it is essential for you to practice
critical reading. Critical reading goes beyond extracting
from a text; rather, it involves recognizing the writer’s
purpose, identifying the tone and persuasive elements
used, and recognizing biases. Critical reading provides
high reflective skills which allow you to stand back and
look at the text from different perspectives. It lends you
the ability to see and evaluate how a text presents
arguments. Without this kill, a reader may run the risk of
simply memorizing texts and accepting them even if they
are flawed, biased, and subjective.
Critical reading is reading with the purpose of
critical examination of the text and its ideas. To add
a bit more to that definition, we might say, “Critical
reading is reading with the purpose of critical
examination of the text and its implicit and explicit
themes and ideas.”
It is also the close, careful reading of a text that
is undertaken in order to understand it fully and assess
its merits. It is not simply a matter of skimming a text or
reading for plot points; rather, critical reading requires
that you read attentively and thoughtfully, taking into
account the text’s structure, purpose, and audience,
among other characteristics (e.g., tone, mood, diction,
etc.)
Critical reading is the process of reading texts
with the purpose to understand them fully. It involves
asking questions about the author’s intention, the text’s
structure and purpose, and the meanings of individual
words and phrases. Critical readers also consider the
context in which a text was written and how it might be
interpreted by different audiences.
Strategies for Effective Critical Reading
1. Annotating
One of the first strategies to begin with is
annotating a text. When you annotate, you underline
important parts of the text, such as the thesis statement,
topic sentences of body paragraphs and explanatory
material. Annotating may also include circling key words
and writing comments or questions you have about the
material in the margins. This is also a very good way to
mark material that needs to be studied for exams.
2. Contextualizing
When you contextualize a text, you place it
reader you should try to identify this context and
consider how this context differs from your own. In order
to do this, you need to consider the following:
a. Language or ideas that appear foreign or out
of date.
b. Your knowledge of the time and place in
which the work was written.
c. The effect these differences have on your
understanding and judgment of the reading.
3. Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and
values
Sometimes our beliefs about an issue are
difficult to express because they are so ingrained (deep-
rooted). In order to discover these beliefs it is important
to explore how a text challenges you. Does it make you
feel disturbed, threatened, ashamed, or inspired? Many
of you may have a strong reaction to some of the essays
you read. This reaction is a good example of an
occasion when this type of reading strategy can be used.
In order to do this, you might try the following:
a. Identify the points in the text where you feel
your beliefs are being challenged.
b. Choose one or two of the most troubling
challenges and analyze your feelings about
them.
4. Paraphrasing
When you paraphrase a text, you put it into your
own words. This can be helpful in understanding a
difficult or ambiguous passage. It is also one of the three
ways to incorporate other people’s ideas into your own.
The other two are quoting directly and summarizing.
Unlike a summary, a paraphrase contains all of the
original information. The purpose of a paraphrase is to
simplify without changing any information. You are not
changing what is said, but how it is said.
5. Outlining
This can be used as a preliminary to
summarizing. Outlining allows you to identify the basic
structure of a text and the main ideas of the text. In an
outline you are listing the main ideas and supporting
evidence of a text. It is especially important to be able to
distinguish between the two. Use your own words when
outlining a text.
6. Summarizing
Summarizing creates a new text by synthesizing
the material of the original. After outlining the text, the
information is put together again in your own words.
Summarization fosters understanding of the text, as you
need to be able to recreate the meaning of the text in
your own words.
7. Exploring the figurative language
Similes, metaphors and symbols are all
examples of figurative language. This type of language
helps writers illustrate their points and get the type of
reaction they want from the reader.
a. A metaphor indirectly identifies two different
things with each other. For example: The
ribbon of road winded endlessly before us.
b. A simile makes a more direct comparison
through the use of connecting words such
as like, as, or appears. The cloud was like a
cotton ball.
c. A symbol makes a comparison by making
one thing stand for another. For example:
When a writer refers to the crown to
symbolize monarchy.
