PROPERTIES OF A

WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
 Knowing the properties of well-written text is very important in writing a
poem because it organize ideas and help the reader to really understand
the text. A well-written text has four properties such as organization,
coherence and cohesion, language used, and mechanics.

1. ORGANIZATION . A well-written text should posses the property of

being organized. In order to attain organization, the flow of the ideas
must be logically and accurately arranged. The first sentence should be
concatenated to the succeeding sentence. In writing a text, we can use
either deductive or inductive style to present the ideas properly.
Deductive style of writing start from general to specific. On the contrary,
inductive style of writing begins from specific to broad ideas.
Example of text without organization:
“Thomas Edison was simply the one who created the first commercially viable light
bulb. What made Edison’s light bulb successful was his use of carbonized bamboo as
a filament. This made the bulb lasts longer and it was cheap enough to be available for
the masses. He only improved on previous works of investors who also worked on the
same project.”
Example of text with organization:
“Although it is widely believed that Thomas Edison invented the light bulb, in reality,
he was simply the one who created the first commercially viable light bulb. Along with
his team, Edison improved the previous works of inventors who also worked on the
same project. Compared to previous version, what made his light bulb successful was
his use of carbonized bamboo as the filament. This made the bulb lasts longer and it
was cheap enough to be available for the masses.”
 CHAPTER 2
TEXT AND CONTEXT CONNECTIONS
 CRITICAL READING AS LOOKING FOR WAYS OF THINGKING

What is Critical Reading? Critical reading, also known

as active reading is not just reading the literal word-for-
word information in front of the reader. It is not just
reading between the lines but reading what is stated and
unstated by the author to figure what the author is
saying. It is interpreting facts along with the authors
attitude using implied meaning to make accurate
assumptions and drawing accurate conclusions (Bennet,
2014).
 Critical reading involves a higher level of
sophistication in reading through analyzing facts,
opinions and bias statements; by analyzing groups of
supporting statements to summarize or paraphrase to
bring individual clarity to the piece read and; by
evaluating how the information fits into the reader's
historical perspective and if it meets standards of critical
reading.
 Critical reading means that a reader applies certain
processes, models, questions, and theories that result in
enhanced clarity and comprehension. There is more
involved, both in effort and understanding, in a critical
reading than in a mere "skimming" of the text. What is the
difference? If a reader "skims" the text, superficial
characteristics and information are as far as the reader
goes. A critical reading gets at "deep structure" (if there is
such a thing apart from the superficial text!), that is, logical
consistency, tone, organization, and a number of other very
important sounding terms.
Things That Involve Critical Reading

According to the Online Writing and Learning Link (OWLL) of

Massey University, critical reading is the process of reading that
goes beyond just understanding a text. Critical reading involves:

A. Carefully considering and evaluating the reading

B. Identifying the reading's strengths and implications
C. Identifying the reading's weaknesses and flaws
D. Looking at the 'big picture' and deciding how the reading fits
into the greater academic context (the understandings
presented in other books and articles on this topic)
 What You Need to Consider in Critical Reading

Critical reading is useful at all stages of academic study.

Critical reading often involves asking questions about the
reading. In particular, you are examining the strengths and
weaknesses of the reading's argument. To do this, you need to
consider.
a. The reading's background

b. Its purpose and overall conclusion (claim)

c. The evidence used in the reading

d. The logical connections between the claim and the evidence

e. The reading's balance

f. Its limitations

g. How it relates to other sources and research

h. If the reading is based on research, how this research was

conducted

Each of these affects how 'strong' the argument is, that is, how
convincing it is. Note that these questions here can also be used to
improve your own writing, especially when you are required to
construct an argument.
Critical Readers' Characteristics

Let us take a look on some of the characteristics of a

critical reader provided by Student Learning
Development of Leicester University. The most
characteristic features of critical reading are that you will:

a. Examine the evidence or arguments presented;

b. Check out any influences on the evidence or

arguments;
c. Check out the limitations of study design or focus;

d. Examine the interpretations made; and

e. Decide to what extent you are prepared to accept the authors'

arguments, opinions, or conclusions.

