Competentcy No. 1: 1 - © Electro Technical Officer's Department, Coimbatore Marine College

COMPETENTCY No.
Monitoring the Operation of Electrical, Electronic &

Control Systems
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© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Auxiliary Machines
Aux.Engine shut down safeties :
 Emergency stop,
 engine controls.
 off/ reset.
 auto, manual start.
 Cool down, annunciation,
 low oil pressure shutdown and alarm,
 high jacket water temperature shutdown and alarm,
 engine over-speed shutdown,
 low jacket water pressure alarm,
 low jacket water level alarm,
 high oil temperature alarm,
 low starting air pressure alarm;
 alarm acknowledgement;
 lamp test;
 start/run contact;
 voltage adjust potentiometer;
 speed raise/lower contacts;
 signal outputs — alarms,
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 shutdowns, engine running, engine controls, magnetic pickup
Alarm monitoring and logging Systems
The alarm and monitoring system is a part of the marine automation system.
The main purpose of the system is to give ship's officers all the basic alarm
and status information they require to maintain safe and efficient operation of
the machinery and other related equipment.
Alarm and logging functions
The logging printer and the colour graphics display records all status
changes, such as alarm acknowledgements and alarm condition cleared.
When all alarm conditions are cleared, the system returns to normal. Alarm
limits and delays are adjustable by using the Operator Panel. A counter
function keeps track of running hours for engines, pumps and related items.
This function can also accumulate flow. Counter values are shown on the
colour graphics display or may be printed.
Alarms and other information is presented either as lists or graphic displays
on the operator stations or local operator stations. To record alarms and
events a number of different logging options are available including complete
log, alarm summary log, group log, etc.
Alarm and monitoring system benefits

 Alarm detection with visual and acoustic alarm indication
 Alarm groups, summary & history
 Alarm extension system for bridge & cabins for UMS operation
 Exhaust Gas temperature monitoring
 Inhibit of alarms (alarm block)
 Colour graphic presentation
 Logging of alarms and events to printer
 Running hours & counters
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Boilers Alarm and trip functions
Boilers Alarm and Trip Functions
The most important alarm and trip functions on marine boilers

Function Audible and visual Action
Low water level Alarm
Low Low water level * Alarm Burner stop
High water level Alarm
Feed water pump
High High water level Alarm
stop
Alarm (overridden on slave
Low steam pressure
boiler?)
High steam pressure Alarm Burner stop
Stand-by pump
Low feed water pressure Alarm
start
Stand-by pump
Low fuel oil pressure Alarm
start
Low fuel oil temperature Alarm
High fuel oil temperature Alarm
Low combustion air
Alarm Burner stop
pressure
Low atomizing steam
Alarm Burner stop
pressure
Alarm (overridden during light-
Flame failure ** Burner stop
up)
Burner not in firing position
Alarm Burner stop
* This function requires two independent level switches connected electrically in series. One of the switches
may be a limit switch on the level control transmitter's measuring signal.
**This function requires two independent flame detectors and their switches connected electrically in series.
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Possibility to distinguish between flame failures occurring during the burner's start-up sequence and flame
failures that occur during normal firing would be a great advantage.
INCINERATOR
Stricter legislation with regard to pollution of the sea, limits and, in some
instances, completely bans the discharge of untreated waste water, sewage,
waste oil and sludge. The ultimate situation of no discharge can be achieved
by the use of a suitable incinerator. When used in conjunction with a sewage
plant and with facilities for burning oil sludge, the incinerator forms a
complete waste disposal package.
One type of incinerator for shipboard use is shown in Figure 11. The
combustion chamber is a vertical cylinder lined with refractory material. An
auxiliary oil-fired burner is used to ignite the refuse and oil sludge and is
thermostatically controlled to minimise fuel consumption. A sludge burner is
used to dispose of oil sludge, water and sewage sludge and works in
conjunction with the auxiliary burner. Combustion air is provided by a forced
draught fan and swirls upwards from tangential ports in the base. A rotating-
arm device accelerates combustion and also clears ash and non-combustible
matter into an ash hopper. The loading door is interlocked to stop the fan and
burner when opened.
Solid material usually in sacks, is burnt by an automatic cycle of operation.

Liquid waste is stored in a tank, heated and then pumped to the sludge
burner where it is burnt in an automatic cycle. After use the ash box can be
emptied overboard.
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Main engine monitoring systems
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Marine Engine monitoring systems consist of bearing monitoring components
covering Bearing Wear, Water in Oil, Temperature of all bearings and
additional measuring points such as Cylinder liner and exhaust gas
temperature.
Software & system components are common with the K-Chief 600 marine
automation system and the AutoChief C20 propulsion control system,
allowing integration and joined support. Data transfer via CAN bus forms the
bases for easy communication with other KONGSBERG systems.
Available Engine monitoring systems:
 Bearing wear monitoring system
 Crosshead & crank temperature monitoring - SENTRY®
 Cylinder liner monitoring system
 Main bearing temperature sensors
 Torque & power measurement system for rotating shafts – Meta Power
 Water in oil sensor
 Modular and scalable concept
Systems may easily be extended by adding additional hardware units such as

operator stations, input/output modules and additional measuring points.
Kongsberg System Technology offers signal acquisition and processing units
for installation in ER cabinets, ECR consoles or mounted directly on the
engine. Processing algorithms are executed within the local acquisition units
or in the powerful controller units. By distribution and segregation the
consequences of a system fault are reduced and may even be eliminated.
The Kongsberg Engine Monitoring Systems concept yields a modular design,
where the various modules can be configured and combined to suit individual
needs. The individualised Engine Monitoring systems can then be integrated
with Kongsberg K-Chief and AutoChief C20 system. Each module is fully
compatible with each other and therefore provides seamless information
sharing and a consistent operation environment. Essential components such
as bearing wear sensors and wireless temperature sensors yield the best
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results that technology has to offer in terms of reliability, accuracy and
durability. By utilizing the CAN field bus protocol for engine instrumentation,
installation costs are reduced and the quality of data processing enhanced.
Bearing Wear Monitoring System - BWCM is designed according to the

specifications of MAN Diesel and Germanischer Lloyd (GL). The BWCM
system is one of the required systems in order to avoid open up inspections.
The following systems are part of a class survey arrangement:
 BWCM system
 Water in Oil sensor
 Shaft Earthing Device (owner or yard supply)
 Computerized Planned Maintenance System (owner or yard supply)
Oily water separators
Oil/water separators are used to ensure that ships do not discharge oil when
pumping out bilges, oil tanks or any oil-contaminated space. International
legislation relating to oil pollution is becoming more and more stringent in the
limits set for oil discharge. Clean water suitable for discharge is defined as
that containing less than 15 parts per million of oil. Oil/water separators using
the gravity system can only achieve 100 parts per million and must therefore
be used in conjunction with some form of filter.
A complete oil/water separator and filter unit for 15 parts per million purity is
shown in Figure 8. The complete unit is first filled with clean water; the oily
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water mixture is then pumped through the separator inlet pipe into the coarse
separating compartment. Here some oil, as a result of its lower density, will
separate and rise into the oil collection space. The remaining oil/water
mixture now flows down into the fine separating compartment and moves
slowly between the catch plates.
More oil will separate out onto the underside of these plates and travel
outwards until it is free to rise into the oil collecting space. The almost oil-free
water passes into the central pipe and leaves the separator unit. The purity at
this point will be 100 parts per million or less. An automatically controlled
valve releases the separated oil to a storage tank. Air is released from the
unit by a vent valve. Steam or electric heating coils are provided in the upper
and sometimes the lower parts of the separator, depending upon the type of
oil to be separated. Where greater purity is required, the almost oil-free water
passes to a filter unit. The water flows in turn through two filter stages and the
oil removed passes to oil collecting spaces. The first-stage filter removes
physical impurities present and promotes some fine separation. The
Figure 8 Oily water separator

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second-stage filter uses coalescer inserts to achieve the final de-oiling.
Coalescence is the breakdown of surface tension between oil droplets in an
oil/water mixture which causes them to join and increase in size. The oil from
the collecting spaces is drained away manually, as required, usually about
once a week. The filter inserts will require changing, the period of useful life
depending upon the operating conditions. Current legislation requires the use
of a monitoring unit which continuously records and gives an alarm when
levels of discharge in excess of 15 parts per million occur.
Purifier
When a centrifuge is set up as a purifier,

a second outlet pipe is used for discharging water as shown. In the fuel oil
purifier, the untreated fuel contains a mixture of oil, solids and water, which
the centrifuge separates into three layers. While in operation, a quantity of
oil remains in the bowl to form a complete seal around the underside of the
top disc and, because of the density difference, confines the oil within the
outside diameter of the top disc.
As marine fuel oil normally contains a small quantity of water, it is necessary

to prime the bowl each time that it is run, otherwise all the oil will pass over
the water outlet side to waste. The water outlet is at greater radius than that
of the fuel. Within the water outlet there is a gravity disc, which controls the
radial position of the fuel water interface.
A set of gravity discs is supplied with each machine and the optimum size to
be fitted depends on the density of the untreated oil. When the fuel centrifuge
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is operating, particulate matter will accumulate on the walls of the bowl. If the
centrifuge is set as a clarifier, the particulate matter will be a combination of
water and solid material. If it is set as a purifier, the free water is continuously
discharged, therefore, the particulate matter will consist of solid material. In
older machines it is necessary to stop the centrifuge to manually clean the
bowl and disc stack, however, the majority of machines today can discharge
the bowl contents while the centrifuge is running.
Propulsion control system

The propulsion control system is designed for medium and low speed diesel
engines fitted with fixed or variable pitch propellers.
Propulsion control system components
 Control panel
 Engine telegraph unit
 Engine safety system
 Digital governor systemf

 Distributed processing units
 Reliable operation
 Bump less control transfer
 IE Engine order printer for immediate transfer of data
The propulsion control system uses reliable, ruggedized single board
distributed processing units. These can be placed where it is most
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convenient, considerably reducing cabling cost. The use of distributed
processing units and dual, redundant CAN field bus ensure reliable operation
and bump-less control transfer.
The propulsion control systems have common software & system
components with our engine monitoring systems, allowing integration and
joined support. Data transfer via CAN bus forms the bases for easy
communication with other systems.
Engine monitoring systems include:
 Bearing wear monitoring system
 Crosshead & crank temperature monitoring
 Cylinder liner monitoring system
 Main bearing temperature sensors
 Torque & power measurement system for rotating shafts
 Water in oil sensor
How is Power Generated and Supplied on a Ship

A ship is like a floating city with all the privileges enjoyed by any normal land
city. Just like a conventional city, the ship also requires all the basic amenities
to sustain life on board; the chief among them is power or electricity. In this
article we will learn as to how power is generated and supplied on board a
ship.
Power generation On board
Shipboard power is generated using a prime mover and an alternator working
together. For this an alternating current generator is used on board. The
generator works on the principle that when a magnetic field around a
conductor varies, a current is induced in the conductor.
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The generator consists of a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an
iron core. This is known as the stator. A rotating magnet called the rotor turns
inside this stator producing magnetic field. This field cuts across the
conductor, generating an induced EMF or electro-magnetic force as the
mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The magnetic field is generated by induction (in a brushless alternator) and
by a rotor winding energized by DC current through slip rings and brushes.
Few points to be noted about power on board are:
AC, 3 phase power is preferred over DC as it gives more power for the same
size.
3 phases is preferred over single phase as it draws more power and in the
event of failure of one phase, other 2 can still work.
Power Distribution on board

The Power Distributed on board a ship needs to be supplied efficiently
throughout the ship. For this the power distribution system of the ship is used.
A shipboard distribution system consists of different component for
distribution and safe operation of the system. They are:
 Ship Generator consisting of prime mover and alternator.
 Main switch board is a metal enclosure taking power from the diesel
generator and supplying it to different machinery.
 AlarmBus Bars act as a carrier and allow transfer of load from one
point to another. Circuit breakers which act as a switch and in unsafe
condition can be tripped to avoid breakdown and accidents.
 Fuses as safety device for machinery.
 Transformers to step up or step down the voltage. When supply is to be
given to the lighting system a step down transformer is used in the
distribution system.
In a power distribution system, the voltage at which the system works is
usually 440v.
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There are some large installations where the voltage is as high as 6600v.
Power is supplied through circuit breakers to large auxiliary machinery at high
voltage.
For smaller supply fuse and miniature circuit breakers are used.
The distribution system is three wires and can be neutrally insulated or
earthed.
Insulated system is more preferred as compare to earthed system because
during an earth fault essential machinery such as steering gear can be lost.
Emergency Power
In case of the failure of the main power generation system on the ship, an
emergency power system or a standby system is also present. The
emergency power supply ensures that the essential machinery and system
continues to operate the ship.
Emergency power can be supplied by batteries or an emergency generator or
even both systems can be used.
Rating of the emergency power supply should be made in such a way that it
provides supply to the essential systems of the ship such as
a) Steering gear system
b) Emergency bilge and fire p/p
c) Watertight doors.
d) Fire fighting system.
e) Ships navigation lights and emergency lights.
f) Communication and system.
Emergency generator is normally located outside the machinery space of the
ship. This is done mainly to avoid those emergency situations wherein access
to the engine room is not possible. A switch board in the emergency
generator room supplies power to different essential machinery.
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Ships power generation equipment & distribution system
The complete electrical plant on board ship is made up of power generation equipment, a distribution
system and the many power utilising devices. Electricity is used for the motor drive of many
auxiliaries and also for deck machinery, lighting, ventilation and air conditioning equipment.
A constant supply of electricity is essential for safe ship and machinery operation, and therefore
standby or additional capacity is necessary together with emergency supply equipment. Emergency
equipment may take the form of an automatically starting emergency alternator or storage batteries
may be used.
The complete range of electrical equipment will include generators, switch gear for control and
distribution, motors and their associated starting equipment and emergency supply arrangements.
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Alternating or direct current
Alternating current has now all but replaced direct current as the standard supply for all marine
installations. The use of alternating current has a number of important advantages: for example,
reduced first cost, less weight, less space required and a reduction in maintenance requirements.
Direct current does, however, offer advantages in motor control using, for example, the Ward-
Leonard system which provides a wide range of speed.
Machine rating
Motors and generators, both d.c. and a.c., are rated as Continuous Maximum Rated (CMR)
machines. This means they can accept a considerable momentary overload and perhaps even a
moderate overload for a longer duration.
Temperature affects the performance of all electrical equipment and also the useful life of the
insulation and thus the equipment itself. The total temperature of an operating machine is a result of
the ambient air temperature and the heating effect of current in the windings, Temperature rise is
measured above this total temperature. Adequate ventilation of electrical equipment is therefore
essential. Classification Societies have set requirements for the various classes of insulation. The
usual classes for marine installations are E, B and F where particular insulation materials are
specified and increasing temperature rises allowed in the order stated.
Enclosures
Depending upon the location, a motor or generator will have one of a number of possible types of
enclosure. 'Drip-proof is most common and provides protection from falling liquids or liquids being
drawn in by ventilating air. A 'watertight enclosure' provides protection for immersion under a low
head of water for up to one hour.
'Weatherproof, 'hose proof and 'deck watertight' provide immersion protection for only one minute.
'Totally enclosed' can also be used or an arrangement providing ducted ventilation from outside the
machinery space. A 'flameproof enclosure is capable of withstanding an explosion of some particular
flammable gas that may occur within it. It must also stop the transfer of flame, i.e. contain any fire or
explosion.
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Ship power plants, systems and electrical facilities
Ship power supply system consists of ship power plant and auxiliary systems. In accordance with the
most popular classification, power plants can be classified by source of energy (diesel, nuclear, etc)
or operational principle (steam, turbine, etc).
The most commonly encountered type is diesel power plant. It is used at 90% of ships. In addition to
high power, it has a relatively small dimension which is very important in the sea. Other plants (gas
and steam turbine or nuclear plant) also have their own strong points and are used at various ships.
Altogether, selection of optimum ship power plant depends on type, dimensions, proposed
characteristics and conditions of operation of a vessel.
Scientists permanently improve existing engines and design new ones. As in other fields of activities,
the issue of alternative energy sources is of current interest. Besides, they work on waste quantity
reduction and enhancement of accumulator use.
Ship power plants
Usually steam engines, steam- and gas-driven turbines as well as internal combustion engines
(basically diesel-driven) are used as ship power plants. Atomic power plants are used at large and
powerful special-purpose vessels, for example, at icebreakers. More information…
A propulsion system is an executive element of the main power plant consisting of propulsion
devices, shaft lines, main marine gears and main propelling engines. In this section, the information
is provided on companies engaged in manufacturing such systems and their components. More
information
Ship power plant (SPP) consists of main propulsion plant driving the vessel and auxiliary plants
ensuring power, steam and desalinated water supply. SPP is a complex of main and auxiliary
engines, sources of energy, various mechanisms and systems.
A propulsion system is an executive element of the main power plant consisting of propulsion
devices, shaft lines, main marine gears and main propelling engines. In this section, the information
is provided on companies engaged in manufacturing such systems and their components.
Ship power plant (SPP) consists of main propulsion plant driving the vessel and auxiliary plants
ensuring power, steam and desalinated water supply. SPP is a complex of main and auxiliary
engines, sources of energy, various mechanisms and systems.
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Electrical Grounding On Ships
We all know about 3-phase 4-wire system which is commonly used in shore. But let’s know what kind
of unique system we use on board ships. Know why we use such unique type of grounding system
on board ships? The Earthing /Grounding system which provides double-safety on board ships.
How Earthing Works on Shore
Before delving into ship grounding, let us study about shore grounding to have a basic understanding
of the concept. In shore we use 3-phase 4-wire systems, in which 3 wires are representing each
phase and 4th wire is neutral which carries the return current. The neutral is earthed at many places
for the safety of human beings against shocks. If any conductor carrying current has its insulation
failure, then if the conductor comes in contact with the metal enclosure part of the machinery, then it
may cause voltage accumulation, leading to shock to human beings which is highly fatal. Thus to
maintain the safety of human beings against the accidents due to circuit failures, the neutral is
earthed at various places like transformers, distribution sub-stations etc. This makes the equipment
to automatically get out of supply by tripping the protection devices.
Insulated Neutral System--The Reason for Using it Onboard for Ship grounding
The requirement ashore is the safety of human beings. So, in order to prevent human-electrical
accidents, the neutral is earthed. The priority is neither the safety of the machinery nor the
continuous necessary operation of the machinery. But the scenario onboard ship is totally different.
The priority is the continuous operation of the machineries which are classed "essential". The
distribution system followed onboard is "insulated neutral" system. The main priority onboard is the
safety of ship which includes navigation & fire safety etc. If due to earth fault, the machinery classed
as "essential" gets isolated, say for e.g: steering gear, then the safety of ship is at question, which
may lead to collision, grounding, fire & pollution etc..So the priority onboard ship is to maintain the
continuity of the supply to the machinery in the event of "single earth fault occurring".
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A basic circuit consist essentially of Two parts:
1. The Conductor--which carried the current around the circuit.
2. The Insulation---which keeps the current inside the conductor.
Only 2 types of circuit faults can occur. Either break in the insulation or break in the conductor.
The break in the conductor leads to non-flow of current in the circuit. A break in the insulation leads
to an earth fault, allowing the conductor to touch the hull or earthed metal enclosure.
A short-circuit fault is due to the double break in the insulation, allowing both conductors to get
connected, thus a very high current passes through, by-passing the load.
A majority of earth faults occurs within the equipment. Generally insulation failure occurs which leads
to the conductor getting in contact with the body of the metal enclosure. When such earth faults
happen, the metal enclosure of the equipment if not earthed, it would cause a heavy shock, and may
result in fire accidents too.
SIGNIFICANCE OF EARTH FAULTS:
If an earth fault occurs in an "earthed distribution system", it would be equivalent

