Lesson 1: Using Context in 2.
It can be constructed as a collaborative
Text Development
Context is a connection of written or
spoken text that instantly link with word or
passage that clarify its meaning.
For clear meaning of context and thorough
understanding of any text, hypertext and
intertext would be a great help.
This involves going back to the text to
recognize the writer’s arguments and
evidences so you can start assessing the
work of the writer.
In discovering the deeper meaning of the
text, you may consider identifying these
things first about the texts.
1. The Time of Period the Text was
written
2. What Circumstances produced the
Text
3. Look at the Issues the Text Tackles or
Deals with.
Hypertext- It is simply a non-linear way of
presenting information, rather than reading
or learning about things in the order that an
author, or editor, or publisher sets out for
us, readers of hypertext may follow their
own path, create their own order-- their
own meaning out the material.
The definition of hypertext is a word or
words that contain a link to a website.
When you type a word or attach a link to
that word upon clicking on that word, the
reader is sent to the site attached. It looks
like Google.
The three main pedagogical benefits of
hypertext in the composition class include
the following:
1. It promotes dialogue.
medium.
3. It can be used in nearly any computer-
facilitated classroom.
Intertext- Writers often reference another
literary, media, or social text in their own
writing. They create a link or connection
between their work and other texts. The
relationship formed between the two texts
is called intertextuality.
Intertext is the development of a text’s
meaning through another text.
It shows connections among texts in terms
of language, images, characters, themes, or
subjects/topic.
This gives an idea that every text actually
influence by previous texts. And the texts
are interconnected, interrelated, or link with
a previous texts or even a current text.
Lesson 2: Critical Reading
as Reasoning
Reading- The process in which the
information from the text and the
knowledge possessed by the reader get
together to produce meaning.
-means that reading is meaning-making.
-you extract information from the text,
combine it to your prior knowledge and
then create your own meaning.
Critical Reading- an academic skill.
-a careful, thorough, thoughtful, and active
reading strategy.
-critical reading is not just plain reading. It
goes deeper and evaluates what is read.
Critical reading-- involves scrutinizing any
information that you read or hear. Critical
reading means not easily believing
information offered to you by a text. “Read
not to contradict and confute; nor to
believe and take for granted; nor to find
talk and discourse; but to weigh and
consider” as Francis Bacon stated in The
Essays.
Critical reading is an active process of
discovery because when you read critically,
you are not just receiving information but
also making an interaction with the writer.
The interaction happens when you question
the writer’s claims and assertions and/or
when you comment on the writer’s ideas.
6 strategies of Critical Reading:
1. PREVIEWING--It is gathering as much
information about the text as you can
before you read it.
2. ANNOTATING—Jotting down notes in
the text as you read it. It can be done
along the margins of the text or even
within the text itself.
3. SUMMARIZING—It is simply shortening
the text read to test comprehension.
4. ANALYZING—breaking the text down
into its parts to find out how text are
related to one another.
--simply it is carefully studying the parts
of the text to understand the whole
text.
5. 5. RE-READING—reading the text
several times to make as much
meaning as possible.
6. 6. RESPONDING—reacting to what you
have read.
--After you have evaluated the
meanings and arguments of the author,
what can you say?
Reasoning- According to Merriam-Webster
Dictionary, reasoning is an act of giving
statements for justification and explanation.
It is the ability of someone to defend
something by giving out reasons.
Reasoning--logical thinking.
--a thinking that all has reason as in cause
and effect, pattern, etc.
Critical reading as a form of reasoning
simply means carefully understanding and
evaluating details to formulate judgements
or even conclusion.
Guidelines in reading a text critically.
1. Analyze the given evidence. Determine
its subject, purpose, audience, and the
occasion or situation in which it was
produced.
2. Determine the thesis of the text. What
does it say essentially about the
subject?
3. Analyze the given evidence. What kind
of evidence is cited? Is it historical,
literary, or statistical? What kind of
sources does the information come
from? Are the sources credible? How
does the evidence support the author’s
main argument?
4. Examine whether the text references
another text. What purpose does the
other text have in the author’s writing?
How does the author’s work transform
the other text? How does the other
text affect the meaning of the author’s
writing?
5. Examine the reasoning used in the text
by looking at the organization of its
ideas. How does the author present the
information? Why does he or she
present the information in that order or
pattern?