The ultimate objective of critical reading is for the readers to

be able to justify the need to be critical when reading. The aim is
not to find fault, but to assess the strength of the evidence and
the argument. It is just as useful to conclude that a study, or an
article, presents very strong evidence and a well-reasoned
argument, as it is to identify the studies or articles that are weak.
Critical Reading Tips

What does it take to be a critical reader? There are a variety of

answers available to this question and among them is the tested
and proved SQ5R study method. The SQ5R study method, an
improved version of SQ3R, is an effective way to follow to
become an active reader. Psychologist Francis P. Robinson of
Ohio State University developed the method in 1941. The goal
behind the method is to enable you to engage actively in the
study of textbooks and readings. It also helps you to process
information actively which in turn leads to higher memory and
mastery of the material.
 Here is the draft of the SQ5R excerpted from the
Learning Assistance and Resource Center of Radford
University:

1.Survey - Before reading the actual chapter, read the

introduction and summary (if given). Skim through the
chapter paying attention to topic headings, bold-faced
words, pictures, charts, and graphs. These can give you
an idea of the general structure and content before you
begin reading.
2.Question - Set a purpose for your reading by
developing questions about the material. Use
the topic and heading information you gathered in
the survey step to create questions to be answered.
Begin asking yourself who, what, where, when, why,
and how questions. Questions are most beneficial
when they are general, covering main topics and
important points.
3. Read - Break the material into sections that will take
about. 20 minutes to read (often the chapter is
already broken into sections which will work just fine).
Read the material section by section. Look for
answers to your questions, key concepts, and
supporting details. Study charts, graphs, tables, and
pictures. These can serve to present new information
as well as tie together concepts from the reading.
4. Respond - After each section, think about the
material you have just read and answer the
questions you have asked. This can be done at the
same time as the reading step, since often
response is automatic. The main point of this step
is to think about the material, and take notice of
what is important.
5. Record - Go back and underline key concepts and take
notes. This can be done on a separate sheet of paper, on
note cards, in the margins of the textbook, or any way that
works well for you. (Do this after each section.)

6. Recite - Next, look away from the material and try to

recite the key information and ideas. Put the material in
your own words and go back and re-read until you feel
comfortable with it. This may be frustrating at first, but it
will lead to better understanding and save you review
time in the long run. (Do this after each section.)
7.Review-After completing the entire chapter, scan back
over the reading and review the information aloud or
in your head. Talk about the material with a classmate
if possible. Try to identify overall themes and
relationships between concepts. Make any necessary
revisions of your notes or markings so they can be
easily understood later
 Now that you know about the SQ5R method for reading
textbooks, e next step is to use this strategy while reading your
next assignment. elow are some additional strategies you may
want to implement, rovided by the writing center of Cleveland
State University:

1. Prepare to become part of the writer's audience - After all,

authors design texts for specific audiences, and becoming a
member of the target audience makes it easier to get at the
author's purpose. Learn about the author, the history of the
author and the text, the author's anticipated audience; read
introductions and notes.
2.Prepare to read with an open mind-Critical readers seek
knowledge; they do not "rewrite" a work to suit their own
personalities. Your task as an enlightened critical reader is to
read what is on the page, giving the writer a fair chance to
develop ideas and allowing yourself to reflect thoughtfully;
objectively, on the text.

3.Consider the title - This may seem obvious, but the title may
provide clues to the writer's attitude, goals, personal
viewpoint, or approach.
4.Read slowly Again, this appears obvious, but it is a factor in
a "close reading." By slowing down, you will make more
connections within the text..

5. Use the dictionary and other appropriate reference works -

If there is a word in the text that is not clear or difficult to
define in context, look it up. Every word is important, and if
part of the text is thick with technical terms, it is doubly
important to know how the author is using them.
6.Make notes-Jot down marginal notes, underline and highlight,
write down ideas in a notebook, do whatever works for your
own personal taste. Note for yourself the main ideas, the
thesis, and the author's main points to support the theory.
Writing while reading aids your memory in many ways,
especially by making a link that is unclear in the text concrete
in your own writing.