to a "short-circuit" fault across the load via ship's hull. The resulting large earth fault current will
immediately "blow-up" the fuses in the line. Thus the equipment is isolated from the supply and thus
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rendered safe. This may result in hazardous situation, if the equipment is classed as "essential" for
eg: steering gear. Thus the "earthed distribution system" requires only one earth fault on the line
conductor to cause an earth fault current to flow.
If the earth fault occurs in "insulated neutral distribution system", will not cause any equipment to go
out of operation and thus maintains the continuity of operation of the equipment. This point is to be
noted," the machinery still continues to operate". Thus a single earth fault will not provide a complete
circuit for the fault current to flow.
If a second earth fault occurs, then the two earth faults together would be equivalent to a short circuit
fault ( via ship’s hull) thus resulting large current would operate the protection devices, cause
disconnection of, perhaps, essential services creating a risk to the safety of the ship.
An insulated neutral distribution system requires two earth faults on two different lines to cause an
earth fault current to flow. Thus an insulated neutral system, is therefore, more effective than an
earthed system in maintaining continuity of supply to equipments. Hence it is adopted for
most marine electrical systems.
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CARGO-HANDLING EQUIPMENT ON BOARD AND IN PORT
The form of cargo-handling equipment employed is basically determined by the nature of the actual
cargo and the type of packing used. The subject of handling facilities raises the important question of
mechanization.
BULK CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT
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So far as dry bulk cargoes are concerned, handling facilities may be in the form
of power-propelled conveyor belts, usually fed at the landward end by a hopper (a
very large container on legs) or grabs, which may be magnetic for handling ores,
fixed to a high capacity travel1ing crane or travel1ing gantries. These gantries
move not only parallel to the quay, but also run back for considerable distances,
and so cover a large stacking area, and are able to plumb the ship's hold. These
two types of equipment are suitable for handling coal and ores. In the case of bulk
sugar or when the grab is also used, the sugar would be discharged into a hopper,
feeding by gravity a railway wagon or road vehicle below.
Elevators (US) or silos are normally associated with grain. They may be operated
by pneumatic suction which sucks the grain out of the ship's hold.
LIQUID CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT
The movement of liquid bulk cargo, crude oil and derivatives, from the tanker is undertaken by
means of pipelines connected to the shore-based storage tanks. Pumping equipment is provided in
the tanker storage plant or refinery ashore, but not on the quayside. In view of the dangerous nature
of such cargo, it is common practice to build the special berths a small distance from the main dock
system on the seaward side. Oil cargo is discharged from the ship’s tanks, via the cargo
piping system to the main ship’s manifold usually situated amidships, on either port or starboard side.
From there by means of shore-based loading arms oil is transferred to the shore manifold and is then
distributed to shore-based storage tanks on the oil terminal. The loading arm hose must be flanged
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oil-tight to the ship’s manifold so that oil spills can be avoided.
GENERAL CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT
With regard to general cargo (goods, merchandise, commodities), also referred to as break bulk
cargo, almost 90 percent of all such cargo in most liner cargo trades today is containerized.
Meanwhile the system of dockers handling cargo will continue, but doubtless every effort will be
made to expand the already extensive use of various types of mechanized cargo-handling
equipment. General cargo is handled by cranes on the quay, floating cranes or by the ship's own
cargo gear (deck cranes, derricks, etc.). Attached to such lifting gear is a shackle which links the
crane or derrick with the form of cargo-handling equipment being used. For most lifts a hook is used.
There are numerous types of tools or loose gear that can be attached to the shipboard or shore-
based lifting gear. They include the sling or strop, which is probably the most common form of loose
gear. Such equipment, generally made of rope, is ideal for hoisting strong packages, such as
wooden cases or bagged cargo, which is not likely to sag or be damaged when raised. Similarly,
snotters or canvas slings are suitable for bagged cargo. Chain slings, however, are used for heavy
slender cargoes, such as timber or steel rails. Can or barrel hooks are suitable for hoisting barrels or
drums. Cargo nets are suitable for mail bags and similar cargoes that are not liable to be crushed
when hoisted. Heavy lifting beams are suitable for heavy and long articles such as locomotives,
boilers or railway passenger coaches. Cargo trays and pallets, the latter being wooden or of steel
construction, are ideal for cargo of moderate dimensions, which can be conveniently stacked,
such as cartons, bags, or small wooden crates or cases.
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CRANES
Gantry cranes, bridge cranes, and overhead cranes, are all types of cranes which lift objects by
a hoist which is fitted in a hoist trolley and can move horizontally on a rail or pair of rails fitted under
a beam. An overhead travelling crane, also known as an overhead crane or as a suspended crane,
has the ends of the supporting beam resting on wheels running on rails at high level, usually on the
parallel side walls of a factory or similar large industrial building, so that the whole crane can move
the length of the building, while the hoist can be moved to and from across the width of the building.
A gantry crane or portal crane has a similar mechanism supported by uprights, usually with wheels at
the foot of the uprights allowing the whole crane to traverse. Some portal cranes may have only a
fixed gantry, particularly when they are lifting loads such as railway cargoes that are already easily
moved beneath them.
Overhead crane and gantry crane are particularly suited to lifting very heavy objects and huge gantry
cranes have been used for shipbuilding where the crane straddles the ship allowing massive objects
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like ships' engines to be lifted and moved over the ship. Two famous gantry cranes built in 1974 and
1969 respectively, are Samson and Goliath, which reside in the largest dry dock in the world in
Belfast, Northern Ireland. Each crane has a span of 140 metres and can lift loads of up to
840 tonnes to a height of 70 metres, making a combined lifting capacity of over 1,600 tonnes, one of
the largest in the world.
However; gantry cranes are also available running on rubber tyres so that tracks are not needed, and
small gantry cranes can be used in workshops, for example for lifting automobile engines out of
vehicles.
Steering Gear
The direction of the ship is controlled by the steering gear. As the ship
moves through the water, the angle of the rudder at the stern determines the
direction it will move. Modern ships are so big that moving the rudder
necessitates the use of hydraulics or electrical power.
The steering starts at the Bridge. The required rudder angle is transmitted
hydraulically or electrically from the steering wheel at the Bridge to the
telemotor at the steering gear, just above the rudder.
There are a few common arrangements for using hydraulic power. There are
the 4-rams, 2-rams, and rotary vane types. The heart of these hydraulic
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systems is the variable delivery
pump. This type of pump can be
controlled by just moving a spindle.
The pump is driven by an electrical
motor at constant speed. By moving
the control spindle away from the
central point, the pump stroke
increases, and the hydraulic fluid is
pumped in one direction. Moving the
spindle more from the central point will cause more fluid to be pumped and
consequently more pressure is generated to drive the rams. Moving the
control spindle back to the original position and then away in the opposite
direction causes the hydraulic fluid to be pumped in the reversed direction.
The rams will also move in the reversed direction.
By using a floating lever feedback mechanism, when the rudder stock has
reached the desired angle, the pump control lever moves back to the original
position, and the pumping action stops. The rudder is stopped at the
required angle. Moving the steering wheel to the opposite direction will
cause the rudder to come back to the original zero position.
Working principle of Anchor windlass
This marine hydraulic windlass is used for mooring the ship, compact structure, convenient
installation,
this marine hydraulic combined anchor windlass mostly driven by hydraulic pressure,
hydraulic pump provide motives for the system, promote the hydraulic motor running, pass to
the pinion gear which installed on motors axle end, pinion gear promote bull gear to slow
running. The bull gear connect with principal axis, principal axis running promote gypsy wheel
through hand-operated proportional valve to control hydraulic motors positive and reverse
rotation, speed-up and speed-down, accomplish the work of drop and weigh anchor.
It’s one side equipped with a windlass drum, which is used to roll mooring rope, when ship
mooring, through a clutch to accomplish the combine with principal axis, promote the
26 | P a g e

windlass drum running, accomplish the mooring gropes veer and haul action
The base is composed of high-strength steel plates welded together, turn parts bearing use
the copper of high quality. The install method of ship’s hull is connect with bolt, installation
convenience. It has sound structure, high quality making, low price, simple operation, suitable
for all kinds of small and medium-sized ship to moor and dock.
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COMPETENCY No. 2
Monitor the Operation of Electrical, Electronic & control
Systems (contd.)
28 | P a g e

Working principle of DOL Starter
The main heart of DOL starter is Relay Coil. Normally it gets one phase
constant from incoming supply Voltage (A1).when Coil gets second Phase
relay coil energizes and Magnet of Contactor produce electromagnetic field
and due to this Plunger of Contactor will move and Main Contactor of starter
will closed and Auxiliary will change its position NO become NC and NC
become (shown Red Line in Diagram)
.
Pushing Start Button
When We Push the start Button Relay Coil will get second phase from Supply
Phase-Main contactor (5)-Auxiliary Contact (53)-Start button-Stop button-96-
95-To Relay Coil (A2).Now Coil energizes and Magnetic field produce by
Magnet and Plunger of Contactor move. Main Contactor closes and Motor
gets supply at the same time Auxiliary contact become (53-54) from NO to
NC.
Release Start Button

Relay coil gets supply even though we release Start button. When we release
Start Push Button Relay Coil gets Supply phase from Main contactor (5)-
Auxiliary contactor (53) – Auxiliary contactor (54)-Stop Button-96-95-Relay
coil (shown Red / Blue Lines in Diagram).
In Overload Condition of Motor will be stopped by intermission of Control
circuit at Point 96-95.
Pushing Stop Button

When we push Stop Button Control circuit of Starter will be break at stop
button and Supply of Relay coil is broken, Plunger moves and close contact
of Main Contactor becomes Open, Supply of Motor is disconnected.
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Figure D.O.L Wiring Scheme
Star Delta Starter

Introduction to Star-Delta motor starter
Most induction motors are started directly on line, but when very large
motors are started that way, they cause a disturbance of voltage on the
supply lines due to large starting current surges. To limit the starting current
surge, large induction motors are started at reduced voltage and then have
full supply voltage reconnected when they run up to near rotated speed.
Working principle
This is the reduced voltage starting method. Voltage reduction during star-
delta starting is achieved by physically reconfiguring the motor windings as
illustrated in the figure below. During starting the motor windings are
connected in star configuration and this reduces the voltage across each
winding 3. This also reduces the torque by a factor of three.
30 | P a g e

Scheme - Working Principle of Star-Delta Starter
After a period of time the winding are reconfigured as delta and the
motor runs normally. Star/Delta starters are probably the most common
reduced voltage starters. They are used in an attempt to reduce the start
current applied to the motor during start as a means of reducing the
disturbances and interference on the electrical supply.
Traditionally in many supply regions, there has been a requirement to fit a
reduced voltage starter on all motors greater than 5HP (4KW). The
Star/Delta (or Wye/Delta) starter is one of the lowest cost electromechanical
reduced voltage starters that can be applied.
The Star/Delta starter is manufactured from three contactors, a timer and a
thermal overload. The contactors are smaller than the single contactor used
in a Direct on Line starter as they are controlling winding currents only. The
currents through the winding are 1/root 3 (58%) of the current in the line.
There are two contactors that are close during run, often referred to as the
main contractor and the delta contactor. These are AC3 rated at 58% of the
current rating of the motor. The third contactor is the star contactor and that
only carries star current while the motor is connected in star.
The current in star is one third of the current in delta, so this contactor can be
AC3 rated at one third (33%) of the motor rating.
Star-delta Starter Consists following units
1. Contactors (Main, star and delta contactors) 3 No’s (For Open State
Starter) or 4 No’s (Close Transient Starter).
2. Time relay (pull-in delayed) 1 No.
3. Three-pole thermal over-current release 1 No.
4. Fuse elements or automatic cut-outs for the main circuit 3 Nos.
5. Fuse element or automatic cut-out for the control circuit 1No.
31 | P a g e

Power Circuit of Star Delta Starter
The main circuit breaker serves as the main power supply switch that
supplies electricity to the power circuit.
The main contactor connects the reference source voltage R, Y, B to the
primary terminal of the motorU1, V1, W1.
In operation, the Main Contactor (KM3) and the Star Contactor (KM1) are
closed initially, and then after a period of time, the star contactor is opened,
and then the delta contactor (KM2) is closed. The control of the contactors is
by the timer (K1T) built into the starter. The Star and Delta are electrically
interlocked and preferably mechanically interlocked as well.
In effect, there are four states:
The star contactor serves to initially short the secondary terminal of the
motor U2, V2, W2 for the start sequence during the initial run of the motor
from standstill. This provides one third of DOL current to the motor, thus
reducing the high inrush current inherent with large capacity motors at start-
up.
Controlling the interchanging star connection and delta connection of an AC
induction motor is achieved by means of a star delta or wye delta control
circuit. The control circuit consists of push button switches, auxiliary contacts
and a timer.
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The ON push button starts the circuit by initially energizing Star Contactor
Coil (KM1) of star circuit and Timer Coil (KT) circuit. When Star Contactor
Coil (KM1) energized, Star Main and Auxiliary contactor change its position
from NO to NC.
When Star Auxiliary Contactor (1) (which is placed on Main Contactor coil
circuit ) become NO to NC it’s complete The Circuit of Main contactor Coil
(KM3) so Main Contactor Coil energized and Main Contactor’s Main and
Auxiliary Contactor Change its Position from NO to NC. This sequence
happens in a friction of time.
After pushing the ON push button switch, the auxiliary contact of the main
contactor coil (2) which is connected in parallel across the ON push button
will become NO to NC, thereby providing a latch to hold the main contactor
coil activated which eventually maintains the control circuit active even after
releasing the ON push button switch.
When Star Main Contactor (KM1) close its connect Motor connects on STAR
and it’s connected in STAR until Time Delay Auxiliary contact KT (3) become
NC to NO.
Once the time delay is reached its specified Time, the timer’s auxiliary
contacts (KT)(3) in Star Coil circuit will change its position from NC to NO
and at the Same Time Auxiliary contactor (KT) in Delta Coil Circuit(4)
change its Position from NO To NC so Delta coil energized and Delta Main
Contactor becomes NO To NC. Now motor terminal connection change from
star to delta connection.
A normally close auxiliary contact from both star and delta contactors
(5&6)are also placed opposite of both star and delta contactor coils, these
interlock contacts serves as safety switches to prevent simultaneous
activation of both star and delta contactor coils, so that one cannot be
activated without the other deactivated first. Thus, the delta contactor coil
cannot be active when the star contactor coil is active, and similarly, the star
contactor coil cannot also be active while the delta contactor coil is active.
The control circuit above also provides two interrupting contacts to shut
down the motor. The OFF push button switch break the control circuit and
the motor when necessary. The thermal overload contact is a protective
33 | P a g e

device which automatically opens the STOP Control circuit in case when
motor overload current is detected by the thermal overload relay, this is to
prevent burning of the motor in case of excessive load beyond the rated
capacity of the motor is detected by the thermal overload relay.
Auto transformer starter

.
An autotransformer starter makes it possible to start squirrel cage induction
motors with reduced starting current, as the voltage across the motor is
reduced during starting.
In contrast to the star delta connection only three motor leads and terminals
are required. On starting, the motor is connected to the tappings of the auto-
transformer; transformer contactor K2M and star contactor K1M are closed.
The motor starts at the voltage reduced by the transformer, with a
correspondingly smaller current.
(for example 80 %, 65 %, 50 %), so that the motor starting characteristic
can be adjusted to the load conditions over), the star contactor K1M on the
transformer is opened.
Now the transformer part-windings act as chokes. The motor voltage is only
reduced by the chokes below the supply voltage and the motor speed does
not fall. The main contactor K3M closes via auxiliary contacts of the star
contactor and applies the full supply voltage to the motor.
For its part, the main contactor K3M drops out the transformer contactor
K2M.
The entire procedure is thus uninterrupted.
34 | P a g e

Soft starters
Electrical soft starters can use solid state devices to control the current flow
and therefore the voltage applied to the motor. They can be connected in
series with the line voltage applied to the motor, or can be connected inside
the delta (Δ) loop of a delta-connected motor, controlling the voltage applied
to each winding. Solid state soft starters can control one or more phases of
the voltage applied to the induction motor with the best results achieved by
three-phase control. Typically, the voltage is controlled by reverse-parallel-
connected silicon-control rectifiers (thyristors), but in some circumstances
with three-phase control, the control elements can be a reverse-parallel-
connected SCR and diode.
Another way to limit motor starting current is a series reactor. If an air core is
used for the series reactor then a very efficient and reliable soft starter can be
designed which is suitable for all type of 3 phase induction motor [
synchronous / asynchronous ] ranging from 25 KW 415 V to 30 MW 11 KV.
Using an air core series reactor soft starter is very common practice for
applications like pump, compressor, fan etc. Usually high starting torque
applications do not use this method
35 | P a g e