6. Evaluate the text. Is the main argument
strong based on the evidence
presented? Does the writer provide
 enough evidence? Overall, has the an introduction, a body, and a
author achieved his or her purpose? conclusion.
Are there any inconsistencies or gaps?
a) .Introduction
Is there a better way of presenting the
Indicate the objectives of the
evidence? What can you suggest to
critique and its significance.
make the text better?
Moreover, include some relevant
Tips that can help you write a critique information, such as:
(1) The creator (writer or director)
1. Read, watch, or listen to the material
(2) The major elements of the
more than once. Some concepts may
work (major characters, cast, and
not be clear to you at first, so reading,
the like)
watching, or listening to the material for
(3) The publication or released
a few times can give you some clarity.
date
At first, do it for pleasure, and then be
(4) The version or edition (if there
critical in the succeeding times.
are other versions or editions of
2. Develop an outline. List the major the work)
points and the supporting ideas in an (5) The publisher or the producer
appropriate logical order. The outline b) Body
will be your guide as you write the (1) Summary
critique. (2) Review/Critique
Analyze the material using an
3. Develop compelling claims. Look at the approach or a theory and present
material from different perspectives. your arguments or
Avoid presenting statements that are counterarguments. Use an
universally acknowledged as right or appropriate organizational pattern
wrong. In a narrative, for instance, the (comparison and contrast,
protagonist is viewed as a hero problem–solution, cause and effect,
because he freely gives to the poor advantages and disadvantages, etc.)
what he has stolen from the rich. A to present your ideas.
possible counterclaim is “Giving to the c) Conclusion
poor does not justify his wrongdoings, State the intended scholarly or
such as stealing.” This statement allows literary value of the reviewed
the readers to question the morality of material. Restate the points or
the protagonist. claims and present any
4. Present balanced information. A good recommendation. List the benefits
critique acknowledges not only the for its potential audience.
strengths and weaknesses of a material 6. Cite sources. Acknowledging any
but also recognizes possible information from another author is an
counterarguments from the readers. Its important practice to avoid committing
assumptions should be well supported. plagiarism.

5. Observe a logical structure. The

standard structure of a critique includes
 Lesson 3: Logical Fallacies
Logical Fallacies
 are forms of flawed thinking. They can
be obvious or subtle. They’re often
disguised as reasonable claims, which
means that detecting them takes
practice.
 are errors in reasoning that invalidate
an argument. As a critical reader, you
have to identify and examine fallacies
and manipulative language found in the
text. It is therefore important that you
know some of the common fallacies.
1. False Dilemma/Dichotomy
 Despite the presence of multiple
possibilities an arguer presents his/her
argument as one of only two options.
 When a false ultimatum is presented
consisting of two contrasting choices.
2. Appeal to ignorance
 Just because it is not proven to be
false, and vice versa, something is
instantly concluded to be true.
3. Slippery Slope
 When a series of increasingly superficial
and unacceptable consequence is
drawn.
 -A leads to B, which leads to C, which
leads to……….Z?
4. Complex Question
 The reader is expected to either
accept or reject both two or more
points that are rolled into one at the
same time.
5. Appeal to Force
 Instead of reasoning, a threat is used to
argue.
6. Appeal to Pity
 Pity is used instead of logical reasoning
7. Appeal to Consequences
 To show that the belief is false, there is
an unpleasant consequence of believing
something are pointed out.
8. Bandwagon
 Just because it is what the majority
thinks, an argument is considered to be
valid
9. Ad Hominem
 Instead of attacking the ideas of the
argument, you attack the character of
the person.
10. Appeal to Authority
 Occurs when a person is not actually a
legitimate expert on the subject
matter; occurs also when you assert
your own expertise.
11. Anonymous Authority
 The authority in the statement is not
mentioned or name
12. Hasty Generalization
 The sample is not significant or enough
to support a generalization about a
population
13. False Analogy
 When a writer assumes that two
concepts that are similar in some ways
are also similar in other ways.
 Stereotyping and non-sensical
comparisons.
14. Accident
 Even if a general rule should be an
exception, it is still applied to a situation
15. Post Hoc
 A is the cause of B since event A
happened before event B
16. Wrong Direction
 There is reverse in direction between
cause and effect
17. Complex Cause
 Even when there are other factors
which also contributed to the event,
the explanation is reduced to one thing
18. Irrelevant Conclusion
 The argument which is supposed to
prove something concludes something
else instead.