7.Keep a reading journal. In addition to note taking, it is often

helpful to regularly record your responses and thoughts in a
more permanent place that is yours to consult. By developing
a habit of reading and writing in conjunction, both skills will
improve.
g.) Jot down marginal notes, underline and highlight, write
down ideas in a notebook, do whatever works for your own
personal taste.

h.) In addition to note taking, it is often helpful to regularly

record your responses and thoughts in a more permanent place
that is yours to consult.

i.) If there is a word in the text that is not clear or difficult to

define in context: look it up.

j.) Critical readers seek knowledge; they do not "rewrite" a work

to suit their own personalities.
k.) By slowing down, you will make more connections within the
text.

l.) By doing this, you will be able to look for answers to your
questions, key concepts, and supporting details.

m.) After completing the entire chapter, scan back over the
reading and review the information aloud or in your head.

n.) A study method that is use as an effective way to become an

active reader

0.) A psychologist of Ohio State University developed the SQ3R

method in 1941.
Explicit and Implicit Claims in a Text

Reading comprehension skills hinge on a student's ability to

comprehend information from a text. Such information can be
presented explicitly or implicitly. The goal for this lesson is to
support student's thinking using textual evidence when they
read. In order to prepare for this lesson and future lessons, there
are three vocabulary words that you are responsible for knowing:
explicit, implicit, and inference.
 According to Stephanie Mitchell (2013), the word "explicit"
means clear and fully expressed. If something is explicit, there
is no question as to what it means, no hidden connotations and
no room for misunderstanding. If a fact is explicit in a reading
comprehension passage, it is stated outright. For example, if the
first sentence of a story is "It was a dark and stormy night," that
is an explicit fact. There is no room for debate; the reader
cannot be confused and think that the story is set on a sunny
morning.
 If something is implicit, it is not expressly stated, but
the reader understands it anyway through other clues in
the text. For example, if a story begins with "The trees
were swaying wildly outside Anne's window as she
prepared for bed, and the gutters were overflowing," the
reader can infer that it is probably dark, stormy and at
night even though these facts are not explicitly stated.
Implicit facts in reading comprehension also often
involve the motivations of the characters (Mitchell,
2013).
 Making an inference involves using what you know to make a
guess about what you don't know, or reading between the lines.
Readers who make inferences use the clues in the text along
with their own experiences to help them figure out what are not
directly said, making the text personal and memorable. Helping
students make texts memorable will help them gain more
personal pleasure from reading, read the text more critically, and
remember and apply what they have read. For example, if you
see someone eating a new food and he or she makes a face,
then you infer he does not like it. Or if someone slams a door,
you can infer that she is upset about something
 A good reader has two voices going on inside their minds as
they read. First, the reader read their words from the text. The
first voice that you start hearing in your mind is your reading.
After you read the text, the voice inside your head is actually
hearing the word; you interact with the text as you read the
words. While you read you also have your thinking voice
going- this is the second voice that a successful reader has
(Armentrout, 2013).
 Really?? 32 muscles each?
A cat has 32 muscle in I only have 6 muscles in
each ear. each. Hmmm...! wonder
how many are there in a
dog…
To Summarize:

Explicit clearly - stated so there is no room for confusion or

questions. Something you know is going to happen because
they said it was going to happen.

Implicit - this is implied or suggested, but not clearly stated.

An unwritten instruction they never said they were going to
do, but the action and manners said differently.
Implicit and Explicit Exercise Sample

Here is a passage provided by Quipper School (2016) and

how you identify the explicit and implicit information in a text:

"Once upon a time as a merchant set off for market, he

asked each of his three daughters what she would like as a
present on his return. The first daughter wanted a brocade
dress, the second a pearl necklace, but the third, whose name
said to her father: "All I'd like is a rose you've picked specially
was Beauty, the youngest, prettiest and sweetest of them all, for
me Beauty and the Beast. fairy tale
Identifying the implicit and explicit statement:

• The youngest daughter was the most modest (implicit).