Battery Maintenance
Selecting a battery
Selecting a Battery, when buying a new battery I suggest you purchase a
battery with the greatest reserve capacity or amp hour rating possible. Of
course the physical size, cable hook up and terminal type must be a
consideration. You may want to consider a Gel-Cell or an Absorbed Glass
Mat (AGM) rather than a Wet Cell; if the battery is not or cannot receive
regular maintenance, as it should. This is a hard call, because there is very
little that substitutes for maintenance.
Be sure to purchase the correct type of battery for the job it must do.
Remember an engine starting battery and deep cycle batteries are different.
Freshness of a new battery is very important. The longer a battery sits and is
not re-charged the more damaging sulfation build up on the plates. Most
batteries have a date of manufacture code on them. The month is indicated
by a letter 'A' being January and a number '4' being 2004. C4 would tell us
the battery was manufactured in March 2004. Remember the fresher the
better. The letter "i" is not used because it can be confused with #1.
Battery life and performance,
Average battery life has become shorter as energy requirements increase.
Two phrases heard most often are "my battery won't take a charge and my
battery won't hold a charge". Only 30% of batteries sold today reach the 48-
month mark. In fact 80% of all battery failure is related to sulfation build-up.
This build up occurs when the sulfur molecules in the electrolyte (battery
acid) becomes so deeply discharged that they begin to coat the batteries lead
plates. Before long the plates become so coated the battery dies. The causes
of sulfation are numerous, let me list some for you.
Batteries sit too long between charges. As little as 24 hours in hot weather
and several days in cooler weather.
Battery storage, leaving a battery sit without some type of energy input.
Deep cycling engine start battery, remember these batteries can't stand deep
discharge.
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Undercharging of battery, to charge a battery let's say 90% of capacity will
allow sulfation of battery using the 10% of battery chemistry not reactivated
by the incomplete charging cycle.
Heat of 100+°F, increases internal discharge. As temperatures increase so
does internal discharge. A new fully charged battery left sitting 24 hours a day
at 110 degrees F for 30 days would most likely not start an engine.
Low electrolyte level, battery plates exposed to air will immediately sulfate.
Incorrect charging levels and settings. Most cheap battery chargers can do
more damage than help.
Cold weather is hard on the battery the chemistry does not make the same
amount of energy as a warm battery. A deeply discharged battery can freeze
solid in sub zero weather.
Parasitic drain is a load put on a battery with the key off.
Battery Charging
Battery charging, remember you must put back the energy you use
immediately, if you don't the battery sulfates and that affects performance and
longevity. The alternator is a battery charger; it works well if the battery is not
deeply discharged. The alternator tends to overcharge batteries that are very
low and the overcharge can damage batteries. In fact an engine starting
battery on average has only about 10 deep cycles available when recharged
by an alternator. Batteries like to be charged in a certain way, especially
when they have been deeply discharged. This type of charging is called 3
step regulated charging. Please note that only special SMART CHARGERS
using computer technology can perform 3 steps charging techniques. You
don't find these types of chargers in parts stores and Wal-Marts. The first step
is bulk charging where up to 80% of the battery energy capacity is replaced
by the charger at the maximum voltage and current amp rating of the charger.
When the battery voltage reaches 14.4 volts this begins the absorption
charge step. This is where the voltage is held at a constant 14.4 volts and the
current (amps) decline until the battery is 98% charged. Next comes the Float
Step, this is a regulated voltage of not more than 13.4 volts and usually less
37 | P a g e

than 1 amp of current. This in time will bring the battery to 100% charged or
close to it. The float charge will not boil or heat batteries but will maintain the
batteries at 100% readiness and prevent cycling during long term inactivity.
Some AGM batteries may require special settings or chargers.
Battery Do's
 Think Safety First.
 Do regular inspection and maintenance especially in hot weather.
 Do recharge batteries immediately after discharge.
 Do buy the highest RC reserve capacity or AH amp hour battery that
will fit your configuration.
Battery Don'ts
 Don't add new electrolyte (acid).
 Don't use unregulated high output battery charger to charge batteries.
 Don't disconnect battery cables while engine is running — your battery
acts as a filter.
 Don't put off recharging batteries.
 Don't add tap water as it may contain minerals that will contaminate the
electrolyte.
 Don't discharge a battery any deeper than you possibly have to.
 Don't let a battery get hot to the touch and boil violently when charging.
Definition for creepage

Creepage Distance
Creepage is the shortest path between two conductive parts (or between a
conductive part and the bounding surface of the equipment) measured along
the surface of the insulation. A proper and adequate creepage distance
protects against tracking, a process that produces a partially conducting path
of localized deterioration on the surface of an insulating material as a result of
38 | P a g e

the electric discharges on or close to an insulation surface. The degree of
tracking required depends on two major factors: the comparative tracking
index (CTI) of the material and the degree of pollution in the environment.
Used for electrical insulating materials, the CTI provides a numerical value of
the voltage that will cause failure by tracking during standard testing. IEC 112
provides a fuller explanation of tracking and CTI.1 Tracking that damages the
insulating material normally occurs because of one or more of the following
reasons:
*Humidity in the atmosphere.
*Presence of contamination.
*Corrosive chemicals.
*Altitude at which equipment is to be operated.
Clearance Distance.
Clearance is the shortest distance between two conductive parts (or between
a conductive part and the bounding surface of the equipment) measured
through air. Clearance distance helps prevent dielectric breakdown between
electrodes caused by the ionization of air. The dielectric breakdown level is
further influenced by relative humidity, temperature, and degree of pollution in
the environment.
Electrical Generation
We assume the electrical requirements of a ship is supplied by the electrical
plant. The electrical plant consists of three diesel generators, one emergency
generator, the emergency battery system, and the electrical distribution
system.
There are three 500kW diesel generators, arranged for individual and parallel
operation with any two capable of carrying the maximum sea and port load of
the ship and the third generator available for standby. Each turbo-generator is
capable of a continuous rating of 500 kW, with a 25% overload for two hours.
A 200 kW emergency diesel generator is adequate for supplying power for
emergency lighting, interior communication and power load requirements and
also cold ship starting of the plant.
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Paralleling of main and emergency generators is prevented by an interlocking
circuit which trips the bus tie breaker on the main switchboard and
emergency switchboard when the generator breaker is closed.
One emergency battery bank, rated at 220 volts, 204 ampere-hours is
provided for the ships emergency lighting, 220 V DC bus, fire door release
system, diesel starting control circuit and the manual alarm and fire detection
system.
The electrical distribution system's main purpose is to distribute and control
the supply of electrical power to all auxiliary and electrical equipment aboard
ship. The electrical distribution system consists the cables, busses, circuit
breakers, fuses, etc., necessary to safely distribute power throughout the
Main Switchboard
The main switchboard, as the primary distribution centre, distributes 450
volts, 3 phase, 60 cycle power. The 450 volt power is distributed to power
panels throughout the ship and also to the emergency switchboard.
Transformers at the lighting load centres step down the 450 volts to 120 volts.
The lighting load centres distribute 120 volt power. There are three lighting
load centres. Ships service lighting load centres no. 1 and no. 2 are normally
fed from bus section no. 3.
The main switchboard is composed of three parts consisting of distribution
panels at the right, three generator panels in the centre, and distribution
panels at the left (facing the front of the switchboard). Right side distribution
and generator no.1 are connected to bus section 1, emergency switchboard
feeder, machinery space lighting and generator no. 2 are connected to bus
section 2. Left side distribution and generator no. 3 are connected to bus
section 3. The three bus sections are normally connected together by
removable disconnect bars.
Emergency Switchboard
The emergency switchboard is the emergency power distribution centre. The
emergency switchboard distributes 450 volts and 120 volt power to auxiliaries
40 | P a g e

which are vital under emergency conditions, essential lighting, safety and
communication systems, and power necessary for dead ship starting. .
Under normal operation, power for the emergency switchboard is supplied by
the main generators through a bus-tie. In case of power failure, loss of
voltage at the emergency switchboard will cause the emergency generator to
automatically start. Simultaneously, the bus-tie will open disconnecting the
main and the emergency switchboards. Then, the emergency generator
breaker will close, energizing the emergency board and providing 200 kW of
emergency power.
The emergency switchboard is composed of the following sections:
A generator and bus transfer section provides control for operation of the
emergency generator and the bus transfer unit.
A distribution unit with a 450 volt, 60 cycle, 3 phase bus provides power for
emergency power loads, and a 450/120 volt transformer bank, the secondary
of which supplies a 120 volt, 3 phase, 60 cycle bus that provides power for
emergency lighting and I.C. (Interior Communication) equipment.
A 220volt D.C. panel for battery distribution
 An automatic charging unit is provided for charging the ship's
emergency power battery.
 The emergency switchboard is provided with the following
instrumentation and controls.
 Control switch with white indicator light for generator space heaters
connected through the generator circuit breaker auxiliary switch and
fed from circuit breakers on the 220volts AC bus
 A.C. ammeter with 5-ampere coil and 0-500 ampere scale
 Three phase selector switch for above
 A.C. voltmeter with 0-600 volt scale
 Three phase selector switch for above
 Poly-phase indicating wattmeter with 0-300 kw scale
41 | P a g e

 White indicating light to show power available from the emergency
generator
 Exciter field rheostat
 Emergency generator voltage regulating equipment
 White indicating light to show power available on the 450 volt bus from
the main switchboard
 Green indicator light to show diesel setup for automatic operation
 Frequency meter with 55-65 cycle scale
 Ground detector lights for the 450-volt, 3 phase generator
 Ground circuit pushbutton switch with normally open contacts
 Ground detector lights for the 220volt, 3 phase final bus
 Voltage regulator cut-out switch
 Frequency meter transfer switch, generator and bus
 Emergency Electrical Power Distribution System
Ground faults and detection
Ground fault detecting circuits for use in ungrounded systems to indicate the
presence of a ground fault are shown below. Sub-figure (b) shows the ground
fault detecting circuit on board the Patriot State. Three identical lamps are
connected across the three phase line voltage. Each lamp has a resistor in
series with it to limit the line current in the event of a single ground fault
condition. The junction point of the three lamps is connected to ground (the
hull) through a normally closed spring return switch. A low resistance ground
fault on any one of the three hot lines will cause its respective lamp to burn
dimly or even go out, (depending on the severity of the ground fault), with the
other two lamps burning more brightly; with no ground faults all three lamps
will be dim. The three lamps should have identical wattage ratings and a
voltage rating equal to the line voltage. The normally closed spring return
switch provides a means for comparing the normal and ground fault
indications. Opening the spring return switch disconnects the ground fault
42 | P a g e

detection circuit from the hull of the ship and all three lamps should return to
a dim status.
Ground Detection for ungrounded distribution systems: (a) Single Phase or

DC (b) Three-phase, low voltage (c) Three-phase, high voltage.
Accidental ground faults should be repaired as soon as possible, for even
one ground fault has a bad effect on the insulation. A single ground fault
doubles the electrical stresses on the remaining insulation, thus increasing
the possibility of an insulation breakdown in the other two phases. The
doubled electrical stresses cause twice the electron leakage through the
insulation, hastening the deterioration and shortening its life. This is illustrated
in Figure 3. The insulation resistance between each conductor and ground is
R ohms. With 120 volts applied between the two conductors, the voltage
between each conductor and ground is 60 volts. However, if one conductor
has a ground fault condition, as indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 3b, the
voltage difference between the other conductor and ground will rise to 120
volts. Hence the voltage stress on the insulation of the ungrounded conductor
is doubled, and if a weak spot in the ungrounded conductor's insulation
causes it to rupture, a short circuit will result.
Trouble shooting earth faults
Troubles in ungrounded distribution systems usually manifest themselves by
failure of a device to operate, an indication on the ground fault detection
apparatus, smoke, or the overheating of a cable. Shorts and opens are
relatively easy to locate and are indicated by blown fuses, tripped breakers,
43 | P a g e

and voltage failure respectively. Grounds faults on the other hand, unless
accompanied by a short or an open, are generally located by the process of
elimination. The ground faulted circuit may be determined by opening
breakers on the distribution panel one at a time, until the ground-detecting
device on the switchboard indicates normal. Closing each breaker before
opening the next keeps the interruption of service to a minimum. The opening
of breakers supplying vital auxiliaries should be avoided until standby
equipment is placed in operation. If this procedure fails either the ground fault
is in the generator or more than one ground is present.
Multiple grounds faults may be located by opening the breakers one at a
time, and leaving them open until the ground fault detecting lights indicate
normal. Then with the ground faulted breaker left open, the other breakers
should be closed until another ground fault is indicated. A ground fault in a
generator may be identified by transferring the load to another machine and
tripping the suspect machine from the line. If the generator has a ground fault
tripping it should return the ground detecting lights to normal. Tracking down
the actual location of the ground faulted conductor is done best with a meg
ohmmeter. When doing so the breaker to the grounded faulted circuit should
be blocked open, and a "Do Not Close-Man Working On Line" sign hung over
the breaker. Figure 4 illustrates the meg-ohmmeter method for tracking down
a ground that may be in the supply cable, starter, motor cable, or in the motor
itself. Always insure the circuit is dead before checking the insulation
resistance. The supply cable may then be tested by applying a meg-
ohmmeter between the metal framework of the motor and the supply cable. A
zero reading on the meg-ohmmeter indicates a ground fault condition.
44 | P a g e

Hot spot temperature
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the air surrounding the motor or
the room temperature in the vicinity of the motor. This is the “threshold point”
or temperature that the entire motor would assume when it is shut off and
completely cool.
Temperature Rise
Temperature rise is the change in temperature of the critical electrical parts

within a motor when it is being operated at full load. For example: if a motor is
located in a room with a temperature of 78° F, and then is started and
operated continuously at full load, the winding temperature would rise from
78° F to a higher temperature. The difference between its starting
temperature and the final elevated temperature, is the motor’s temperature
rise.
Hot Spot Allowance
Since the most common method of measuring “temperature rise” of a motor

involves taking the difference between the cold and hot ohmic resistance of
the motor winding*, this test gives the average temperature change of the
entire winding including the motor leads and end turns as well as wire placed
deep inside the stator slots. Since some of these spots are bound to be hotter
than others, an allowance factor is made to “fudge” the average temperature
to give a reflection of what the temperature might be at the hottest spot. This
allowance factor is called the “hot spot allowance”.
45 | P a g e

NEMA Insulation Classes
Insulation systems are rated by standard NEMA classifications to maximum
allowable operating temperatures
Insulation systems are rated by NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers

Association) according to maximum allowable operating temperatures:
Allowable Allowable
Maximum
Temperature Rise at Temperature
Operation
full load Rise
Temperature Temperature
1.0 service factor 1.15 service
Tolerance Class Allowed
motor 1) factor motor 1)
oC oF oC oC
A 105 221 60 70
B 130 266 80 90
F 155 311 105 115
H 180 356 125 -
Allowable temperature rises are based upon a reference ambient

temperature of 40 deg C. Operation Temperature is reference temperature +
allowable temperature rise + allowance for “hot spot” windings
Example Temperature tolerance Class F:
40 deg C + 105 deg C + 10 deg C = 155 deg C
In general a motor should not operate with temperatures above the max.
Each 10 deg C rise above the rating may reduce the motor lifetime by half. It
is important to be aware that insulation classes are directly related to motor
life
Example: A motor operating at 180 deg C will have an estimated life of

46 | P a g e

 Only 300 hours with Class A
 1800 hours with Class B
 8500 hours with Class F
 Tens of thousands with Class H
New regulations for shore supply
Stand by generator
While the electric shore connection is supplying power to the vessel, at least
one of the vessel’s generators shall be in standby. I.e. this generator shall be
automatically started and connected to the main switchboards in case of
blackout (loss of power supply from shore).
Transfer of power
In order to transfer power between the vessel’s supply and shore, means for
synchronization shall be arranged in the vessel’s main switchboard
Shore connection box

A separate shore connection box is not required if the main switchboards
breaker has over-current protection. The short circuit protection of the cable
between the shore supply circuit breaker and the main switchboard’s shore
power incoming feeder shall be performed by the short circuit protection on
the shore side supply system.
Voltage and frequency

When a vessel is powered by shore power supply, the system voltage and
frequency of the shore utility supply must match the system voltage and
frequency of the vessel A system design where parts of the vessel’s
consumers are powered by a shore connection with a different frequency
than the nominal frequency of the vessel is acceptable (e.g. reefer load
powered by 50 HZ shore with 60 power on a 60 Hz vessel). Also a system
design with two electrical shore power connections, one with 50 Hz, and one
Hz, is acceptable.
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System Earthing
The vessel’s designed system earthing is to be maintained in electrical shore
connection operation. The selected design solution must be described in the
documentation of the system
There shall be a monitoring system ensuring proper co stem connection
between shore ground and hull.
Protective earthing
A separate conductor for protective earthing shall be connected between the
hull of the vessel and the ground on the shore. Earth fault protection shall
disconnect the shore power supply, both the shore side circuit breaker and
the vessel’s main switchboard feeder breaker, whenever an earth fault
current flows in the protective earthing conductor of the shore power cable
Galvanic isolation
For high voltage electrical shore connections, the shore side distribution
system and the vessel’s distribution system shall be galvanically separated.
When this separation is performed by a transformer, this shall have separate
windings for the primary and the secondary side. The transformer can be
installed either on shore, or on-board. If a power transformer is installed on
board for adaptation of the electric shore connection system voltage and the
main switchboard voltage, the transformer shall include overvoltage
protection, protecting the vessel against lightning impulse over voltages. It is
recommended that the same safeguards against overvoltage are applied
when the transformer is installed on shore.
Circuit breakers
Electrical shore connection systems shall be equipped with circuit breakers
suitable for isolation and interruption of possible short circuit currents,
together with automatically operated earthing switches, at both the shore side
and the ship’s side of the shore connection. The shore side circuit breaker
shall have short circuit protection and under-voltage trip, disconnecting the
electrical shore connection in case of loss of shore side distribution power.
The incoming feeder in the vessel’s main switchboard shall, in addition to
over-current and bi-directional short circuit protection, also have an under-
voltage trip disconnecting the shore power supply in case of loss of power on
the incoming feeder.
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Earthing Switches
High voltage electrical shore connection systems shall be equipped with
automatically operated earth switches at both sides of the cable connecting
the vessel to shore enabling safe discharge of the cable and safe handling of
the plug and socket.
Plugs and sockets

The shore connection cable shall be connected by plug and socket
connection. Plugs and sockets shall be designed in such a way that incorrect
connection is not possible. Further, connection with power on should not be
possible. The plug and socket system shall be of a type tested design.
Cable management system

There shall be installed equipment enabling efficient cable handling and
connection.
The equipment shall ensure mechanical tension control of the cable and
provide alarm at high cable tension to a manned position. At high tension, the
shore connection shall be automatically disconnected, and the earthing
switches closed.
Interlocks
Circuit breakers that are part of the electrical shore connection system,
inclusive on board circuit breakers for generators, earthing switches and
others, shall have necessary interlocks preventing any hazardous switching
operations. These interlocks shall be described in the documentation.
The following interlocks shall be provided
-Automatic opening of circuit breakers and, for high voltage systems, closing
of earthing switches:
- Upon high mechanical tension of shore connection cable
- By missing confirmation of healthy protective earthing connection
- By emergency disconnection signal
- Short circuit detection on either side of the shore connection cable.
- Operation of the plug and socket:
- When the plug and socket is manually operated, it shall not be possible to
insert or withdraw the plug unless the circuit breakers are open. For high
voltage connections, the earthing switches shall be closed. An attempt to
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insert or withdraw the plug shall initiate opening of circuit breakers and
closing of earthing switches. For automatically operated plug and socket, the
same feature shall be implemented in the control system.
Protection, monitoring and alarms