19. Straw Man
 The position of the opposition is
twisted so that it is easier to refute
20. Affirming the Consequences
 If argument A is true then argument B
is true; or If argument B is true,
therefore argument A is true
21. Denying the Antecedent
 If argument A is true then argument B
is true; or if argument A is not true
then argument B is not true
22. Inconsistency
 The arguments contradict one another
Lesson 4: Formulating
Evaluative Statements
(Assertions)
Assertion- It is a declaration that is made
emphatically, especially as part of an
argument or as if it is to be understood as
a statement of fact. Meaning, to assert is to
state with force.
It is also a statement used to make a
declaration or to express strong belief on a
particular topic, often without evidence. An
assertion can be formulated after reading a
text or even watching a play.
Different Types of Assertion
1. Basic assertion – This is a simple
and direct expression of one’s
opinion, feelings, or belief. This type
of assertion is usually used in
writing formal papers like thesis
and dissertation
2. Empathic assertion – This shows
sympathy to another person. It is an
acknowledgment of the other
person’s feelings or situation and, at
the same time, a show of support
for the person's rights. It is a
statement used to express
empathy or how the person
understands the feelings and
emotions of the literary author. This
can be used in writing formal or
informal papers. It is usually
composed of two parts:
 the first part is the statement that
recognizes the situation or even
the feelings of the characters in the
text, and
 the second statement is where the
writer states his stand about the
situation.
3. Positive assertion – This expresses
positive feelings or emotions. To
make this assertion, one gives a
reason or an explanation for a
good feeling or opinion.
4. Confrontive assertion – This states
three closely related actions:
 an action that was supposed to be
done,
 the actual action, and
 the action that the speaker wants
to be done.
5. Escalating assertion – This is a firm
but respectful statement made by
a person expecting another
person’s response to his or her
earlier assertion. However, the
other person has not given any
response
 6. I-language assertion – This
expresses negative feelings. It
describes the person’s feelings
toward a particular negative
behavior and states what he or she
desires to happen. is a statement
used to express the feelings and
preferences of the writer. It is called l-
language because it focuses on the
writer and is using the pronoun “I”.
This type of assertion is
recommended if the author wants to
express negative feelings and opinions.
This is best used in writing a reflection
paper. It is composed of three parts.
1) contains accurate information from
literary work which the writer
disagrees with,
2) includes the effect or feeling of the
writer towards the topic, and
3) includes the preference or
recommendation of the writer.
Lesson 4: The Nature and
Importance of Counterclaims
Counterclaims- It refers to a claim made to
rebut a previous claim. Meaning, they
provide a contrasting perspective to the
main argument.
A counterclaim is a statement that goes
against or disagrees with a stated claim. In
persuasive or argumentative writing, a
writer can cite several counterclaims to
their claims. The purpose of such
counterclaims is to show all the sides of the
issue at hand. By providing counterclaims
and explaining the pros and cons of the
counterclaims, the writer further
strengthens their claims. They can use
phrases like “An opposing point of view is . .
.” “One counterclaim to this is . . .” and “An
alternative viewpoint to consider is . . .” to
introduce the counterclaims.
Claims are debatable, that is, they are open
to discussion or argument. Therefore, a
counterclaim should cite evidence or
counterarguments to refute or disprove
the claim.
Things to consider in formulating
counterclaims:
1. Understand the central claim of the
author and examine the supporting
information.
2. Determine the strengths and
weaknesses of the author’s claim.
Identify the points backed up by
insufficient or outdated evidence
and those explained by illogical
reasoning.
3. Think of opposing arguments that
can disprove or weaken the
author’s central claim and cite
some textual evidence. This
evidence may come from the
author’s writing or other credible
sources.
4. Formulate your counterclaims and
provide the necessary support. Be
clear, concise, and precise.
Claim of Fact
Claim of Value- A claim of value is more
subjective than any other claim because it is
primarily influenced by a person’s culture,
background, religion, and other personal factors.
Read the paragraph below. Notice the
subjective tone of the author’s central claim,
which is stated in the first sentence.
Claim of Policy- A claim of policy argues for
or against a course of action. In the
paragraph the author argues for a course
of action. Notice the author’s claim of policy
made in the first sentence