• The youngest daughter was the most beautiful of them all

(explicit).

• Merchant wanted to buy gifts for his daughters (implicit).

• The youngest daughter wanted a rose (explicit).

• The name of the youngest daughter was Beauty (explicit).

Here is another passage you can work on for the next activity.

“The Shinawatra family is trying to eat healthy meals, but it is

difficult. Both Mr. and Mrs. Shinawatra work all day, and they
are tired when they get home. They also have two young sons
who need a lot of attention. Their oldest son is seven years old
and the younger son is nine months old. It is difficult for the
Shinawatras to plan healthy family meals when they have such
a busy schedule. Lately, the family has been eating fast food
that Mr. Shinawatra picks up on the way home from work. This
is a bad habit, and the Shinawatras are worried that their
children will develop poor eating habits. They want to start
eating healthy homemade meals".
THREE MAJOR KINDS OF CLAIMS

1. Claim of Fact

Claim of Fact asserts that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist. It
is based on facts or data that the audience will accept as being objectively
verifiable. Claim of facts are non-negotiable. Claims of fact make
statements about, for example:

• states of being/not being ("there is a full moon out tonight)

• aspects/attributes of things ("that barn is red/large/old/ empty")

• the state of affairs ("the roadway is busy today).

Generally speaking, we think of claims of fact as either being true or
false.

2. Claim of Value

Claim of Value attempt to prove that some things are more or less
desirable than others. It expresses approval or disapproval or taste and
morality. It makes a judgment and attempt to prove some action, belief,
or condition is right or wrong, good or bad.

Claim of Value can be attacked or defended on basis of standards

that measure worth of an action, belief, or object. These are decided
based on establishing the merits of preferable modes of behavior
(instrumental values) or ultimate goals (terminal values).
Here are some instances:

• "This is a beautiful watch" (we will argue about the relative

beauty of the watch, whether than argue about whether it's a
watch) .

• "Talking behind someone's back is irresponsible" (we will

argue about whether gossip is responsible communication).

• "Committed relationships are preferable to youthful

indiscretions" (we will argue about the value of mature love).
 Two general areas in which people most often disagree
about matters of value:

• Aesthetics - study of beauty and the fine arts. Controversies

over works of art range fiercely among experts and
laypeople alike.

• Morality - value claims about morality express judgments

about the rightness or wrongness of conduct or belief.
Disagreements are as wide and deep as in the arts, and
more significant. Although a write and their reader may
share many values, there are still many others they may
disagree on.
 In formulating value claims, you should be prepared to
ask and answer questions about the way in which your
value claims and those of others have been arrived at

Although you cannot make someone believe what you

believe, you can give good reasons to express your
opinion. Claims of value depend on acceptance of the
value by the audience and their agreement to the relative
evaluation level assigned to the subject/ object. It can be
a simple expression of taste or likes and dislikes, and the
Latin proverb "De gustibus non estdisputandum" means
we cannot dispute taste.
3. Claim of Policy

Claim of Policy asserts that specific plans or courses

of action should be instituted as solutions to problems.
Almost always "should" or "ought to" or "must" is
expressed or implied in the claim. Claims of policy
respond to the common English sentence: Who should
Do What? Claims of policy propose that specific action
should be undertaken/completed by specific entities. For
example:
 "Bradley University should replace the current library with a
new building"

"Students at Bradley should be able to miss classes without

penalty (faculty should not consider attendance in grading at
Bradley)." [It's usually better to state a policy claim in the
affirmative rather than the negative, though both happen!

"Bradley students should develop and execute disciplined study

skills during their time at university."
In defending a claim of policy, have to do a few steps:

• Make a factual claim

• Refer to values that support claim

• Then introduce policy to show why your solution will

solve the problem
 A major mistake that can be made is ignoring the opinions of
others. You can only support your own idea if you can
acknowledge the other person's perspective

• Keep audience in mind

• Must consider what the audience can do about the situation

• Hope to accomplish to get the readers to consider the situation

or problem from your perspective

• Continue to think about "What do I want my readers to do or

think?"
To Sum Up!