A control system shall be arranged on-board the vessel for the electric shore
connection system. This system shall trip both shore side breaker and main
switchboard incoming feeder in case of:
- Earth fault
- Short circuit / over-current
- Shore side under voltage
- Cable break
- Failure of protecting earthing connection.
There shall be an interlock preventing closing of shore circuit breaker unless
plug and socket is correctly connected and eventual earthing switches
opened. Upon opening of the shore side circuit breaker an earth switch shall
automatically connect all phases of the cable to earth, to discharge the cable
and ensure connection to earth. It shall not b possible to open the earth
switch unless the shore connection is connected and protective earth
connection between the vessel and shore is verified.
Closure of circuit breakers shall not be possible if confirmation of proper

protective earthing connection is not confirmed. If proper earthing connection
is lost, the breakers shall open confirmed. If proper earthing connection is
lost, the breakers shall open. Activation of protective functions (including high
cable tension and emergency disconnection) shall give an alarm to a
continuously manned location.
Emergency disconnection
An independent system for emergency disconnection shall be arranged with
emergency stop push buttons.
There shall be one emergency stop button in each of the following locations:
at the ship’s side where the electrical shore connection is located, where the
cable management system is handled, at the shore connection switchboard,
and at a continuously manned location.
Activation of emergency stop shall result in disconnection of circuit breakers
and closing of earthing switches.
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Opening, or release, of the plug and socket may be a manual operation.
Instrumentation
Electric Shore Connection systems shall be equipped with the following
instrumentation:
— Phase sequence indicator
— Voltmeter
— Ampere meter in each phase or fitted with ampere meter switch
— Energy measurement (kWh counter).
Ways of starting and testing emergency generator

Emergency generator on ship provides power in case the main generators of
the ship fails and creates a “dead or blackout condition”. According to general
requirement, at least two modes of starting an emergency generator should
be available. The two modes should be – battery start and hydraulic or
pneumatic start.
Testing of Emergency Generator
The testing of ship’s emergency generator is done every week (as part of
weekly checks) by running it unloaded to check if it starts on battery mode.
The hydraulic start is done every month to ensure that it is working fine. Also
every month automatic start of generator is also done to check its automatic
operation and to see whether it comes on load.
Procedure for Battery Start
 Go to the emergency generator room and find the panel for emergency
generator.
 Put the switch on the test mode from automatic mode. The generator
will start automatically but will not come on load.
 Check voltage and frequency in the meter.
 Keep the generator running for 10-15 min and check the exhaust temp
and other parameters.
 Check the sump level.
 For stopping the generator, put the switch in manual and then stop the
generator.
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Procedure for Hydraulic Start
 Out the switch in manual mode as stated above and check the
pressure gauge for sufficient oil pressure.
 Open the valve from accumulator to generator.
 Push the spring loaded valve and the generator should start.
 Check voltage and frequency.
 Keep the generator running for 10-15 min and check the exhaust temp
and other parameters.
 Check the sump level
 For stopping, use the manual stop button from the panel.
 After stopping the generator, pressurize the hydraulic accumulator to
desired pressure.
 Close the valve from accumulator to generator.
Procedure for Automatic Start
 For automatic start, we know that there is a breaker which connects

Emergency Switch Board (ESB) and Main Switch Board (MSB); and
there is also an interlock provided due to which the emergency
generator and Main power of the ship cannot be supplied together.
 Therefore, we simulate by opening the breaker from the tie line, which
can be done from the MSB or the ESB panel.
 After opening the breaker, the emergency generator starts
automatically with the help of batteries and will supply essential power
to machinery and pumps connected to ESB.
 For stopping the generator, the breaker is closed again and due to the
interlock the generator becomes off load.
 Now again put the switch to manual mode to stop the generator.
 Press stop and the generator will stop.
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COMPETENCY No. 3
Monitor the operation of automatic control systems of
propulsion & Auxiliary machines
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Governors
Governors are also fitted in auxiliary diesel engines on the ship used for
power generation, and their function remains the same in this situation as
well. The power delivered by the alternator needs to be constant despite load
variations and this depends to a great degree on the speed at which the
prime mover of the generator diesel engine is rotating since the alternator is
getting its movement from that engine only. Hence the role of the governor is
equally important in this case as well.
A Simple Direct Action Governor

It is a purely a mechanical device working on the principle of centrifugal force
acting on rotating/revolving bodies. A spindle in the governor is rotated
through a gear mechanism via the engine shaft whose speed needs to be
governed. There are flyweights which rotate along with the governor spindle
and they are thrown outwards (as shown by arrows in diagram), and the
degree of their outward motion is in proportion to the speed at which the shaft
and hence the spindle is rotating.
The spring fitted on the spindle acts to return the flyweights to their original
position and hence counters the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights.
The net results of all this action is that the spindle moves vertically up or
down depending on the position of the flyweights and this motion is
transmitted to the appropriate mechanism which results in actual speed
change.
How Marine Propulsion Engine of the Ship is Protected?

A ship’s propulsion engine is what keeps the ship going at sea. Considered
as the heart of any vessel, the marine engine of the ship takes the entire load
to propel the ship forward. Of course, without an engine a ship is almost a
“dead ship.”
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Throughout its life, the propulsion engine of the ship goes through various
loads and stresses from rough weather to harsh manoeuvring and
breakdowns.
To avoid any major loss or damage to the marine engine, several protective
devices are fitted to safeguard the engine from major damages and
breakdown.
Different Types of Protections on a Ship’s Marine Engine
Basically there are four main types of protection systems used to safeguard
propulsion engine:
 Alarm: In case of deviation of engine parameters from a set value, an

audible and visual alarm will sound which will give an early warning of
the problem.
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 Slow down: It is the next stage of protection when actions taken are not
sufficient to control the ongoing problem; hence engine slow down is
done to counter the disturbed parameter.
 Shut down: When there is a higher fluctuation in the engine parameters
which can harm other systems of the engine, the shut down protective
devices cut off the fuel supply and the engine stops.
 Starting Interlock: This will not allow the engine to start from the stand-
still condition if some important system within the engine has not been
operated or arranged properly.
Different Engine Slow Down Situations
In this situation the main engine will come to dead slow RPM i.e. below 30
RPM as the slow-down protection gets activated. Following are different slow
down situation for main engine:
• Lube oil pressure falls to 1.5 bar
• Cam shaft pressure falls below 2 bar
• There is no flow of piston cooling media (water or oil)
• Oil mist detector or Main bearing sensors has been activated
• Lube oil temperature at the inlet of engine is high > 60 deg C
• Piston Cooling temperature is high > 75 deg C
• Jacket water Temperature is high > 88 deg c
• Engine cylinder exhaust temperature is high > 450 deg C
• Scavenge air temperature is high > 65 deg C
• Thrust block temperature is high > 75 deg C
• Low flow of Cylinder lube oil
• Control air pressure is low < 5.5 bar
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Different Shut down Situations:
• Lube oil inlet pressure to engine is very low <1 bar
• Cam shaft Lube oil pressure is very low < 1.5 bar
• Very high Jacket cooling water temperature >95 deg C
• Low Jacket cooling water pressure < 0.1 bar
• No flow of Cylinder lube oil
• Thrust block temperature very high > 90 deg C
• Lube oil inlet pressure for turbocharger is low < 0.8 bar
• Over speed of the engine which activates shut down at 107 % of Max
continuous rating MCR
Different Starting Interlocks are:
 Turning gear engage interlock

 Auxiliary blower off interlock
 Lube oil and other important pump not running interlock
IP Converter
How I/P and E/P Transducers Work
As the names indicate, these devices converted either electrical current

(typically 4-20 mA) or voltage (typically 0-5 VDC or 0-10 VDC) into pressure.
They worked by creating a force imbalance on a piloted diaphragm by means
of a magnetic coil of wire (similar to a speaker coil). Other than the coil, there
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are no electronic features to control the pressure output. The device works
as a simple force mechanical balance with adjustable spring biases for the
zero and span.
These devices typically contain a second flow-boosting stage, which uses a

force balanced diaphragm and valve seat to generate higher flow rates at the
outlet port than would be possible from the smaller first stage valve.
These devices work quite well if properly maintained and frequently

calibrated. Indeed, these devices were the basis for the golden age of
pneumatic control in the post World War II era, actuating countless control
valves and pneumatic cylinders in factories worldwide.
Control technicians were carefully trained to adjust the zero and span screws
to obtain the required accuracy and repeatability. Bellofram's Type 1000 is a
classic example of the electro-pneumatic transducer, still available today, with
a specified 1% linearity, 1% hysteresis, and 0.5% repeatability. The 3-15 psig
output range was a common standard, and most models did not offer output
pressures above 40 psig. Devices with electronic feedback offering more
precision, and less repeatability and hysteresis.
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MARINE GROWTH PREVENTION SYSTEMS
Iron Anodes MGPS Control Unit
Marine Growth Prevention Systems (MGPS) are used to combat

the harmful effects of macro fouling in seawater circuits. The
fouling problem arises when
barnacles, mussels and
other lower forms of marine
life as larvae enter pipe-work
systems and settle on the
internal surface of pipes
where they rapidly grow and
multiply. In the most extreme cases, complete seawater lines
can become blocked, affecting the safety and operational
capability of the ship. In other instances, the gradual restriction in
the flow of seawater through cooling systems can impair engine
efficiency, leading to increased fuel usage.
Copper anode
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Copper & Aluminium Anodes
Although the concentrations of copper in solution are extremely small i.e.

less than 2 parts per billion they are sufficient to prevent marine life from
settling and multiplying. At the same time, the slow dissolution of the
aluminium/ferrous anode produces ions, which spread throughout the system
and produce an anti corrosive layer on the internal surface of pipes. In this
way, the anti-fouling system gives complete and continuous protection to
pipe-work, valves and condensers as well as vital fire fighting equipment,
refrigeration and air conditioning unit. The MGPS Control Panel comes with
their motioning arrangement as well to monitor the current impressed.
What is Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control System (ODMCS)

on Ship?
Oil tankers carry different types of oil cargo in their cargo tanks and it often
happens that after discharging the oil cargo in some port, the ship sails
without any cargo to some other destination. In order to do so, it has to take
ballast from the sea to get better draught and stability.
For this reason ballast water is taken into cargo tanks wherein generally oil
cargo would have been carried. It is to note that the ballast water carried in
cargo tank has to be discharged out at sea before the next cargo loading.
Therefore, Oil Discharge monitoring and control system (ODMCS) is used to
prevent the pollution of ocean by oil due to the discharge from ballast and
bilge spaces.
As per MARPOL 73/78 Annex I, all the oil tankers of 150 GT and above must
have an approved Oil Discharge Monitoring System. The system must have
provision to work in manual operating mode if the auto system is not working.
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Main Parts of ODMCS
An ODMCS consists essentially of four systems:
 An Oil content meter: The oil content meter is used to analyse the
content of oil in the water that is to be discharged overboard. This oil is
expressed in parts per million (PPM).
 A flow meter: The flow rate of the oily water to be discharged is
measured at the discharge pipe.
 A computing unit: A computing unit calculates the oil discharge in
litres/nautical miles and the total quantity, along with date and time
identification.
 An overboard valve control system: The auto control valve is installed
at the overboard so that it must close and stop the discharge when
permissible limit has been reached.
Working
The oily mixture is pumped out to the sea through ODMCS by a pump A
sampler probe and a flow meter sensor is connected at the discharge pipe,
before the overboard valve, to sense the oil content and the flow of mixture.
The data provided by the two sensors are fed in a control unit wherein it is
analysed and the discharge valve is controlled by the same.
If the control unit senses a rise in the ppm and flow comparing to the
permissible value, it will shut the overboard valve and open the recirculation
valve which is connected to slop tank of the ship.
Regulatory requirements for oil mixture discharge from cargo space

 Tanker vessel must be en-route
 The vessel should not be in special areas.
 The tanker must be 50 nautical miles away from land.
 The instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content does not exceed 30
litres per nautical mile.
 The total quantity of discharge must not exceed 1/30000 of the total
quantity of the residue formed cargo.
 The tanker must have operational and approved ODMCS.
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.
As per the regulation, the following inputs must be recorded by the system:
 Discharge rate of the pump which is discharging the oily water
mixture overboard
 The location of the ship in latitude and longitude
 Date and time of the discharge
 The total quantity that has been discharge overboard
 Oil content of the discharged mixture in PPM
All the records of ODMCS must be stored on board ships for not less than 3
years.
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The principle of cathodic protection
All metals and alloys undergo a natural process of corrosion depending on

the metal and the surrounding environment. Metal atoms have loosely
bonded electrons which they tend to lose. When a metal is immersed in an
electrolyte such as sea-water this tendency results in the setting up of an
electric potential. The loss of electrons from the metal leads to its dissolution
or corrosion.
Further if two dissimilar metals are electrically in contact and immersed in the
same electrolyte, the more reactive (or baser) metal will part with its electrons
more readily and will corrode in preference to the less reactive (or nobler)
metal. The surface or material where loss of electrons and hence corrosion
takes place is called the anode and the surface where electrons are absorbed
and where there is no corrosion is called the cathode.
Even in a seemingly uniform single metal structure (for instance a ship’s hull
or the legs of an off shore platform) there will be enough metallic
dissimilarities to create internal anode anodic and Cathodic Monitor
pots on the surface leading to corrosion. In a painted surface if there is a
small area where the paint has deteriorated that area will become anodic with
reference to its neighbouring areas leading to corrosion. If there are bi-
metallic connections
For example the hull of a ship is steel while the propellers are bronze (a
metal that is Cathodic to steel) anodes and cathodes are automatically
created leading to corrosion.
In summary, corrosion can thus be seen to be an electro-chemical

phenomenon. Its prevention by cathodic protection is also an electro-
chemical process. The principle of cathodic protection is to create a potential
gradient opposing the flow of electrons from the surface to be protected.
One of the methods of doing this is by using an Impressed Current Cathodic

Protection System. This works on the principle that current flowing on to any
metal shifts its normal potential in the negative direction and if correct
amounts of current can be impressed on the surface to be protected, the
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potential of the surface can be shifted sufficiently to a level where the surface
will not corrode.
For example, steel when submerged in sea water generally has a normal
potential of -500mV to -600mV w.r.t. an Ag/AgCl reference electrode. At this
potential steel corrodes. But if by impressing a current onto the surface the
potential of the steel can be moved to -750mV or more negative w.r.t. an
Ag/AgCl reference electrode corrosion stops and the steel is protected.
FUNCTIONING OF AN IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC PROTECTION

SYSTEM
ICCP Systems work by taking the ship’s power, converting it using as a
transformer rectifier unit into direct current and impressing this on to the hull
through inert anodes strategically positioned on the hull.
The current will flow from the inert anodes through the sea water and back to
the hull. This is ensured by a sufficiently large dielectric coating applied on
the hull around the anode.
ICCP Systems are generally self-regulating using a feedback control system.

This is done by positioning suitable Reference Electrodes at various points on
the structure to measure the potential of the structure at those points. By
comparing the measured potential with the desired non-corroding structure
potential, the control unit of the ICCP System determines whether the current
feed to the hull through the anodes should be increased, decreased or
maintained. The objective is to ensure that the potential of the structure as
measured by the Reference Electrodes is as close to the desired protection
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potential as possible.
ADVANTAGES OF AN ICCP SYSTEM
 Carefully designed ICCP Systems can compensate for a fair amount of

coating damage and help extend dry-docking intervals.
 There are typically no anode removals required during the dry-docks
unlike in the case of Sacrificial Anode system and hence, maintenance costs
are reduced.
 The instrumentation on the ICCP control panels enables the protection
levels to be continuously monitored.
 The ICCP anodes are generally flush mounted on the hull or even if
surface mounted are very few in number thereby reducing structural loading
as compared to sacrificial anode and providing significantly less hydrostatic
and hydrodynamic resistance, thereby reducing fuel consumption of the ship.
What is a PID controller?

A PID (Proportional Integral Derivative) controller is a common instrument
used in industrial control applications. A PID controller can be used for
regulation of speed, temperature, flow, pressure and other process variables.
Field mounted PID controllers can be placed close to the sensor or the
control regulation device and be monitored centrally using a SCADA system.
Example: Temperature Control using a Digital PID controller
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A typical PID temperature controller application could be to continuously vary
a regulator which can alter a process temperature. This may be a pulsed
switching device for electrical heaters or by opening and closing a gas valve.
A heat only PID temperature controller uses a reverse output action, i.e. more
power is applied when the temperature is below the set point and less power
when above. PID control for injection and extrusion applications often employ
additional cooling control outputs and usually require multiple controllers.
A PID controller (sometimes called a three term controller) reads the sensor
signal, normally from a thermocouple or RTD, and converts the measurement
to engineering units e.g. Degrees C. It then subtracts the measurement from
a desired set point to determine an error.
The error is acted upon by the three (P, I & D) terms simultaneously:
PID Controller Theory
The following section examines PID controller theory and provides further
explanation of the question `how do PID controllers work'.
Proportional (Gain)
The error is multiplied by a negative (for reverse action) proportional constant