8. Looking for patterns of opposition
A writer may anticipate opposition to his or her
views by responding to them in some way. A writer may
also have conflicting views about the issues that are
presented in the text. When considering oppositions you
might think of opposites like, yes, no; black, white; etc.
Writers will often present an argument by favoring one
side of opposing terms. In order to look for patterns of
opposition you might do the following:
a. Make two columns on a piece of paper and in
the left-hand column list words and phrases that seem to
indicate opposition. In the right-hand column, write down
the opposite to that phrase. For instance, if you wrote
down “pleasant dreams” in the left-hand column from
Franklin’s essay, you would write down “nightmares” in
the right.
b. Make a note next to each pair which one the
author prefers.
c. Come to a conclusion about what the writer
wants you to believe based on these preferred
oppositions.
9. Evaluating the logic of an argument
The two parts of an argument are claim and
support. The claim is what the writer wants the reader to
accept. That is, the claim is the idea, opinion, or point of
view of the writer. The support is the reasons and
evidence that becomes the basis for that claim.
Arguments must pass the ABC test. That is the
argument must be:
a. Appropriate
b. Believable
c. Consistent
To test an argument for appropriateness you
need to analyze it according to logical fallacies, for
instance false analogy, non sequitur, post hoc ergo
propter hoc.
To test for believability, you will apply other
fallacies that relate to reasoning, such as begging the
question, generalizations and failing to accept the
burden of proof. In testing for consistency you are
checking to make sure there are no contradictory
statements.
10. Recognizing emotional manipulation
Writers are guilty of improper emotional manipulation
when they use false or exaggerated appeals. When a
writer acts as an alarmist, uses emotionally loaded
words, like racist, or tries to vilify the opposition, you, as
reader, should be suspicious. The following are fallacies
of emotional appeal.
a. Loaded or slanted language: language
meant to get a specific reaction from the
reader.
b. Bandwagon effect: everyone else thinks this
is true and so should you.
c. False flattery: praising the reader to get
them to accept the writer’s view.
d. Veiled threat: alarming or frightening readers
into believing author.
11. Judging the writer’s credibility
There are three ways that writers establish their
credibility.
a. By showing their knowledge of subject
(using facts and statistics
b. By building common ground with readers
(base reasoning on shared beliefs)
c. By responding fairly to objections and
opposing arguments (does the writer
respond to objections or ignore them and
assume everyone agrees with him or her)
12. Analyzing the writing in other disciplines
Other disciplines have traditional ways of writing
about their subjects. As a critical reader, you need to be
aware of these differences.
a. What is the subject?
b. What kinds of statements tend to be made
about subjects in this field?
c. What key concepts does the reader need to
be familiar with?
d. What evidence is valued in this field?
e. How are statistics presented?
 f. How is field research presented?
g. How much description and narration are
normally used? How much interpretation
and evaluation?
h. How are quotations cited?
i. How are other scholars cited?
j. How is the author identified in the writing?
k. Where was it originally published?
l. Which genres are most commonly used in a
particular field?
Guide Questions for Critical Reading
Below are some general questions that will
guide you in reading critically.
• What is the writer’s perspective? Does he/she
write from an outsider’s or insider’s perspective?
• What relevant information is excluded from the
text?
• Do you agree with the writer?
• Is the writer objective and accurate?
• How would you describe the tone of the writer?
• Does the text challenge your own values and
beliefs?
• Does the text contain fallacies? What are
those?
• Are there assumptions made by the writer?
• Does the writer oversimplify complex ideas?
• Does the writer use reasonable generalizations
and inferences?
Developing a Reading Strategy
You will, in formal learning situations, be
required to read and critically think about a lot of
information from different sources. It is important
therefore, that you not only learn to read critically but
also efficiently.