These are claims you make about the reading after reading it:
Claim of fact, Claim of value, and Claim of policy.

Fact: "Experiments using animals are essential to the

development of many life-saving medical
procedures."

Value: "Animal experimentation benefits both humans and

animals."

Policy: "Experimental treatments should always be tested on

 It is important that you know when making claims are and
what kinds of claims you are making. Likewise, it's important to
be able to identify and evaluate the claims that others make,
particularly when you are searching for evidence in support of
your claims.

In both cases, it's crucial that the person making the claim
(presenting the argument) provides sufficient support to
establish their claim.
WHAT IS HYPERTEXT?

Hypertext is a method of organizing and accessing text or other data,

such as tables, presentational content and images, through the use of
hyperlinks. Hypertext is a non-linear way of presenting information that is
accomplished by creating "links" between information. These links are
provided so that readers may "jump" to further information about a
specific topic being discussed (which may have more links, leading each
reader off into a different direction). For instance, if you are reading an
article about marine mammal bioacoustics, you may be interested in
seeing a picture of a dolphin. Or you may want to hear the sound it
makes. Or you may even be interested in seeing what a marine mammal
sound "looks like" in a spectrogram. You might even want to find out more
about sounds made by other animals in the sea, thus leading you on a
completely different, detailed path (Amaral, 2016).
A Brief History of Hypertext

Hypertext is a concept proposed by Vannevar Bush,

the head of the Office of Scientific Research and
Development during World War II, through a method of
cataloguing and retrieving information prophetically. He
hypothesized a photoelectric mechanical device called a
Memex (for "memory extension") that could create and
follow links between microfiche documents.
 Since then, researchers have carried on the ideals of
hypertext in a digital arena. Doug Engelbart was the first to be
influenced by Bush's concepts of associative links and browsing
in the early 1960s. His system, Augment, stores information in a
sophisticated hierarchical structure allowing non-hierarchical
branching. To make viewing easier and increase user speed, he
also developed the "mouse" and viewing filters. But it was Ted
Nelson who coined the term "hypertext" to mean non-sequential
writing. His publishing system released in 1989, Xanadu,
attempted to hold the world's literary treasures under one roof. It
interconnected linked electronic documents and other forms of
media, such as movies, audio, and graphics( Amaral, 2016).
Why Use Hypertext?

In general, humans learn better associatively, that is, we are

better able to figure out material if we are allowed to move at
our own pace, investigating that which interests us, and
stimulating more senses through multimedia.

As Bush says in "Classic Technology," "All our steps in

creating or absorbing material of the record proceed through
one or the senses the tactile when we touch keys, the oral when
we speak or listen, the visual when we read. Is it not possible
that someday the path may be established more directly?"
 Also, hypertext operates very similar to the way our brains do-in a
series of networks, or associations--as opposed to a linear path.
"Hypertext software provides for the human element in the management
of information...Since hypertext analogizes the way our minds normally
work (that is, not in a straight line but in several dimensions at once),
hypertext can be considered a thought machine.

The ability for people to learn more, or at least learn more pleasurably
through hypertext, has been demonstrated again and again through
testing. Researchers at the University of Texas Medical School at
Houston, for example, created self-instructional electronic texts in aplastic
anemia, and compared students who used the electronic texts to those
who used traditional learning methods. While test scores showed no
significant difference in retention, time spent in study of the multimedia
program was on average 15 minutes longer than for the syllabus.
 As Pat Ward and Kristopher Davis wrote in an article
presented at the Second International WWW Conference, "In
the midst of an information driven society, tomorrow's
educational system must provide an environment where
students are actively involved in learning and have action to
the world's information sources...Students encouraged to
develop critical thinking skills, creativity, problem-soIving
approaches and cooperation are actively engaged in their
own learning" ("Empowering Students in the Information
Age," 10/94).
 And because the author is no longer in control over what path
a reader will take, hypertext creates an environment for
independent critical thinking. In a sense, the readers are also the
"writers of the material, by making connections themselves. And
making those connections on their own, pulling together different
bits of information and creating a whole new meaning, entails
critical thinking (Amaral, 2016).
WHAT IS INTERTEXT?