P, and added to the current output. P represents the band over which a
controller's output is proportional to the error of the system. E.g. for a heater,
a controller with a proportional band of 10 deg C and a set point of 100 deg C
would have an output of 100% up to 90 deg C, 50% at 95 Deg C and 10% at
99 deg C. If the temperature overshoots the set point value, the heating
power would be cut back further. Proportional only control can provide a
stable process temperature but there will always be an error between the
required set point and the actual process temperature.
Integral (Reset)
The error is integrated (averaged) over a period of time, and then multiplied
by a constant I, and added to the current control output. It represents the
steady state error of the system and will remove set point / measured value
errors. For many applications Proportional + Integral control will be
satisfactory with good stability and at the desired set point.
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Derivative (rate)
The rate of change of the error is calculated with respect to time, multiplied by
another constant D, and added to the output. The derivative term is used to
determine a controller's response to a change or disturbance of the process
temperature (e.g. opening an oven door). The larger the derivative term, the
more rapidly the controller will respond to changes in the process value.
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COMPETENCY No. 4
Operate generators and distribution systems
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Alternator protection
Protection Systems For Alternators:
This article describes the various systems used on ships to prevent damage
to alternators, including their construction and working.
Introduction
The alternator is an important aspect of a ship’s electrical system. Any kind of

obstacle in its performance can mar the working of the ship's overall electrical
system. It is for this reason that it requires adequate protection systems to
prevent any kind of hindrance to the ship's functionality.
Several protection systems are installed to protect the ship's alternator and
the main distribution system is protected against various faults. This
protection system is of utmost important, for without it, the ship might have to
face black out and even system failure. So let us study these mechanisms
and find out how does an alternator protection system work?
The three main type protection systems are:
 over current protection

 reverse power trip
 under voltage trip
The over current protection works by removing power supplies to non

essential services on a preferential basis. This is done with the help of
preferential trips which decides the load that is to be removed in case of
overloading of the distribution system.
Reverse power trip and under voltage trip are required only if there is more
than one alternator on board which requires working of two alternators on
load.
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Over Current Protection
Every alternator has an over current protection. With the help of this trip, the
alternator and distribution system can be protected from various faults but the
main thing to be considered in this method is to maintain power to the
distribution system till the time the alternator trips on any other protection
devices.
For this reason, the protection device has been designed in such a way that
in case the over current is not high enough, a time delay provided by an
inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relay occurs, which prevents the
alternator from tripping in case the over current values, reduces back to
normal within the IDMT characteristics
But in case of a major fault such as short circuit, the alternator will trip
instantaneously without any delay, protecting all devices on the distribution
system. Overload of alternator is caused either due to increased switchboard
load or serious fault causing very high current flow.
If sudden over load occurs then, the load is reduced with the help of
preferential trips which removes non essential load such as of air
conditioning, ventilation fans etc., from the switchboard. These preferential
trips are operated by relays which are set to about110%of the normal full load
of alternator.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Relay
The construction of this type of relay is similar to that of a household watt

meter. The actual inverse time delay characteristics are obtained with the
help of an induction type relay.
Construction
The system consists of a lightweight non magnetic aluminium disc mounted

on a spindle which has helical spring and low friction bearings. This disc is
placed in between two electromagnets which are made up of soft laminated
iron core. The purpose of the helical spring is to prevent rotation of the disc.
The upper electromagnet is supplied with current from the main winding
through a current transformer. The main winding is tapped and the taps are
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brought to a bridge which is used to select different current settings. The
lower electromagnet is wounded using a closed coil.
Working
The alternating current in the coil of the main winding located on the centre
leg of the upper laminated core produces a magnetic field which induces a
current in the closed winding. The magnetic field associated with the closed
winding is displaced from the magnetic field of the main winding and
aluminium disc to produce changing eddy currents in the closed winding.
These eddy currents make the disc to rotate. The rotation is generally
prevented by the helical spring when the normal current is flowing through it.
Excessive and very large current cause rotation of the disc, making the disc
come in contact with the trip circuit.
Generators
The Alternator
The synchronous machine consists essentially of (a) a field system excited by

direct current and (b) an armature. Almost invariably the armature is the
stationary member and the field system the rotating member. The induced
e.m.f. in the armature winding is a motionally induced e.m.f. and its mode of
production identical with that of the D.C. machine. The only difference is that
it is the magnetic field which moves whereas the armature conductor is
stationary.
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As with a D.C. machine the e.m.f. induced in an individual armature coil ia an
alternating e.m.f. and consequently by bringing the winding out to fixed
terminals, the e.m.f. between these will be alternating also. The complete
fixed armature, that is magnetic core and windings, is called the stator, and
the rotating field system the rotor. The general constructional features of a
salient pole alternator are shown below
As the field system rotates and carries its flux with it, each portion of the
stator core will experience reversals of magnetisation, and therefore, as in a
direct current machine, the core has to be laminated. For ventilation
purposes, a series of radial ventilating ducts are provided. Since the field
system rotates, it’s exciting winding has to be fed by means of two slip rings,
but as the excitation voltage is low and the power taken by the field winding
small, these present no difficulties
A salient pole has one field coil per pole, very like a D.C. machine. For the
very high speeds of turbine driven alternators it is necessary to adopt a
cylindrical construction for the rotor and in such a case the field winding has
to be housed in a number of slots. A simplified form shows the cross section
of a four pole turbo alternator, the disposition of the rotor field of a turbo
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alternator rotor may be as high as 40,000 ft per min or 200 metres per sec.
The stresses due to centrifugal force are exceedingly high. The rotors are
thus made from steel forging or in some cases from thick steel discs bolted
together.
High Speed Rotor
The axial length is normally considerably greater than the diameter. Has the
advantage of great strength and stiffness. The exciting current is carried by
bar type conductors in the groups of slots shown below. All currents in one
group are in the same direction, those on the next group on the opposite
direction. Flux produced is distributed over surface approximately according
to sine law.
Details of stationary armature alternators
Armature stampings pressed out of sheets of special magnetic iron or steel

alloy. In the smaller sizes the stampings are pressed out in complete rings
Section through top stator of salient pole machine. The armature core is built
up of laminations which are held tightly together by end clamping rings.
Spacing strips inserted at intervals leave ducts for cooling air to pass through.
The air is driven through by the fan action of the rotor and escapes via the
apertures in the cast iron supporting frame.
Types of armature slot. The filled slot has round wires but it is common to
have rectangular conductors to economise slot space.
Sectional simplified diagram of turbo alternator

The rotor is turned from a steel forging are slotted to carry the exciting
windings the slots being arranged as shown above. Because of the high
running speed, alternators for large outputs have a considerable axial length
compared with rotor diameter.
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Layouts of A.C. generators
Conventional excitation scheme (Rotary)
Brushless excitation scheme using shaft mounted diodes (Rotary)
Indirect self excitation (Error)
Comparison of the value required to control with a fixed value. When the
variable differs from a fixed reference value an 'error' exists and the function
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of the controlling medium is to restore equilibrium e.g. if the voltage output
falls on the brushless rotary excited alternator the AVR. controls the exciter
field to restore equilibrium.
Modern compound scheme (static)
Direct self excited (Functional)
Control of the voltage to a set value is achieved by the inherent

characteristics of the machine.
A compound wound D.C. generator with a level compound characteristic has

additional current in the series field under load conditions. In the self excited
compound alternator there is a constant amount of excitation required for no
load condition. Additional excitation due to more current form the current
transformers is obtained in response to extra external demands
75 | P a g e

Recovery graphs for 'functional' and 'error' layouts
Shaft driven generating system
Methods of drive
1. Belt or chain driven

2. Direct coupling engaging the propeller shaft
3. Power taken from the main gearbox.
4. Power taken from the free end of the engine
With D.C. auxiliaries power can be taken by either a chain or belt drive from
the propulsion system with an A.V.R. maintaining constant voltage.
For A.C. systems methods used include the use of a D.C. generator with an
D.C./A.C. converter, or direct A.C. generation. With the latter either a
constant speed drive is required or a frequency converter. With either method
the revolutions at which the shaft alternator can be used is limited. In this way
direct drive systems will generally be fitted in conjunction with a C.P. system
which maintains constant engine speed under full away conditions.
Advantages
1. Saving on fuel costs, allows efficient use of heavy rather than

gas oil
2. reduced maintenance costs
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3. Capital saving on reduced number of auxiliary sets
4. Reduced space and weight
5. Reduction in noise
Disadvantages
1. Power available for propulsion reduced

2. Capitol cost of plant
3. Auxiliaries required for manoeuvring, although some medium
speed plants are capable of manoeuvring with shaft alternators
and C.P. system
4. Complicated constant speed or frequency gear required with
slow speed engines
Air Gap
If the air gap around a rotor is not uniform the motor may not start in certain
position. Because the rotor is not centred, probably due to worn bearings,
there is an out of balance magnetic pull.
Radial play in between the shaft and the housing should be detected by hand
and bearing wear detected by feeler gauge between the rotor and the stator,
or armature and field poles may be measured at three or four fairly
equidistant points around the machine. If possible one measurement should
be made at the bottom of the machine and another in line with the drive.
Compare with previous records to check wear. At minimum air gap, clearance
of the bearings should be renewed to avoid the possibility of the rotor rubbing
on the stator.
On small machines two feelers on opposite sides of the rotor should be used
to avoid error caused by rotor movement from normal position when only one
feeler gauge is used.
In synchronous motors and D.C. motors sparking may occur if the radial air
gaps between the armature and the field poles are unequal. If necessary
renew bearings or add or remove soft iron shims from under the pole shoes.
Unequal field strength has a similar effect of sparking at the brushes. This
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might be due to short circuit or earth fault on the field coils, or a short circuit
on the shunt and field coils.
An increase of air gap gives an increase in 'reluctance'.

In a salient pole A.C. generator this fact may be used to produce a sinusoidal
flux density curve by gradually increasing the length if the air gap towards the
pole tips.
In the induction motor the air gap should be as small as possible if the motor
is to act with a high power factor. An increase in air gap increases the
reactance of the motor and lowers its power factor. Small motors are
accurately machined and centring of the rotor is very important so ball or
roller bearings are fitted.
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Air gap Motor size
0.25mm 1kW
0.75mm 10kW
2.0mm 100kW
Parallel operation of generators
D.C. generators
For compound wound D.C. generators it is usually sufficient to ensure that

the voltages of the incoming generator is the same as the bus bar voltage.
The equalising connection joining the junctions between the armatures and
their series fields is incorporated in the circuit breaker in such a way that the
equalising connection is automatically closed before and opens after, the
main contacts. By adjustment of the shunt field regulator the load sharing
may be controlled
A.C. alternators
To parallel alternators the following conditions are required;
1. Same voltage-checked with the voltmeter

2. Same frequency-checked with the frequency meter and
synchroscope
3. Same phase angle-checked with synchroscope
4. Same phase rotation-checked with rotation meter. Only important
when connecting shore supply, or after maintenance on
switchgear or alternator.
Load Sharing Of Alternators In Parallel
Alternators in parallel must always run at the same speed. After a machine
has been paralleled and is required to take up its share of the load, this will
not be achieved by adjusting the field excitation current. Although the
increase in e.m.f. will cause a current to flow in the bus bars, and this will
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show on the machines ammeters, this is a reactive current that lags the e.m.f.
by 90o and produces a reactive (kVA) but not kW. Its only effect is to alter the
operating power factor of the alternator.
More power may be obtained at the bus bars from the incoming alternator
only by supplying more power to its prime mover. This increase of steam or
fuel supply is achieved by altering the governor setting either electrically or
manually.
After adjusting the governor the incoming machine takes up its desired
amount of the kW loading and this is recorded on the machines watt meter.
However, if the kW loading is shared equally between two machines it may
be found that the Load Current of the incoming machine is more or less than
the other machine. This is due to the incoming machine having a different
power factor. This may be corrected by adjusting the excitation of the
incoming alternator.
Thus after paralleling an alternator;
1. Adjust prime mover governor until kW loading is correct

2. Adjust field excitation current until current sharing is correct.
If the alternators have similar load characteristics, once adjusted, the load will
continue to be shared. If the load characteristics of alternators vary, the kW
loading and load current sharing may require readjusting under different load
conditions.
Load sharing of alternators:
No1 on load
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No1 on load, No2 synchronised and taking 100kW
No1 and No2 sharing load after adjusting governor settings, excitation
adjusted to prevent excessive volt drop in No2
No1 and No2 sharing load with balanced power factors by adjusting
excitation
The effects of altering Torque and Excitation on single phase alternator plant-
and by extrapolation a 3-phase circuit
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Before paralleling, by varying Rb, adjust the excitation current in the rotor field
of 'B' until Va=Vb. When in phase and at the same frequency, synchronising
may take place.
If there was no external load on the bus bars the torque on the prime movers
of A and B is only that required by its own alternator and Ra and Rb are
adjusted so that Ea and Eb are equal.
Relative to the bus bars Ea and Eb are acting in the same direction with each
other making the top bar positive with respect to the bottom bar.
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Varying the driving torque
If the driving torque of 'B' is reduced (less fuel supplied) the rotor falls back by
an angle say p.f.(b) giving a resultant e.m.f. of Ez in the closed circuit.
The e.m.f. Ez circulates a current I which lags behind Ez by angle p.f.(a).

This circulating current is more or less in phase with Ea and in opposition to
Eb.
This means that A is generating power to motor B and this will compensate
for any loss of power in the prime mover of B.
Once the power increase in A equals the power loss of B balance is restored
and A and B continue to run in synchronism.
Therefore the power is shared by adjusting the torque ( fuel input.)
Slight loss of power in B-
It is taken up by an increase in power from A. The terminal voltage will not

vary and the speed and frequency will stay the same or drop only very
slightly.
Large loss of power in B-
With a large circulating current from A to B the alternator A will try to drive B
as a synchronous motor. The amount of full load power required to drive an
alternator as a motor is only 2 to 3% for a turbine and 10 to 12% for diesel
engine.
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As the circulating current flows from A to B the reverse power trip on B will
operate after about 3 to 5 seconds.
All the load now falls on A which will probably cause the overload trip to
operate and 'black out'.
Varying excitation
Consider A and B are exerting the torque required by its alternator and the
generated e.m.f. Ea and Eb are equal. There is no circulating current.
By reducing Rb the excitation current in the field of B can be increased and Eb
will increase. Ez is the resultant difference (Eb - Ea) which will give a
circulating current I through the synchronous impedances of the two
alternators. As the machines are similar the impedance drop in each will be
1/2Ez so the terminal voltage
V 1 = Eb - Н Ez = Ea + Н E z
Therefore increasing the excitation current will increase the terminal

voltage
As p.f.(a) is almost 90o the Power circulating from B to A is very small
Ez I Cos [ p.f.(a)] approx equals Zero (Cos 90o = Zero)
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Effect of reducing Excitation
By increasing Rb the reduction of the field excitation current of B will reduce

the terminal voltage
Ea>Eb terminal Voltage V = Ea - Н Ez = Eb + Н Ez
The circulating current I from A to B will have a large 'Watt-less' component.

Machine A now has more of the lagging reactive current and its power factor
is reduced. Too large a reduction in excitation current in B with subsequent
increase in load current in A could cause the current overload trip of A to
operate. This could be followed by the low voltage or the overload trip of B
operating causing a black out.
Voltage regulation
The graph demonstrates that excitation must be increased (generally) with

increasing load to maintain terminal voltage
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The worse the power factor the worse the terminal voltage change during
load change.
Voltage regulation = DV when load removed/ Full load terminal voltage
At 1.0 p.f. = AC/ OA
At 0.8 p.f = AD/ OA
Therefore lower p.f. = greater voltage regulation
Limiting voltage dip and response time under impact loading
The effect of a large load suddenly switched on to a small power installation

such as a ships plant will be an instantaneous dip in the generator voltage.
This effect, due to the transient reactance on starting, cannot be obviated

either in a self regulated machine, or in a conventional generator with A.V.R.
The sluggish response of the excitation systems limits the speed of voltage
recovery.
In a self excited generator the dip is less and the recovery time greatly
improved. (say 0.3s against 0.7s)
In order to maintain constant voltage, under varying conditions, excitation

must be varied.
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Variation of voltage at constant excitation
Variation of excitation at constant voltage
AC switchboards
If voltages exceed 250 volts d.c. or 55 volts A.C. then the switchboard must
be dead front (no exposed live parts at the front) of the metal clad type.
Bus bars
High conductivity copper rated to withstand the thermal and electromagnetic

forces which would arise in the event of a short circuit at the bus bars with all
the generators in parallel. The bus bars will withstand these conditions for the
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length of time it takes for the alternator circuit breakers to trip or back up fuse
to blow.
Certain instruments and controls require a feed direct from the bus bars. Any
connection between the bus bars and protecting fuses must be capable of
withstanding maximum fault level. Standard practice is to provide a three
phase set of fuses, known as 'Back Up' fuses, as near to the bus bars as
possible. Connections are then led to the racks of the many instruments
fuses fitted.
Circuit breakers
Must be capable of making and breaking under normal conditions, and also
abnormal conditions such as a short circuit. As the circuit breaker must be
able to withstand closing onto a fault conditions without sustaining damage, it
is of heavy construction. Fitted with an over current release and overloads
with time lags, a circuit breaker can be used as follows;
1. To control the output of a generator

2. As a direct on line starter
3. Control outgoing feeder circuits
On modern switchboards 'draw out' circuit breakers may be fitted. In the open
position the whole circuit breaker can be wound clear of the bus bars, thus
full inspection and maintenance can be achieved without the necessity of de-
energising the bus bars so providing a separate isolating switch.
The 'plug in' contacts joining the circuit breaker to the bus bars are not
capable of taking the breaking load and it is essential that the circuit breaker
is in the open position before any attempt is made to withdraw it. A
mechanical interlock is fitted arranged to trip the circuit breaker before the
winding handle can be inserted,
The breaker also has a mid position, in this position the control circuits are
still connected with the bus bar connection isolated. The electrical operation
of the breaker can then be tested.
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Circuit breakers are normally fitted with under voltage protection and tripping
is accomplished by shorting or open circuiting the no-volt coil which releases
the latching in mechanism. The no-volt coil may also be open circuited by a
reverse power relay and an overload trip fitted with a time delay
Instruments
The following instruments are the minimum that must be fitted;
o Bus bar voltmeter and frequency meter

o Volt meter and frequency meter, with selector switch to measure
incoming machine conditions
o Ammeter with phase selector switch for each alternator
o Watt meter for each alternator
o Synchroscope and if check synchroscope not fitted lamps
o Earth leakage indicator
Additional instruments that may be fitted
o Watt hour meter

o Power factor meter
o Alternator excitation ammeter
o Alternator excitation volt meter
o kVAr meter
o Share connection supply meter
o Emergency batteries on discharge meter
When a check synchroniser is fitted it is there to prevent connecting an

incoming machine to the bus bars whilst out of phase, it is not there as aid to
synchronising. In an emergency the 'in synch' light may be used to indicate
when the breaker may be closed.
When an incoming machine is selected, its no-volt coil and circuit breaker
contactor relay coil are connected in series with contacts on the check
synchroniser. These contacts must be closed, that is the machine in phase
with the bus bars, before the breaker contactor relay may be energised. If
starting from a dead ship the check synchroniser must be switched to off
before the first generator is put on the board.
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Protection
1. Overload protection-fitted to circuit breakers

2. Reverse power-When motive power is removed an alternator will try to
become a synchronous motor and draw current from the circuit. A
reverse power relay will operate after about 2 seconds and about 2-3%
reverse power for turbines, 10-12% reverse power for diesels. The time
delay prevents tripping during paralleling and taking the alternator off
the board.
3. Preference trip- automatically, and sometimes sequentially, sheds load
from board to maintain supply to essential services during periods of
overload.
4. Fuses-Usually of the HRC type
5. Discrimination-The protective device closest to the fault should operate
and protect other services
6. Group starter board-Large demand sections may be separated from
the main switchboard by fuses and circuit breakers.
Automatic voltage regulators
Shall be supplied separately from all other instrument circuits. Protection

should be by fuses mounted as close to the supply connections as possible.
Shore supply connections
1. Where arrangements are made for the supply of electricity from a

source on shore or other location a suitable connection box has to be
installed in a position in the ship suitable for the convenient reception of
flexible cables, it should contain a circuit breaker or isolating switch,
fuses, and terminals of adequate size to receive the cable ends.
2. For three phase shore supplies with earthed neutral terminals are to be
provided for connecting hull to shore earth
3. An indicator for shore side connection energised is to be provided.
4. A means for checking polarity or phase rotation is to be provided
5. At the connection box a notice indicating ships requirements with
respect to supply as well as connection procedure.
6. Alternative arrangements may be submitted for consideration.
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Circuit breakers
When selecting a circuit breaker for a particular application the principal

factors to consider are; system voltage, rated load current, and fault level at
the point of installation
Voltage rating
At medium voltages the phase to neutral voltage may be 250v but the
potential difference between two phases with the neutral insulated would be
440v. At these voltages no difficulties should arise in selecting the circuit
breaker equipment. However, on a 3.3kV insulated neutral system the phase
to neutral voltage is 3.3kV/ж 3 = 1.9kV. If an earth fault develops on one
phase the potential of the other two phases to earth is 3.3kV. To ensure the
insulation is not subject to excessive stress a circuit breaker designed for a
normal system voltage of 6.6kV may be fitted. Also on insulated neutral
systems high over voltages may be caused by arcing faults. Medium voltage
systems switch gear insulation should be able to withstand such voltages, but
3.3kV and above, the margin of safety is reduced. When a high voltage
system is installed both the voltage rating of the circuit breaker and the
method of earthing must be considered.
Current rating
Consider three factors;
1. Maximum permissible temperature of circuit breaker

copper work and contacts
2. temperature due to LOAD CURRENT
3. Ambient temperature
In industrial use the ambient temperature considered is usually 35oC. If uses

in a marine environment temperature of 40oC (Restricted areas) and 45oC
(unrestricted areas) are used, therefore the circuit breaker rating may be 'free
91 | P a g e

air' value and this does not consider the degree of ventilation, the number
and position of the circuit breakers or the layout of the bus bars. The final
switchboard arrangement could be only 80 to 90% of the free air rating
Fault rating
Breakers should be rated to accept a breaking current of about 10 times the

full load current. The breaker should also be able to make against a fault
condition where the making current may be 25 times the full load current
when the contact first make. Circuit breakers must remain closed for a short
time when a fault occurs in order to allow other devices which are nearer to
the fault to trip first. The breaker should be capable of carrying its breaking
current for a specified time of usually about one second.
Arc suppression
Blow force at right angles to arc and field.