The first step to efficient reading is to become
selective. If you cannot read all of the books on a
recommended reading list, you need to find a way of
selecting the best texts for you. To start with, you need
to know what you are looking for. You can then examine
the contents page and/or index of a book or journal to
ascertain whether a chapter or article is worth pursuing
further.
Once you have selected a suitable piece the
next step is to speed-read. Speed reading is also often
referred to as skim-reading or scanning. Once you have
identified a relevant piece of text, like a chapter in a
book, you should scan the first few sentences of each
paragraph to gain an overall impression of subject areas
it covers. Scan-reading essentially means that you know
what you are looking for, you identify the chapters or
sections most relevant to you and ignore the rest.
When you speed-read, you are not aiming to
gain a full understanding of the arguments or topics
raised in the text. It is simply a way of determining what
the text is about. When you find a relevant or interesting
section you will need to slow your reading speed
dramatically, allowing you to gain a more in-depth
understanding of the arguments raised. Even when you
slow your reading down it may well be necessary to read
passages several times to gain a full understanding.
What is Reading Comprehension?
Reading comprehension is defined as the level
of understanding of a message. In other words, how well
do you understand what you read? This understanding
comes from the interaction between the words that are
written and how they trigger knowledge outside the
written message. Comprehension is a “creative, multi-
faceted process” dependent upon four language skills:
phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize
words quickly and effortlessly. It is also determined by
an individual’s cognitive development, which is “the
construction of thought processes”. Reading
comprehension involves both the ability to decode
(figure out) words (i.e. know what the words are) and
also the ability to make meaning of the words strung
together (comprehension) Some people learn through
education or instruction and others through direct
experiences.
There are specific traits that determine how
successfully an individual will comprehend text, including
prior knowledge about the subject, well-developed
language, and the ability to make inferences. Having the
skill to monitor comprehension is a factor: “Why is this
important?” and “Do I need to read the entire text?” are
examples. Another trait is the ability to be self-correcting,
which allows for solutions to comprehension challenges.
Vocabulary
Reading comprehension and vocabulary are
inextricably linked. The ability to decode or identify and
pronounce words is self-evidently important, but knowing
what the words mean has a major and direct effect on
knowing what any specific passage means. Students
with a smaller vocabulary than other students
comprehend less of what they read, and it has been
suggested that the most impactful way to improve
comprehension is to improve vocabulary.
Most words are learned gradually through a
wide variety of environments: television, books, and
conversations. Some words are more complex and
difficult to learn, such as homonyms, words that have
multiple meanings and those with figurative meanings,
like idioms, similes, and metaphors.
Reciprocal Teaching
 Reciprocal teaching requires students to predict,
summarize, clarify, and ask questions for sections of a
text. The use of strategies like summarizing after each
paragraph have come to be seen as effective strategies
for building students’ comprehension. The idea is that
students will develop stronger reading comprehension
skills on their own if the teacher gives them explicit
mental tools for unpacking text.
Instructional Conversations
Instructional conversations create higher-level
thinking opportunities for students. “Instructional
conversations”, or comprehension through discussion,
creates higher-level thinking opportunities for students
by promoting critical and aesthetic thinking about the
text. There are several types of questions to focus on:
remembering; testing understanding; application or
solving; synthesis or creating; and evaluation and
judging. It is helpful to use these types of questions
through “think-alouds” before, during, and after reading a
text. When a student can relate a passage to an
experience, another book, or other facts about the world,
they are “making a connection”. Making connections
helps students understand the author’s purpose in a
fiction or non-fiction story.
Text Factors
There are factors that, once discerned, make it
easier for the reader to understand the written text. One
is the genre, like folktales, historical fiction, biographies
or poetry. Each genre has its own characteristics for text
structure that, once understood, help the reader
comprehend it. A story is composed of a plot,
characters, setting, point of view, and theme.