Intertext is the shaping of text's meaning by another text.

Example: Author's borrowing and transforming of a prior text
and a reader's referencing of one text in reading another.

Once a connection has been drawn, it helps understand a

character and story at hand (Meier, 2014)
 If you borrow phrases and concepts from other works
in your own, then you're using intertextuality, perhaps
even without knowing it. Intertextuality is, thus, a way of
accounting for the role of literary and extra-literary
materials without recourse to traditional notions of
authorship. Intertextuality denotes the way in which texts
(any text, not just literature) gain meaning through their
referencing or evocation of other texts (Novak, 2013).
 In a broad sense, intertextuality is the reference to or
application of a literary, media, or social "text" within
another literary, media, or social "text." In literature,
intertextuality is when a book refers to a second book by
title, scene, character, or storyline, or when a book refers
to a social "text" such as a media, social, or cultural story
(Lemaster, 2012).

A literary work, then, is not simply the product of a

single author, but of its relationship to other texts and to
the structures of language itself.
Brief history of Intertextuality

Derived from the Latin intertexto, meaning to intermingle

while weaving, Intertextuality is a term first introduced by
French semiotician Julia Kristeva in the late sixties (Keep et. al,
2000). Her invention was a response to Ferdinand de
Saussure's theory and his claim that signs gain their meaning
through structure in a particular text. She opposed his to her
own, saying that readers are always influenced by other texts,
sifting through their archives, when reading a new one. Since
then it's been widely accepted by postmodern literary critics
and theoreticians Novak, 2013).
Functions of Intertextuality (according to Lemaster)

1.Comparison-Intertextuality involves an implicit

comparison by putting two "texts" together. When
literature references another text, we are asked to
draw from our knowledge of the text in its original form,
and compare this to how it is being used, changed, or
reframed by the primary book. Intertextuality functions
on comparison, and contrast of similarities and
differences.
2.Dialogue Intertextuality invites a conversational
dialogue between two "texts." Because both the
primary book and its intertext are narratives, rather
than static items or images, we can engage the full
storyline that each contains to create a narrative
conversation. Sometimes, the two narratives are very
different and can therefore create competing
dialogues about which is dominant, or most important.
3.Destabilization - Intertextuality can sometimes
destabilize, or shake up our understanding of, the
original text being referenced or a scene or idea in the
primary book. The original text may be a "story" that
most feel very familiar with, but its use or reframing by
the primary book changes our feelings or reveals
something new about this original story. Conversely,
the book may be presenting a scene, character, or
argument that we feel we are beginning to understand
when it is disrupted and destabilized by entry of this
intertext.
Effects of Intertextaulity (according to Lemaster)

1.Transformation of the Primary Book - The first influence

intertexuality can have is on a reader's understanding of the
primary book. This is a matter of evaluating effect on the book
at hand. Why does the primary book choose this similar or
dissimilar intertext, where is it used, how does it add to or
change our understanding of the scene it is in, and how does
it evoke important arguments the book is making overall?
2.Transformation of a Prior Text - Intertextuality can also
influence our understanding of the original text, causing
us to "reflexively" re-read, or reconsider, our
understanding of the original text. Even if the outside
text is not being reworded or rewritten in any way, by
placing it in a new book, the outside text is reframed
and therefore changed. Does the author explicitly or
implicitly change the intertext from its original form and
in what ways?
3.Reinterpretation of Both Intertextuality can create a
simultaneous re-reading of both the primary book and
its intertext. This involves a back-and-forth re- reading
of each text based on what their similarities and
differences reveal about one another.