The blow out coils, which are connected in series with the circuit breaker
contacts, form an electro-magnetic field which reacts with the arc to give a
deflecting force which tends to blow the arc outwards. The increase in
effective length of the arc causes it to extinguish more quickly. The blow out
coils are protected form the arc by arc resistant material which may be in the
form of an air shute.
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Hot ionised gases around the arc and contacts are displaced by cold air
forming eddy current air flow. This helps to increase resistance between
contacts.
Contacts
Attention should be paid to all contacts likely to deteriorate due to wear,

burning, inadequate pressure, the formation of a high resistance film or
becoming welded together. Faulty contacts are often indicated by overheating
when loaded. Different contact materials may need different treatment.
Copper is widely used but is liable to develop a high resistance film, and
copper contacts may become welded together if the contact pressure is low
and the contents have to carry a high current. Copper is commonly used for
contacts which have a wiping action when closing and opening., this action
removing the film. Copper contacts are used on knife switches, laminated
(brush) contacts of regulators and other controllers, drum contacts, etc.
Carbon and metalized carbon contacts are unsuitable for carrying high
currents for long periods but, as they do not weld together, they are used for
arcing contacts on some control gear. Pure silver and silver ally contacts tend
93 | P a g e

to blacken in service but the oxide film has a low resistance. Copper-
tungsten (sintered compound), grey I colour, is used in contact facing. This
material has a high surface resistance which resists heavy arcing and does
not weld. Silver tungsten (sintered) has similar properties to copper tungsten
but has a lower contact resistance and is less liable to overheat on
continuous load.
Servicing contacts
Copper contacts should be filed up if necessary to restore the profile required

to ensure correct wiping action. Copper contacts which have become burnt or
pitted or otherwise damaged, may be carefully dressed with a file. Emery
cloth should not be used. Some contacts are provided with pressure
adjustment, so if the contact pressure is reduced by dressing it should be
readjusted. Using a spring balance pulled in a direction normal to the contact
surface a reading should be taken when a piece of paper placed between the
contacts is released. Inadequate spring pressure may also be due to the
pressure springs becoming weak due to fatigue or overheating.
Carbon contacts should receive the same attention as copper contacts

except that they should not need lubrication. Silver, Silver alloy and copper
tungsten contacts do not require cleaning. As there is no need to remove
surface film from pure silver contacts they may be used for light butt contacts.
Where some contacts have the appearance of pitting on both faces this is
sometimes referred to as being 'burnt in'. Some manufacturers recommend
that the contacts, unless there is loss of material, are not dressed as this may
destroy the contact area.
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AVR's
R1-Sets
volts value
R2-Trimming resistor (Power factor correction)
R3-Trimmer
Carbon pile-Control resistance for AVR
Operating coil-Along with carbon pile form the controlling elements
CCT and PT-Are the detecting elements, the CCT acts as a feed forward
device indicating future voltage changes by detecting variation in current flow
Stabilising element-Is the capacitor across the Exciter (may be replaced by
a resistor)
The A.C. voltage is applied to the operating coil through a full wave rectifier.
This A.C. voltage supply induced in the potential transformer and the
circulating current transformer may vary under varying load conditions such
as direct on line starting of relatively large motors. The capacitor connected
across the coil smoothes the D.C. output from the rectifier.
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If the A.C. applied voltage falls, the field of the solenoid weakens, and the
resistance of the carbon pile decreases. With less exciter circuit resistance
the current in the exciter field increases thus increasing the output voltage of
the A.C. generator.
The automatic voltage regulator voltage output may be adjusted with the
hand regulator R1 in the exciter field. Before synchronising the alternator the
open circuit voltage is adjusted with the hand regulator R1.
After synchronising, and after the kW loading has been adjusted on the prime
mover governor, the field excitation under steady load conditions may be
adjusted using the Trimming resistor R2. Using the trimming resistor the
power factor of the incoming machine will be equalised with the machines
already in use.
If the load power factor now changes then the terminal voltage will regulate
badly, e.g. a rise from 0.8 to Unity Power factor will cause a rise in terminal
voltage of about 20 %. So a small Voltage Trimmer R3 is provided across
each current transformer to adjust terminal voltage when there is a change in
overall power factor
Modern A.V.R. (Zener Bridge)
Voltage across the Zener diodes remains almost constant independent of

current variations. Smoothed D.C. output is applied to the voltage reference
96 | P a g e

bridge. This bridge is balanced at the correct generator voltage output with no
potential difference between 'A' and 'B'.
If the generator voltage fails, current through the bridge arms falls and current
flows from 'A' to 'B' through the amplifier.
If the generator voltage falls, current through the bridge arms falls and current
flows from 'B' to 'A' through the amplifier.
If the generator voltage rises, Current through the bridge arms rises with
current flow from 'A' to 'B' through the amplifier.
The signal from the amplifier will automatically vary the field excitation
current, usually through a silicon controlled rectifier (Thyristor) control
element.
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (Thyristor) is a four layer, three terminal, solid
state device with the ability to block the flow of current, even when forward
biased, until the gate signal is applied. This gate signal could come from a
Zener diode Voltage reference bridge. The gate signal will switch on the
forward biased S.C.R. and current flows through the exciter field. When
reverse biased the S.C.R. will again block current flow. Due to inductance of
the field winding the S.C.R. would continue to pass current for a part of the
97 | P a g e

negative cycle. By fitting a 'free-wheeling' diode the current though the
Thyristor falls quickly at the end of the positive cycle. In some circuits the
excitation current is designed to be excess of requirements, so that the gate
signal reduces flow.
Insulated neutral system
Advantages
1. This system avoids the risk of loss of essential services e.g.

steering gear
2. If the neutral was earthed and a short circuit on one phase
causes the fuse in that phase to blow the system would now be
singled phasing and may burn out motors
3. In an insulated neutral, one earth fault does not interrupt the
supply but an earth leakage detection system will give warning.
4. Low earth fault currents in insulated systems, gives a much less
fire risk.
Disadvantages
1. On the insulated system the voltage to earth is 1.73 Vph e.g. 440v
vs 250v
2. Tracing an earth fault is more difficult because although selective
tripping may trace the earthed circuit, the actual position on the
circuits may still be difficult to locate. Resonant or intermittent
faults in say a contactor solenoid or a transformer with an
insulated neutral can cause voltages to be magnified to say 4
times the normal voltage to earth (250v x 4 = 1000v)
Note: electrical shock is not reduced by using a non-earthed neutral as large

voltages are involved. Both systems are equally dangerous
Earthed neutral system
When an earthed neutral system of generation is used earthing is to be

through a resistor. The resistor is to be such that it limits the earth fault
98 | P a g e

current to a value not greater than the full load current of the largest
generator on the switchboard section and not less than three times the
minimum current required to operate any device against
Synchroscope
The armature of the synchroscope carries two windings at right angles to

each other and is capable of rotation between field poles F F1
R is a non inductive resistance and XL is a highly inductive resistance both

connected to one phase of the bus bars. This produces a field which rotates
relative to the armature at the bus bar frequency. When the incoming
machine is connected to the coils of the field poles a pulsating field is
produced at the same frequency as the incoming machine.
If the two fields are not at the same frequency then the armature will rotate at
a speed equal to the difference.
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In the modern rotary synchroscope there are no slip rings. The rotor has two
soft iron pole pieces and with its shaft carrying the pointer it is magnetised by
coil R from the bus bars. With this coil is fixed adjacent to the shaft, therefore,
there are no moving coils, contacts or control springs.
Single Phase
Single phase synchronising with

Lamps Dark Method
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Lamps Bright Method
If using single phase synchronising it is considered better to use the lamp

bright method as it is easier to judge the middle of the bright sequence rather
than the middle of the dark sequence
Three phase synchronising
Synchroscope with two lamps (lamps dark)
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The secondary windings of transformer T1 supplies field coil F of the
synchroscope. The secondary windings of T2 supplies the rotating coils R of
the synchroscope.
If the incoming machine is in anti-phase with the bus bar the voltage
difference between the output of the secondary of T1 and T2 is double the
normal voltage giving normal volt drop across each lamp. When in phase
there is no voltage difference between the outputs of T1 and T2 and therefore
lamps are dark when synchronised.
Synchroscope with two lamps (Lamps bright)
Three phase synchronising with lamps (Lamps dark)
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No1 Vector is stationary, if the incoming machine is running two slow then the
No2 vector moves away from No1 vector in an anti clockwise direction. In the
position shown as the No2 vector moves progressively anti clockwise then 'a'
will brighten, 'b' will brighten shortly reaching maximum luminosity then
darken, 'c' will darken .
When the machines are in phase, then 'R1' and 'R2' will be in align therefore
'a' will be dark, 'Y1' and 'B2' will be 120o apart and therefore 'b' will be
approaching maximum luminosity, and the same will be for 'c' with 'Y2' and
'B1' 120o apart.
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Reverse power tripping
A.C.
A non magnetic metal disc can rotate in a magnetic field between two electro
magnets. The disc is restrained by a coil spring. The flux produces a torque
on the side which rotates the trip lever away from the trip contacts.
In reverse power conditions the flux from the voltage coil and current coil
interact to rotate the disc in the reverse direction. The amount of
torque/current (and hence power) is set on the current coil tapping.
A permanent magnet is provided on the disc to provide damping. A 3 to

5second delay is incorporated into the trip circuit to allow for transients when
paralleling.
D.C.
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1. Low voltage coil
2. Over-current trip
3. Reverse current trip
4. Reverse current trip
2a and 2b are fitted in case of circulating current via the equalising

connection.
Under normal running, fields of '3' and '4' act together to hold the trip contact
down. With reverse current fields are in opposition and a spring pushes the
plunger against a trip bar to open the reverse current trip relay.
Time delay devices associated with safety circuits
Dash pots-(magnetic time lag)
The usual form of time/delay is an oil dash pot having an inverse time/current
characteristic, relies for its operation upon the retarding action of a plunger
immersed in a reservoir of oil, together with the magnetic force generated by
a flow of current through a solenoid. The plunger is attached to an iron core
which is partially enclose in the solenoid. When the solenoid is sufficiently
energised the iron core will attract it, but the action is retarded due to the oil,
in this way a time lag is introduced
Characteristic of Oil Dash pot with Inverse Time Delay
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It is important to note that as the viscosity of the oil varies with temperature,
so will the operating times of oil dash pots vary. Makers will supply dash pot
oil suitable for the circuit breakers and relays. The recommended oils are
selected on the basis of least variation in viscosity over the working range
coupled with viscosity's which will give the time delay marked on the
calibration plate. These special oils should invariably be used, the time delays
are usually calibrated at 15oC, unless otherwise stated and are only correct
at this temperature.
Over current devices fitted with oil dash pot time lags do not operate at the
current marked on the calibration scale but at a current 25% greater with the
appropriate time delay. The current marked on the scale is the value at which
they would operate without time delay. Some makers supply an instruction
plate indicating the exact current at which the relay will operate with a given
setting.
Thermal device
Depends for its action upon the heating effect of an electric current flowing
through, either a bi-metallic strip, or a heating coil placed near a strip. The
thermal characteristics of the two dissimilar metals is such that when
sufficient heat is generated there is a movement of the strip in one direction
until the relay contacts are opened.
Induction relay
Similar to the action of the watt-hour meter, consisting of a metal disc pivoted
so that it is free to rotate between two poles of two electro-magnets. The disc
spindle carries a contact which is arranged to bridge two contacts when the
disc has rotated through an adjustable angle. A spring returns the disc to the
reset position, and as, during the deflecting period, the torque exerted by the
spring increases, this is compensated for by the provision of graduated slots
in the discs periphery. The necessary damping of the movement is provided
for by incorporating a permanent magnet through which the disc has to
rotate. The upper electro-magnet contains two windings, one, the primary
normally is connected to a current transformer to a winding on the lower
electro-magnet. Because of the graduated slots, the inertia of the moving
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system prevents the disc form rotating under normal running conditions, but
when over-current commence to flow through the external circuit, the torque
generated by the interaction of the upper and lower electro magnets is
sufficient to cause the disc to rotate, until either the current falls to a safe
level, or the relay is operated
Thermal Inspection of Switchboards
In service inspection of switchboard, individual starter and distribution panels

can be carried out with the use of infra red temperature measurement or
Thermal imaging systems. They require no direct contact with the electrical
components being measured
This form of inspection is used to locate areas of increased temperature

either associated with local overload or with increased resistance.
Infrared Temperature measurements
This takes the form of a relatively inexpensive, readily available temperature

reading instrument often with laser guidance. The taking of readings is very
simple although care must be taken in the interpretation of results. Due to
their low cost these are normally found on most vessels as standard item
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Thermal imaging
These tend to be expensive specialist instruments although they may be

used by untrained personnel and results are generally simple to interpret.
Due to their high cost it is normal to have a single unit available for several
vessels delivered as required.
The unit is used rather like a video camera and the results viewed in real time
as an image displayed on the rear of the instrument.
A typical unit is that seen in common use with fire brigades who use it in
search and rescues
Author Note
When carrying out a thermal imaging inspection on a cargo pump
switchboard on a large LNG carrier it was noticed that the areas around the
connection of two bus bar sections was unusually hot
The power was isolated on the switchboard and the tightness of the joining
bolt checked. It was found tight. The decision was made to investigated
further and the bus bar section was disassembled
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It was found that a large portion of the copper material at the contact face had
disintegrated and was found absent from both joining bars. The reduced area
of contact led to increased resistance and thus the increase in temperature.
The author is not able to offer an explanation as to the mechanism of failure

of the bus bar. I would suggest that the damage and been caused previously
due to the bolt being loose. The bolt had been tightened without further
investigation or recording of this action
Discrimation and Fuses
Discrimation
A circuit fed from a distribution board may be fed through three or even four
fuses or circuit breakers e.g. a heating circuit may be connected to a 15amp
fuse in a fuse box fed from a section box in turn from a 500A circuit breaker
on the main board.
Discrimination occurs when the fuses nearest to the fault operates leaving all
the other fuses or protective devices intact. Discrimination may be required
between fuse and fuse, or between fuse and over-current device such as a
circuit breaker.
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Fuses
A fuse is a protective device which is there to prevent overloading. If too

heavy a fuse or if the fuse is overridden then there is a possibility of
overheating, deterioration of insulation and failure.
Materials used are; Tin, Lead, or silver having low melting points. Use of
copper or iron is dangerous, though tinned copper may be used.
Unlike some other forms of circuit protection devices (oil switches for
instance), which are suitable for a.c. only, solid filled cartridge fuses have an
approximately equal breaking capacity for D.C. and A.C. and the action of the
fuse does not depend on breaking circuit at the zero point on the current
cyclic wave
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Requirements of a fuse;
o Have a high cut off speed on short circuit

o Operate on a sustained overload
o Make a complete break after operation with high insulation
resistance between terminals
o Have a maximum temperature rise on continuous full load rating
such that it will not be injurious to rudder cables connected to its
terminals
o Be mechanically robust and capable of withstanding the large
magnetic and gaseous forces exerted during operation under
short circuit conditions
A fuse must not;
o Operate on continuous full load

o operate on momentary overload
o Deteriorate under continuous operation at full load
o Burst or emit flame or otherwise damage the fuse carrier and
base when it operates
Regulations
I.E.E. and classification society rules now specify high breaking capacity
(high category) fuses on main switch boards where the total normal generator
capacity exceeds 400kW at 200V, this is for short circuit or low resistance
protection of the very high currents that can be generated in these conditions.
In addition;
o Fuses on shipboard must be made to approved standards.

o Breaking capacity not less than prospective short circuit current
at point of installation
o Fuses over 300A are not used for overload protection but may be
used for short circuit protection
o Cartridge fuses only on tankers
To control the extent of heavy fault currents on large installations the

protective device must have a very high speed performance or High Rupture
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Capacity (H.R.C.) H.R.C. fuses will operate quickly before the short circuit
current exceeds 3 times the full load current.
Cartridge fuses
They are capable of handling large short circuits. Because of standardisation

of manufacture they have very consistent time/current fusing characteristics
making them accurate, dependable and non-deteriorating in service. Suitable
filling powders such as silicon sand are used in cartridge fuses having the
property of quenching the arc of the fused element.
Enclosed fuses
The element usually made of silver is much smaller than the tinned copper
used in semi-enclosed fuses so that the amount of vaporised metal is less
and this contributes to a better performance. The enclosed casing and use of
silver ensures no degradation due to oxidation. After the silver element has
fused the indicator wire will heat up sufficiently to ignite the indicator powder
and the fuse will be shown to be blown.
Except in the lowest ratings there are two or more elements in parallel which
increase the contact area in contact with the filler, and this increases the
breaking capacity. The ends of the element are reinforced by larger wires to
reduce resistance and therefore heat losses.
The indicator type should in the construction below consists of an indicator
wire which ignites an explosive powder which chars the indicator paper. On
other designs the indicator wire releases a spring and pop up indicator
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Semi-enclosed fuses
Tinned copper fuse wire exposed to the atmosphere tends to deteriorate and
will vary in performance after long periods in service. Also there is a
temptation to increase the gauge of the wire, or the number of wires after a
fuse has blown. However, re-wireable fuses are cheap, easily replaceable,
blown fuses are easily detected and within reason if the circuit is uprated
slightly no new fuse holders are required.
Tin-fast heating and failure (expensive)