Informational books provide real world knowledge for
students and have unique features such as: headings,
maps, vocabulary, and an index. Poems are written in
different forms and the most commonly used are:
rhymed verse, haiku, free verse, and narratives. Poetry
uses devices such as: alliteration, repetition, rhyme,
metaphors, and similes. Students who are familiar with
genres, organizational patterns, and text features in
books they read are better able to create those text
factors in their own writing.
The SQ3R Strategy
SQ3R is a well-known strategy for
reading. SQ3R can be applied to a whole range of
reading purposes as it is flexible and takes into account
the need to change reading speeds.
SQ3R is an acronym and stands for:
• Survey
• Question
• Read
• Recall
• Review
Survey
This relates to speed-reading, scanning and
skimming the text. At this initial stage you will be
attempting to gain the general gist of the material in
question.
Question
It is important that, before you begin to read, you
have a question or set of questions that will guide you -
why am I reading this? When you have a purpose to
your reading you want to learn and retain certain
information. Having questions changes reading from a
passive to an active pursuit. Examples of possible
questions include:
• What do I already know about this subject?
• How does this chapter relate to the assignment
question?
• How can I relate what I read to my own
experiences?
Read
Now you will be ready for the main activity of
reading. This involves careful consideration of the
meaning of what the author is trying to convey and
involves being critical as well as active.
Recall
Regardless of how interesting an article or
chapter is, unless you make a concerted effort to recall
what you have just read, you will forget a lot of the
important points. Recalling from time to time allows you
to focus upon the main points – which in turn aids
concentration. Recalling gives you the chance to think
about and assimilate what you have just read, keeping
you active. A significant element in being active is to
write down, in your own words, the key points.
Review
The final step is to review the material that you
have recalled in your notes. Did you understand the
main principles of the argument? Did you identify all the
main points? Are there any gaps? Do not take for
granted that you have recalled everything you need
correctly – review the text again to make sure and
clarify.
KWL Reading Strategy
KWL is a method that can guide you in reading
and understanding a text. You can do it working alone,
but discussions definitely help. It is composed of only
three stages which can be reflected on a worksheet of
three columns with the three letters:
What what
what we Want to know
we Know we Learned
K stands for Know
Think first about what you already know about
the topic before reading and jot it down in the first
column, marked K. Discuss with others if possible.
W stands for Want to know
In the W column list the things you want to learn
about the topic. Record questions, thinking of the 5 Ws
and H questions. These questions will help you focus
your attention during reading.
L stands for Learned
The final stage is to answer your questions, as
well as to list what new information you have learned.
You can do this either while reading or after you have
finished.
What is a Hypertext?
Hypertext is used to define a text that is
interactive and can be accessed by clicking on
hyperlinks. Hypertext has link references that are
connected to another piece of text. It is widely used in
blogs as a medium to connect to other articles on the
same website or external websites.
What is an Intertext?
An intertext, unlike the former, refers to any
references made between texts like books or movies,
etc. These are all interconnected through these
references which may either be implicit ( hidden ) or
explicit ( clear ). It also makes use of quotations from
other works for contextualization purposes. Most often
than not, it's used as subtexts within another work. The
connection between these pieces gives readers insight
into what the writer/author wants to say. It also provides
different perspectives on certain topics or statements
made about it.
Key differences between Hypertext and Intertext
Difference in context
The main difference between hypertext and
intertext is that hypertext is the linking of content on one
website to another, while intertext references are not
generally visible. Hyperlinks can be used as a way for
readers to navigate from article to article within a given
site or link over multiple sites together. The term
"hypertext" was first coined by Ted Nelson in 1965, but
its use has increased exponentially since then. Most
major search engines allow their users to search using
the keywords found within the hyperlinked text rather
than just those words themselves, making it easier for
people to find exactly what they're looking for online.
Intertextuality refers specifically to references
made from one piece of writing/fiction/film etcetera into
another - usually referencing other pieces of media that
audiences are already familiar with. The term
"intertextuality" was coined by Julia Kristeva in 1966 and
has since become a large part of literary theory, film
studies etcetera.