Copper-Slow heating and failure (cheaper)
On overload the tin will fail rapidly increasing the current through the core
speeding up its failure.
Rating
Is that current the fuse will carry continuously e.g. for a circuit rated at 30
amp, a 30 amp fuse will be appropriate. Fuses and circuit breakers on
switchboards and distribution boards are intended primarily for the protection
of the cables and not the apparatus. Overload protection of the apparatus
usually provided at the motor starter.
The fusing factor = Minimum fusing current/ Current rating
There are three standards

Class P Fuses protect against relatively small but
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sustained overloads with fusing factor of 1.25
(25% overload rating)
Fuses where protection against relatively small
over-currents is not required, with a fuse factor not
Class Q exceeding 1.5 for cartridge and 1.8 for semi-
enclosed fuses. Motor overload protection to back
up motor starter protection
Fuses require for protection against relatively large
Class R over-currents (e.g. short circuit protection) 3 x Full
load current
Minimum fusing current
is affected by length of fuse element. A short element with large terminals, or

with special graded construction of wire will have its fusing current raised
because of heat conduction away from the element. Alternately, the cross
section of element can be reduced for a fuse of a given rating. This method is
adopted in some designs of semi-enclosed and filled cartridge fuses.
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Earth fault detection
AC
Earth fault detection
DC
Preferential tripping
It is essential to prevent interruption of services necessary to maintain

propulsion and navigation. These must be safeguarded even if the other
services such as domestic supplies are temporarily sacrificed.
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There are two ways to safeguard these services. First there must be at least
two generators, the rating of which must be such that essential services can
be maintained if one set is out of commission. Secondly, a protection must be
provided that if sea load is too much for one generator a system of
preferential selection will operate.
In some cases the non essential load is relatively too small to warrant
additional switchgear. It is generally in larger installations where loads not
under direct control of the engineer that they must be fitted. If the heating,
lighting and galley were all switched on without prior warning, then the
generators could become overloaded. Without preferential trips this may so
overload the generators as to cause a complete shutdown. Therefore non
essential services are fed through one or more circuit breakers fitted with
shunt retaining coils or shunt tripping coils. Over current relays with time lags
are provided for each generator. When overloaded, appropriate relays
operate and trip out the non essential services. Some being more important
than others, degrees of preference may be given.
Setting
Usual setting is 150% (50% overload) with a time delay of 15 seconds for
generator overload protection and the following times come into operation
when the generator reaches 110%.
First tripping circuit 5 seconds
Second tripping circuit 10 seconds
Third tripping circuit 15 seconds
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Navigation Lighting
Operation-
When the double pole switch is closed the navigation light is illuminated.
Current in the relay circuit causes the relay coil to energise so contact 'a'
,may be attracted to 'b'. A low voltage lamp only is needed for the indicating
lamp, so there is a small voltage drop across that part of the circuit. If the
indicating lamp fails the circuit is completed through the resistance C, so the
navigation light does not fail.
If the navigation light fails, or if a fuse blows the current in the circuit ceases
and the relay de-energises. Contact 'a' springs back to contact 'b' and the
buzzer circuit is completed.
In case of failure of ships mains, the double pole switch may be switched
over to emergency supply.
Requirements
 Circuit supplied from distribution board provided for that purpose which
is easily accessible to the officer of the watch.
 Must be connected directly or through a transformer to the main or
emergency switchboard. No switches in between.
 Provision on the bridge to transfer lights to alternative source of supply.
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 Each navigation light must be controlled and protected at both poles by
a switch and fuse, or circuit breaker, mounted ON the distribution
board.
 Each provided with automatic indication of extinction of light by aural
and/or visual indication.
 The visual device must be so connected that its failure does not
extinguish the navigation light circuit
Types of fluorescent lights
Discharge lamps
Cold cathode type-only used for decorative lighting

Hot cathode
a, High pressure fluorescent
(i)Mercury vapour types )Used mainly for street lighting
(ii) Sodium type , )but sometimes used for deck lighting
b, Low pressure Hot Cathode Fluorescent type discharge Lamp
Principle-
A length of glass tubing contains a small amount of mercury vapour and

argon gas, at a very low pressure (10-6 atmospheres). A heater element
forming an electrode is situated at each end of the tube. These electrodes
may be coated with an oxide to improve thermionic emission. The interior of
the tube is coated with fluorescent powder a Phosphor coating)
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If a suitable voltage is applied between the two electrodes a DISCHARGE
strikes between them and the mains voltage is then sufficient to maintain the
discharge. This occurs in low pressure so that the lamp will run at a
comparatively low temperature and so will not affect the fluorescent coating.
The electrons from the electrode collide with the mercury atoms. This
dislodges an electron from the atom making the mercury atom a positively
charged ION. As the dislodged electron returns to the influence of the ION
( i.e. the electron changes from one energy level to another) a certain amount
of electro-magnetic radiation (i.e. a photon) is given off in the form of Ultra-
violet light. These rays activate the fluorescent coating and the luminous
surface provides a glare free efficient light.
Operation
With switch start circuits to start a discharge across the tube a large Voltage
Impulse is required.
This may be obtained by the following methods;
1.
2. Glow type switch and choke
3. Thermal type switch and choke
There are also methods using starter less circuits, referred to as rapid start or
instant start, where a drop in potential between the electrode and an earth
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strip is sufficient to ionise the gas adjacent to the electrode and this ionisation
then spreads across the whole tube.
C1- Radio suppresser

C2- Power factor correction
Glow type switch starter circuit
When the control switch is closed the contacts on the bimetal strips which are
open form the electrodes of a small discharge lamp. The mains voltage is
sufficient to cause a glow discharge in the starter which warms the bimetal
strips. The strips bend until contacting and large current flows through the
electrodes of the main tube, forming an electrode cloud around their cathodes
(thermionic emission)
Shortly the bimetal strips cool sufficiently to break contact, this sudden
reduction in current flow causes a large e.m.f to be generated in the choke
(typically four to five times mains)
The voltage surge across the tube is sufficient to ionise the gas, reducing the
resistance to electron flow and allowing the discharge to occur and be
sustained by the mains voltage.
Operation may still occur if the mains voltage is reduced, however the tube is
unlikely to start hence this type of light is not used for emergency lighting
The choke has a second purpose other than providing the start voltage. It
maintains a constant correct potential difference across the tube when the
main is an alternating current. If a d.c is used then a ballast resistor (which
may be an incandescent light) must be used
Advantages-
 Greater efficacy, about 5 times the lumens per watt of tungsten filament
 Longer light source, tungsten originating from a relatively small area
 About 5 times the life of filament (5000Hrs approx.)
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Disadvantages-
 Initial cost
 Power loss in d.c plant due to ballast resistor
 Stroboscopic effect, two may be place in 90o out of phase
Cables
General
On Tankers all cables must be either lead alloy sheathed and armoured,
mineral insulated copper sheathed ( the ends must be sheathed to prevent
moisture being absorbed by the hygroscopic insulation material ) or non-
mineral impervious sheathed and wire braided so long as they are laid in a
pipe ( the csa of the wire must be less than 30% of pipe bore.
Glands fitted to bulkheads must allow for expansion and be weather tight,
water tight bulkheads should only be penetrated by a suitable gland.
Cables should be laid away from hot surfaces
All installations must be flame proof
Metal casing should be adequately rust protected and earthed. PVC conduit
must not be used in fridge spaces or on deck unless specially approved as
liable to breakdown in cold. Cable sheathing, unless galvanised, should have
a rust preventative coating. The cable should not be laid behind insulation.
Insulating material
o Polyvinyl Chloride (P.V.C)

o Butyl Rubber
o Ethylene Propylene Rubber ( E.P.R)
o Polythene
o Cross linked Polythene (X.L.P.E)
o Silicone Rubber
o Mineral insulation
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Flame test of insulation
A standard 4ft length of cable is held vertical and is burnt by a flame of

known strength
1. If the flame travels the full length the cable is graded as flame
extending,( not in common use.
2. If the flame is extinguished before it reaches the top end, it is
classified as Flame retardant,
3. , If a cable is graded as flame retardant it must be able to resist
the flame, and also after cooling be able to withstand an a.c
voltage of twice the rated voltage for one minute.
Relays and Solenoids
The wire coil of the electromagnet, without its core of magnetic material is
called the solenoid. If this solenoid is provided with a movable soft iron core
and current flows through the turns of the coil, the magnetic field tends to pull
the plunger in to the centre of the coil. Accordingly the coil with its moving
centre is called the solenoid.
The plunger can be used to operate a great many mechanical applications. A

spring is often fitted above the plunger to positively return it to its start
position once the current is turned off. The plunger may also be used via a
non-magnetic extension be used as a pusher, a spring again returning it to
the start position.
Either a direct or alternating current may be used to energise the solenoid,

since either type will produce the magnetic field around the coil. There is one
precaution however. The core of the electromagnet finds itself in the
magnetic field of the coil. If a steady direct current flows through the coil, no
current will be induced in the core since both the core and field are stationary.
But if an alternating current flows through the coil, the changing magnetic
field will cause a current to be induced in the core. This is called the eddy
current.
The eddy current is undesirable on two counts. The flow of current through
the core represents a power loss, which must come from the source. Also the
flow of current may cause the core to get quite hot. To reduce the eddy
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current, the core is not built solid but is made up of many thick slices, called
laminations. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbour by a coat of
varnish or similar material. This offers considerable resistance, and as a
result, the eddy currents are cut down. In solenoids operating on alternating
current, the plunger is built up of laminations.
An alternating current coil will offer a greater resistance to current flow than a
direct current coil of same ohm resistance due to its inductive reactance.
Hence, if a coil designed to be operated by an alternating current is
connected to a source of direct current at the same voltage, the flow of
current may be great enough to burn out the windings.
On very common application of an electromagnet is in the operation of an

electric switch. In this form it is known as an electromagnetic relay.
The sensitivity and current draw of a relay is determined by the wire wound
on the core. This is determined by size and therefore breaking capacity of the
contacts.
The relay coil may be energised by either direct or alternating current. Where
direct current is employed, there are no special problems. Alternating current
may be employed since the polarity does not affect the attraction of the
armature. However, the rapid alternations of the magnetic field cause the
armature to vibrate, or 'chatter'. Since the contacts are controlled by the
armature, the controlled circuit too, will be affected.
One method of remedying the fault is to rectify the alternating current before
applying it to the relay. Small semi conductor diodes are employed. Another
method is to connect a fairly large capacitor across the coil. Frames are
laminated to prevent eddy current losses.
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Overload circuit breaker is a variation on a relay.
Transformers
A big advantage of A.C. transmission is the ability to easily change voltage by

means of a transformer. As there are no moving parts maintenance is very
low and efficiency very high (typically 98%).
A transformer consists of two insulated coils wound separately over a closed
magnetic field, usually iron, of low reluctance. An alternating supply E1 acts
across a coil called the primary, a voltage is induced in the secondary coil E2.
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Details of a small transformer-the core is built up of stamped laminated
sheets of silicon iron about 0.35 mm thick insulated from one another by a
thin layer of paper or varnish. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce
the loss due to eddy currents induced by the alternating magnetic flux. The
vertical portions of the yoke are called the 'limbs' and the horizontal portions
are called the 'yokes'
Shell type
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Auto transformer
Auto transformers are used in;
1. Starting motors
2. In power factor corrections with capacitance's.
3. Incorporated in portable appliances such as radios.
Transformer losses
Iron losses- As the magnetic field sweeps across the conducting material a
voltage is induced which sets up a current within it. When this current, the
EDDY CURRENT, flows the resistance within the material causes heat to be
produced. The material does not have to be magnetic for the eddy currents to
be set up but must be a conductor.
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If the material is magnetic the magnetic field around the coil magnetizes that
material and rearranges its molecules. Each time the magnetic field reverse
the molecules are rearranged. As the result of molecular friction called
HYSTERESIS LOSS this rearrangement produces heat
1. Eddy currents- losses reduced by laminating material

2. Hysteresis loss-reduced by using soft iron or annealed steel.
Copper losses-These are the I2R losses in the copper wires of the primary
and secondary coils. Increase in temperature of these coils will increase their
resistance.
Iron losses are constant, but copper losses are proportional to the square of
the current.
Vs/Vp approx equals Ns/Np approx equals Ip/Is
Efficiency = Output power/ Input power
= Output power/ Output power - Iron losses + Copper losses
= Vs Is Cos f/ Vs Is Cos f + Iron losses + Ip2Rp + Is2Rs
Maximum efficiency occurs when iron losses and copper losses are equal.
The losses in a transformer for a given frequency are largely determined by
the value of the working flux density in the windings. With a small transformer
it is possible to work with fairly high densities in both the iron and the copper
without exceeding the maximum temperature so air cooling is satisfactory.
However in larger transformers either the flux density or the current density
must be reduced or some method of cooling used. This is normally achieved
by immersing the transformer in insulating oil in a chamber with cooling fins
or tubes.
Instrument transformers
It is usual in A.C. installations to fit the ammeter to the secondary circuit of a

current transformer. This avoids heavy current connections to the meter and
allows an ammeter switch to be fitted to read the current in each phase. The
same current transformer can be used for the wattmeter and the reverse
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power relay. Voltage transformers are also normally provided for use with
voltmeters, wattmeters, synchroscopes and reverse power relays.
Safety-The secondary circuit of a current transformer must never be opened

or left open under load. The large voltage induced (due to high flux density
produced in the core with no 'back' ampere turns from the secondary coil) will
cause the transformer to overheat. The secondary circuit must be such that
short circuit conditions will not cause damage.
In the event of breakdown of insulation between primary and secondary

windings it is a requirement that one end of the secondary winding of the
current transformer and the voltage transformer and the metal cases of the
instruments shall be earthed.
The principle of the current transformer is that the primary winding carries the
full load current and as such is made of large diameter low resistance wire.
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The secondary winding steps up the small volt drop that occurs over the
length of the primary wire.
Diodes
Basics
The diode is a electronic version of the non-return valve. It allows electron

flow in one direction but not the other. It should be noted that the symbol is
pointing to the 'conventional flow' where current is said to flow from the
positive to the negative. The reality is that electron flow is from the negative
to the positive and understanding on how the diode functions requires
investigating this.
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When the voltage is applied across the diode so that electron flow is allowed
this is referred to as Forward-Bias, when the voltage is applied so that
electron flow is blocked this is referred to as Reverse Bias.
There is a small volt drop when the diode is Forward Biased which remains
virtually constant independent of Current flow. This is about 0.7v for Silicon
and 0.3v for Germanium.
In Reverse bias electron flow other than a small Leakage current is blocked
up until the Diode breakdown. The voltage this breakdown occurs is called
the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV), when the PIV is exceeded the diode will
generally have failed although there are specialist diodes (called Zener
Diodes) used in voltage regulation which are designed to normally work in
Reverse Bias.
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Working Principal
A diode consists of P-type (material with slight electron deficit sometimes

imagined as having positive holes) and N-type (material with slight electron
excess). This may be manufactured by the use of doping agents in
semiconductor material such as Germanium or Silicon. The juncture of the
two materials is called the depletion zone as it contains neither excess
electrons nor positive holes into which the electrons can enter.
When a forward bias voltage is applied there is a tendency for the electrons
and positive holes to be drawn into the depletion layer collapsing it until
current can flow freely. When a reverse bias is applied the electrons and
positive holes are drawn away from the depletion layer expanding it and
preventing current flow
Although for most circumstances the voltage drop may be considered fixed
there are a few instances were the slight increase in voltage drop with
increasing current is part of the design of the circuit so must be understood.
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The actual current flow for a given voltage drop is give by the Diode Equation
and contains variables such as Saturation current, applied voltage and diode
temperature.
Testing
In the following the red lead on a meter is considered to be positive and the
black negative. Although this may seem obvious it should be noted that for
some older type analogue meters this polarity is reversed when it is set to
read Resistance
Most modern meters are able to forward bias a diode when set to measure
resistance. No meaningful information can be read off the meter however as
it is an ohmic value dependent on variables of the meter itself.
Some meters have a Diode Check facility. Use of this will in Forward bias will
give a Voltage value equivalent to the nominal forward bias voltage.
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It is unlikely that the meter will be able to generate the 50v required to exceed
the Peak Inverse Voltage to cause the diode to breakdown. As for most
Diodes this would cause there destruction this becomes unnecessary.
However, devices such as an Insulation Tester ( Megger) can easily exceed
this and for this reason all diodes should be disconnected from a device
before they are used.
Specialist Types
Zener Diode- these are diodes which may be used in the Reverse biased
mode where they breakdown at a known voltage and allow current flow. They
are used primarily in voltage stabilising circuits
.
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The stabiliser circuit consists of the Zener diode and a Dropper Resistor
across which takes the excess voltage.
Free Wheeling Diodes - sometimes referred to as Inductor Commuting are a

standard diode placed across the coil of a coil. These are typically found on
relays.
When the supply is turned off the coil the collapsing magnetic field causes a
high voltage to be generated which can cause arcing at the switch. The diode
dissipates the current slowing down the collapse of the field (and thereby
slowing the response of the relay which may cause problems in some
electronic circuits)
Light Emitting Diode- Electrons flowing through a PN junction experience a

change in energy level emitting radiant energy when doing so. Constructing
diodes containing elements gallium, Arsenic and phosphorus creates radiant
energy at visible wavelengths. A Limited number of Colours can be created
by changing the chemical constituency, more colours can be created by
adding more than on LED using the same Lens.
Constant Current Diode- These limit the current flowing a circuit. These are
seen in LED circuits and charging devices for Secondary Batteries
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Requirements for Electrical machinery
Machinery requirements
It is a standard requirement that all propulsion and auxiliary machinery fitted

should be capable of operating when upright and when inclined at an angle of
list up to 15o either way under static conditions and 22 Нo under dynamic
conditions either way and when simultaneously inclined dynamically 7 1/20
by bow and stern. The emergency generating sets shall be capable of
functioning when the ship is inclined 22 1/2o from upright and inclined 100
bow to stern. The two main factors of concern are lubrication and the
functioning of contactors, switchgear and relays having unsymmetrical or
unbalanced magnetic systems when the magnetic pull required to operate
increases with tilt. Apparatus, such as transformers or switches, containing oil
could be affected.
Temperature effects
Extremes of temperature will affect the performance and the effective life of
the electrical apparatus. Devices which depend on electromagnetic operation
by shunt coils will find resistance of the coil increases with temperature so
with less current both the ampere turns and the field strength is reduced.
Contactors and relays may fail to operate correctly if overheated.
The total temperature is determined partly by ambient air temperature and

partly by heating effect of the current windings.
This heating effect gives a temperature rise and this is always about the
same for similar load.
The total temperature, which will affect the life of the insulation and the
performance of the equipment, will be maximum at the maximum ambient
temperature. For unrestricted service the cooling air temperature is 45oC . For
restricted service and vessels intended for northern and southern waters
outside of the tropical belt the temperature is 40oC.
Adequate ventilation and avoidance of hot pockets where electrical apparatus

operates is important.
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When considering suitable operating temperature for a device the 'hot spot
temperature' is important. In the field coil the hot spot is somewhere in the
centre of the winding and there is a temperature gradient form there to the
surface. Previous recorded surface temperature values corresponding to
specified hot spots temperature are acceptable for recording the machines
performance. Another method is to record changes in resistance due to
temperature in the winding.
When carrying out temperature tests on machines the maximum surface

temperature of the windings is found just after the machine has stopped and
it is no longer cooled by wind age. The temperature bulb should be covered
by a pad of felt to prevent heat loss when the surface winding readings are
taken.
Installation and maintenance
To reduce end play and avoid hammering during rolling machines should be
installed with their axis of rotation in the fore and aft direction or vertically. If
unavoidable that the machine is placed athwart ships suitable thrust bearings
should be provided against the hammering effect. Special attention should be
paid to the lubrication of ring lubricated sleeve bearings.
The main cause of overheating in electrical joints is loose connections usually

due to vibrational problems. All screws and nuts should be locked and
periodically checked and tightened if necessary.
Heavy current circuits, control and shunt field circuits should all be checked.
Machine rating
The recognised standard is the Continuous maximum rating (C.M.R.), motors

and generators are seldom if ever called upon to operate under sustained
overload.
Momentary overloads (15s for test purposes) of 50% in generators is allowed.