Intertextual references can be found throughout
all forms of art - whether directly or indirectly referencing
other works; the main purpose is to make connections
between different texts for an audience who will
generally understand these connections better than
those unfamiliar with them (the indirectness making it
harder for people outside the intended audience to find).
Intertextuality allows writers/filmmakers etcetera to
comment on their work through creating links back into
previous pieces they have created as well as showcase
themes relevant then without explicitly stating said
themes themselves.
Difference in usage
Hypertext is the type of text that readers can go
through quickly. It is easy to navigate and helps users
get an idea about what the article or page might be
talking about without reading everything else in detail.
They link to another useful resource that can be used to
get in-depth information about the topic.
Intertext on the other hand is more complex
since there's no linking involved. Instead, you have to
read each line thoroughly because they're long
sentences that contain important information that the
writer has included as a reference for its readers.
Types of Claims
There are three types of claims: claims of fact,
claims of value, and claims of policy. Each type of
claim focuses on a different aspect of a topic. To best
participate in an argument, it is beneficial to understand
the type of claim that is being argued.
A Claim of Fact
A Claim of Fact asserts that something
quantifiable has existed, does exist, or will exist. The
center of controversy in a factual claim is over the
reasonableness of the fact in question. In other words, a
claim of fact debates whether the statement of the Claim
is correct or incorrect, valid or invalid, true or false. In
making such implications, we reason from something
that is known to something that is unknown. Claims of
fact also focus on cause-to-effect relationships.
The goal in arguing for a claim of fact is to gain
audience acceptance that something that is currently not
accepted as fact or that something that is currently
considered a fact, should no longer be considered as
such. The goal in arguing against a claim of fact is to get
your audience to deny acceptance of some proposed
new fact, or to defend the status quo that something that
is a fact should remain so. Claims of fact may be
assertions about the past, present, or future.
Past claims of fact tend to deal with the
assigning of motive or responsibility for historical actions.
Examples are: "General Custer was responsible for the
massacre at the Battle of the Little Big
Horn," or, "Democrat policies caused the rise of
terrorism."
Present claims of fact tend to deal with events of
current importance. Examples are: "There is a God,"
"Divorce is causing increased juvenile crime," "Video
games lead to the increase of violence among teens," or
“Climate change is exacerbated by people.”
Future claims of fact deal with making
predictions about the nature of future events; such
as: "Tuition at community colleges will be increased next
year," "Oil prices will continue to rise" or, "The Tesla
Model 3 will become the best-selling sedan in the United
States."
Claims of fact are quantifiable. That is,
establishing the correctness of factual claims depends
heavily on empirical verification. Such verification, or
evidence, usually consists of using some combination of
sensory data (sight, smell, touch, sound, and taste). We
will be examining how we find quality evidence to
support our arguments in another chapter.
A Claim of Value
A Claim of Value asserts qualitative judgments
along a good-to-bad continuum relating to persons,
events, and things in one’s environment. If you construct
a position claiming that something is good or bad or one
thing is better than another, you’ve made a claim of
value. Examples of claims of value are: "The Wizard of
Oz is the greatest movie of all time," "Snowboarding is
the greatest way to spend a vacation," or, "Indian food is
the best food of all."
The center of argument in a value claim is over
the criteria used in making the judgment. Value claims
call into question a standard of comparison: bad as
compared to what, good as compared to what, superior
as compared to what? All judgments we make are
opinions that compare two or more items and assert that
one of the items is, by comparison, the better one. For
instance, "Coke is better than Pepsi," "Natural gas is our
best energy source," and, "George Washington is the
greatest President of all time." How do you define words
like “better,” “best,” and “greatest”? And more
importantly, do you and the person you are arguing with,
define them identically. If not, that difference has to be
resolved first with agreed upon definitions of these key
terms. Then you can begin your argument.
In our everyday decisions, we make many kinds
of value judgments. Our own experiences reveal how
difficult it often is to empirically quantify these judgments.
Your parents ask you not to associate with a certain
person because he or she is a “bad influence.” You go to
a certain college to get a “good” education. You buy a
certain car because it is “better” than other similar cars.
What is a “bad” influence, a “good” education, a “better”
car? These words have no universality or common
understanding. This puts you in the position of having to
define how value judgments are made in a particular
situation, to argue for that definition, and to assess how
well the person/thing being judged meets that definition.
For example, with the claim “Abraham Lincoln is
the greatest President ever,” the advocate would have to
prove either, or both that Lincoln meets the criteria for a
great President, which involves arguing for the criteria as
well as judging his play against that criteria AND that he
meets the criteria better than any other President, which
involves comparing and contrasting his presidency to
other Presidents.
A person’s values are often called into play
when a person is arguing morality. Since value claims
cannot be empirically supported, our arguments with
others tend to be qualitative and without much factual
support. One significant problem in social argumentation
is that we tend to view claims of value as claims of fact,
and thus we shift the focus of argument from good and
bad to true or false. Value claims are the hardest on
which to reach consensus because of the lack of
objective criteria.
A major problem we often face is that we
frequently argue Claims of Value as if they are Claims of
Fact. Look at the following claims.
Law and Order is the best program on television.
Barack Obama was a great President.
 Abortion is morally wrong. With a claim of policy, the pro-side in a debate
must establish a need in the system for a change and
The Lakers are better than the Celtics. desirability of their approach. The con-side only needs to
defeat one of the two to defeat the claim.
All of these claims are claims of value. We tend,
however, to often debate them as if they were claims of Remember:
fact, or "true or false" statements. Instead of getting
others to accept our position as having the same validity • Claims of fact are quantifiable statements that
as theirs does, successful conflict resolution demands focus on the accuracy, correctness or validity of
that one of us abandon our "false" position and accept such statements and can be verified using some
the other's "true" position. objective evidence.
• Claims of value are qualitative statements that
We do this without the universal criteria focus on judgments made about the
necessary for such "truthfulness" to be argued. We environment and invite comparisons.
expect that others will accept our value judgments as
• Claims of policy are statements that focus on
"true," without the empirical data necessary to prove
actions that should be taken to change the
such judgments. This is why social argumentation
status quo.
breaks down into quarreling and bickering, and why we
have such a difficult time getting along with others who
see the world differently than we do. Because most
values are personal, and because the process of
argumentation calls for one side or the other to abandon
a value, constructive conflict resolution is hard to
achieve when debating value claims.

A Claim of Policy

A Claim of Policy asserts that something should

or should not be done by someone about something. It
proposes that some specific course of action should, but
not necessarily will, be taken. The key word in a claim of
policy is the conditional verb “should” which implies that
some action ought to be taken, but not that it must or will
be taken. For instance, "The United States should send
a manned expedition to Mars," or "Students should read
the assigned text material before the instructor lectures
on it."

Policy claims are analyzed by locating the sub-

claims of fact (the need for a policy change in the status
quo), or value claims (the desirability of making such a
change) inherent in the policy claim.

For example, the following claim has been

advanced, "All professional athletes should be randomly
drug-tested." We can analyze this claim by first finding
the sub-claims of fact, which center around the need for
drug testing of athletes. We might discover the following:
drug use among athletes has increased, drug use affects
athletic performance, athletes are role models for youth,
and other methods to discourage drug use have not
worked. In order to discover the sub-claims of value, we
need to discuss the desirability of drug testing on
athletes. We might discover: athletic performance will be
greatly improved if we have mandatory drug testing, fans
will have greater respect for athletes if they submit to
drug tests or random drug testing is the best way to deal
with drug use in sports. We can now debate the original
claim using these sub-claims as the major arguments
that will determine pro or con adherence.