Motor overload is determined by function and size.
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C.M.R. machines will still carry moderate overloads for reasonable duration's.
An example of this may be an oil pump on start up may experience high
loads as the oil is initially cold.
Circuit protection
For example;
o Motor drawing 100A on 220v supply 218v measured at motor

terminals giving a 2 volt drop across cables
o Cable resistance therefore is 0.02 Ohm's.
If the motor is bypassed the PROSPECTIVE SHORT CIRCUIT current

would be 11,000A
The main circuit breaker may be protected by fuses or a circuit breaker

having at least the necessary breaking capacity and fast enough operative
time. This is 'back up' protection. Generator circuit breakers must not be used
for this purpose.
In motor circuits the breaking capacity of motor starters is usually very limited
and does not greatly exceed the starting current of the motors, If a fuse is
fitted for 'back up' protection of the motor starter it should be able to carry the
starter current for the time necessary to start the motor plus a suitable
margin. If correctly chosen it will not blow except under maximum mechanical
fault or electrical fault or overload conditions. It will still give protection should
the fault current exceed what the motor starter can handle.
If A.C. generators and their excitation systems undergo steady short circuit
conditions they should be capable of maintaining a current of at least three
times its rated value for 2 seconds unless requirements are made for a
shorter duration. The safety of the installations must be insured.
Performance
The standard condition for generator performance is based on the starting

kVA of the largest motor, or group of motors which can be started
simultaneously and this kVA should not exceed 60% of the generator
capacity.
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Voltage should not fall below 85% or rise above 120% of the rated voltage
when such a load have a power factor from zero to 0.4 is thrown on or thrown
off the board.
Voltage must be restored to within 3% of the rated voltage within 1.5s. For
emergency generators 4% in 5s is allowed. The transient effect when a load
is suddenly thrown on is to cause a voltage dip. This dip may be made less if
the generator is designed to have a lower reactance during transient
conditions. However, too low a reactance with a smaller voltage dip may
involve high short circuit currents in excess of capabilities of the available
protective devices.
The designer must consider the opposing conditions of low transient voltage
dip and low short circuit currents and balance these conditions against
possible increase in machine size, weight and cost.
Functional systems generally operate faster than error operation systems.

Nevertheless most functional systems use an A.V.R. for trimming purposes
because of practical difficulties of maintaining normal voltage within narrow
limits. Methods normally supplied will maintain voltages within +/- 2 Н % with
many attaining +/- 1 Н %
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Hazardous Zone areas
Ships are segregated into zones determined by the level of hazard with
regard to likelihood of the atmosphere containing an explosive atmosphere. A
plan of the vessel indicating this segregation is to be submitted to class.
Hazardous
Certified Intrinsically safe Circuits
Areas Zone 0
Certified Flame proof equipment
Certified Increased safety equipment; for increased safety
Hazardous motors due consideration is to be given to overcurrent
Areas Zone 1 protection
Pressurised enclosure equipment
Equipment contained in a dielectric filled enclosure
Cables with suitable earthed sheathing
Certified Flame proof equipment
Certified Increased safety equipment; for increased safety
motors due consideration is to be given to overcurrent
Hazardous protection
Areas Zone 2 Pressurised enclosure equipment
Equipment contained in a dielectric filled enclosure
Cables with suitable earthed sheathing
Any equipment which ensures an absence of hot spots or
sparks during normal operation
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Ingress Protection (IP)
First Digit (solids) Second Digit (Fluids) Third Digit (Impact)

0 No Protection 0 No Protection 0 No Protection
1 Solid Objects 1 Impact of 0.225
over 50mm 1 Vertically falling drops of joule
e.g. accidental water (150g weight dropped
touch by hand from 15cm)
2 Impact of 0.375
2 Solid Objects
2 Direct sprays of water up to joule
over 12mm
15o from the vertical (250g weight dropped
e.g. fingers
from 15cm)
3 Solid Objects 3 Impact of 0.5 joule
3 Direct sprays of water up to
over 2.5mm (250g weight dropped
60o from the vertical
e.g. tools and wires from 20cm)
4 Solid Objects 4 Water sprayed from all
over 1mm direction - 4 (no meaning)
e.g. small wires limited ingress permitted
5 Dust - Limited
5 Low pressure water jets 5 Impact of 2.0 joule
Ingress
from all directions - (500g weight dropped
(no harmful
limited ingress permitted from 40cm)
deposits)
6 Strong pressure water jets
6 Dust - Total; No
from all directions - 6 (no meaning)
ingress
limited ingress permitted
7 Impact of 6.0 joule
7 Immersion between 15cm to
7 (1.5Kb weight
1m
dropped from 40cm)
8 Long periods of immersion
8 8 (no meaning)
under pressure
9 Impact of 6.0 joule
9 9 (5Kb weight dropped
from 40cm)
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Electric Governors
Electric governors have become in favour due to their compact size, rapid
response and high reliability allied to low maintenance costs.
The main part of the governor is the controller and signal amplifier. This
receives a D.C. signal proportional to the engine speed and compares it to a
speed set signal. The difference between the measured value (engine speed)
and the set value is the offset, this offset value is passed to the output circuit
which produces an appropriate output signal. In this case, a signal which
raises or lowers the fuel rack by an amount dependent on the degree of
offset. This system is inherently stable due to the feedback layout.
For this system the engine speed is measured using an alternator driven off
the camshaft- this is a common arrangement. The speed set signal is
typically supplied by the bridge control arrangement via the engine
management system.
An arrangement for a generator set might replace the camshaft driven

alternator with a tapping off the alternator output. The frequency of the
alternator output is now the measured value. In addition a load sensing
element can be introduced detecting changes in current flow. For increased
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current, that is an increased electrical load, the governor can act to supply
increased fuel before the engine has began to slow.
Parelling
Parallel operation of generators
D.C. generators
For compound wound D.C. generators it is usually sufficient to ensure that

the voltages of the incoming generator is the same as the bus bar voltage.
The equalising connection joining the junctions between the armatures and
their series fields is incorporated in the circuit breaker in such a way that the
equalising connection is automatically closed before and opens after, the
main contacts. By adjustment of the shunt field regulator the load sharing
may be controlled
A.C. alternators
To parallel alternators the following conditions are required;
1. Same voltage-checked with the voltmeter

2. Same frequency-checked with the frequency meter and
synchroscope
3. Same phase angle-checked with synchroscope
4. Same phase rotation-checked with rotation meter. Only important
when connecting shore supply, or after maintenance on
switchgear or alternator.
Load Sharing Of Alternators In Parallel
Alternators in parallel must always run at the same speed. After a machine
has been paralleled and is required to take up its share of the load, this will
not be achieved by adjusting the field excitation current. Although the
increase in e.m.f. will cause a current to flow in the busbars, and this will
show on the machines ammeters, this is a reactive current that lags the e.m.f.
by 90o and produces a reactive (kVAr) but not kW. Its only effect is to alter
the operating power factor of the alternator.
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More power may be obtained at the bus bars from the incoming alternator
only by supplying more power to its prime mover. This increase of steam or
fuel supply is achieved by altering the governor setting either electrically or
manually.
After adjusting the governor the incoming machine takes up its desired
amount of the kW loading and this is recorded on the machines watt meter.
However, if the kW loading is shared equally between two machines it may
be found that the Load Current of the incoming machine is more or less than
the other machine. This is fue to the incoming machine having a different
power factor. This may be corrected by adjusting the excitation of the
incoming alternator.
Thus after paralleling an alternator;
1. Adjust prime mover governor until kW loading is correct

2. Adjust field excitation current until current sharing is correct.
If the alternators have similar load characteristics, once adjusted, the load will
continue to be shared. If the load characteristics of alternators vary, the kW
loading and load current sharing may require readjusting under different load
conditions.
Load sharing of alternators
No1 on load
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No1 on load, No2 synchronised and taking 100kW
No1 and No2 sharing load after adjusting governor settings, excitation
adjusted to prevent excessive volt drop in No2
No1 and No2 sharing load with balanced power factors by adjusting
excitation
The effects of altering Torque and Excitation on single phase alternator plant-
and by extrapolation a 3-phase circuit
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Before paralleling, by varying Rb, adjust the excitation current in the rotor
field of 'B' until Va=Vb. When in phase and at the same frequency
synchronising may take place.
If there was no external load on the bus bars the torque on the prime movers
of A and B is only that required by its own alternator and Ra and Rb are
adjusted so that Ea and Eb are equal.
Relative to the bus bars Ea and Eb are acting in the same direction with each
other making the top bar positive with respect to the bottom bar.
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Varying the driving torque
If the driving torque of 'B' is reduced (less fuel supplied) the rotor falls back by
an angle say p.f.(b) giving a resultant e.m.f. of Ez in the closed circuit.
The e.m.f. Ez circulates a current I which lags behind Ez by angle p.f.(a).

This circulating current Iis more or less in phase with Ea and in opposition to
Eb.
This means that A is generating power to motor B and this will compensate
for any loss of power in the prime mover of B.
Once the power increase in A equals the power loss of B balance is restored
and A and B continue to run in synchronism.
Therefore the power is shared by adjusting the torque (fuel input.)
Slight loss of power in B-is taken up by an increase in power from A. The

terminal voltage will not vary and the speed and frequency will stay the same
or drop only very slightly.
Large loss of power in B-with a large circulating current from A to B the

alternator A will try to drive B as a synchronous motor. The amount of full
load power required to drive an alternator as a motor is only 2 to 3% for a
turbine and 10 to 12% for diesel engine.
As the circulating current flows from A to B the reverse power trip on B will
operate after about 3 to 5 seconds.
All the load now falls on A which will probably cause the overload trip to
operate and 'black out'.
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Varying excitation
Consider A and B are exerting the torque required by its alternator and the
generated e.m.f. Ea and Eb are equal. There is no circulating current.
By reducing Rb the excitation current in the field of B can be increased and
Eb will increase. Ez is the resultant difference (Eb - Ea) which will give a
circulating current I through the synchronous impedances of the two
alternators. As the machines are similar the impedance drop in each will be
1/2Ez so the terminal voltage
V1 = Eb - Н Ez = Ea + Н Ez
Therefore increasing the excitation current will increase the terminal

voltage
As p.f.(a) is almost 90o the Power circulating from B to A is very small
Ez I Cos [ p.f.(a)] approx equals Zero (Cos 90o = Zero)
Effect of reducing Excitation

By increasing Rb the reduction of the field excitation current of B will reduce
the terminal voltage
Ea>Eb terminal Voltage V = Ea - Н Ez = Eb + Н Ez
The circulating current I from A to B will have a large 'Wattless' component.

Machine A now has more of the lagging reactive current and its power factor
is reduced. Too large a reduction in excitation current in B with subsequent
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increase in load current in A could cause the current overload trip of A to
operate. This could be followed by the low voltage or the overload trip of B
operating causing a black out.
Voltage regulation
The graph demonstrates that excitation must be increased (generally) with

increasing load to maintain terminal voltage
The worse the power factor the worse the terminal voltage change during
load change.
Voltage regulation = DV when load removed/ Full load terminal voltage
At 1.0 p.f. = AC/ OA
At 0.8 p.f = AD/ OA
Therefore lower p.f. = greater voltage regualtion

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COMPETENCY No. 5
Operate Computers & Computer Networks on Ships
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What is a computer?
Computers are not very intelligent devices, but they handle instructions
flawlessly and fast. They must follow explicit directions from the both the user
and computer programmer. Computers are really nothing more than a very
powerful calculator with some great accessories. Applications like word
processing and games are just a very complex math problem.
Hardware components
Input Devices – “How to tell what to do”
A keyboard and mouse are the standard way to interact with the computer.
Other devices include joysticks and game pads used primarily for games.
Output Devices – “How it shows you what it is doing”
The monitor (the screen) is hoe the computer sends information back to you,
whether it be surfing the web or writing a memo. A printer is also an output
device.
Storage Devices – “How it saves data and programs”
Hard disc drives are an internal, higher capacity drive which also stores the
operating systems runs when you power on the computer.
“Floppy” disk drives allow you to save allow you to save work on small disks
and take the data with you.
Memory - “How the processor stores and uses immediate data”
When you use a program, the computer loads a portion of a program from the
hard drive to much faster memory (RAM). When you save your work or quit
the program, the data gets written back to the hard drive.
Microprocessors – “The brain of the computer”
PCs primarily use microprocessors (sometimes called the chip) manufactured
by Intel. The older Intel versions include the 386,486and now the Pentium
line.
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Mcintoshes use Power PC processors by Motorola.
Megahertz(MHz) is the internal processor speed in which computer
instructions are performed. The MHz speed does not always indicate the
power of microprocessor. Newer processor can execute more instruction at
the same or slower MHZ. For example an Intel 486 100MHz is less powerful
than a Pentium 75MHz (but the MHz is faster)
Modems
Modems allow you to communicate with other computers using a phone line.
Modem speeds in bits per second (14.4,28.8 &56 thousand bits per second
are standard)
CD-ROM Drives
A CD-ROM drive is a high capacity storage device which lets you read data
from the disk, but not write data back. The speed of the drive (how fast the
CD platter spins) is measured in multiples from the first generation drives.
New drives are up to 24X (or 24 times the first drives),but while CD spins
faster, it is not really 24 times faster in actual output.
Printers
There are different types of printers (laser, ink jet, dot matrix) with differing
quality of output. They are measured in dpi (dots per inch) and ppm (page per
minute),the higher the better.
Scanners
Scanners “digitize” printed material (like photos and graphics) and save to a
graphic file format (like GIF or JPG) for display on the computer.
SYSTEN SOFTWARE
Operating system software provides a “user interface” for users to manage
files, start programs, customize computer settings, and other tasks. The
operating system also provides the fundamental core computer functionality
for programmers.
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Intel based PCs use Microsoft Windows Version XP (older), Windows Vista,
Windows 7 as the operating system. Macintosh use the macintosh operating
system. Linux with many flavors: Ubuntu,Debian and Red Hat
Compilers for various languages: C,C++,Java,…
Application Software
Application software uses the operating system software and provides
the real functionality of a computer. Applications includenext slide)
TEXT EDITING, WORD PROCESSING, DESKTOP PUBLISHING

SOFTWARE
Simple text editors: notpad,vi, gedit,…Formats: .txt
Word processing (MS word 2000, MS word 2007, MS word 2010), formats:
.rtf, .doc, .docx
Scientific publication software: (Latex, Wiktek, Lyx, Kile…) (for research
articles, books & dissertation). File extensions: .tex, .tex, .lyx, .tex, .tex (can
also create files in .ps (post scripts), .pdf (portable document format)
Page Maker (Available in MS Windows, for High Quality Text Editing and
Desktop Publishing)
Spreadsheets (Excel) File.xls, .xlsx (can also save in .csv, html, .dbf)
Presentation Creation (MS Power Point,…..) (file: .ppt, .pptx)
Acrobat Reader for pdf (portable document format) files (.pdf)
GRAPHICAL PACKAGES
Graphics (bitmap/pixels and vector/object or mixed)
File Formats: .bmp, .jpg, .svg, .eps, .tif, .tiff, .png( Joint Photographic Experts
Group, Tagged Image File Format, Portable Network Graphics)
Image Editor Packages: Latexdraw (.svg, .ps, .eps, .jpg,…) in linux
Diagram Editor Package: .dia (in Linux and Windows), can export files in to
other formats.
152 | P a g e

COMPETENCY No. 6
Maintenance & repair of electrical and electronic
equipment
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Avoiding Electric Shocks
Your body is a delicate machine. Electric shocks, depending on certain
conditions, can be fatal, even at relatively low voltages. What comes out of
your wall outlet is deadly if you play around with it. Even electrical gadgets
working off batteries can cause you serious damage.
How voltage and current can get you?
Your body is like a big resistor. Usually, your body's resistance is high
enough to prevent damage when you're exposed to low voltages. However,
certain conditions can lower your body's resistance, lowering the amount of
voltage needed to cause you serious damage, such as giving you a nasty
burn. Those conditions might include handling electronics with sweaty palms
or trying to change your 12 volt (V) car battery on a rainy day — either can
turn a slight tingle into a fatal event.
Both AC (alternating current, such as the power from your wall outlet) and DC
(direct current, such as from a battery) voltage can damage you in different
ways:
AC voltage: This type of voltage regularly reverses direction. This can cause
your heart to shift its regular beating pattern in a condition known as
ventricular fibrillation. If this happens, your heart muscles go out of whack in a
way that causes blood to stop pumping. In this situation, even if you cut the
current, your heart might not be able to find its proper rhythm, and you could
die.
DC voltage: This type of voltage is on constantly and causes your muscles to
contract and seize up quickly (including your heart muscle). If you grab an
electrical device in conditions that cause your body to conduct DC voltage,
your hands could become frozen (unable to let go of the device), and your
heart could stop. If someone cuts the current quickly, though, your heart
might begin to beat again (and you'll be able to attend that Rotary luncheon
next week).
Short of killing you, electric shock can cause burns as the current dissipates
across your body's natural resistance (that is, your skin).
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How much is too much?
Most resistance in your body is in your skin. If your skin is wet or damp, that
resistance is lowered. If you handle an electrical device with damp hands,
even voltages under 20V or so (not enough to even light a low-wattage lamp)
might be sufficient to do you serious damage. The 120V coming out of your
electrical outlet has a lot of punch: more than enough to kill you.
Four AA batteries in series generate only about 6V. Just because AA
batteries don't have a high voltage output, don't think that they can't hurt you.
If you short them out, all the electrons will flow quickly from the negative to
the positive poles and generate a lot of heat — enough heat, in some cases,
to destroy the battery and possibly burn you. If you feel heat coming from
your circuit or the batteries, you might have a short-circuit or a component
inserted the wrong way. Turn it off and let things cool down; then check to
see what's causing the problem.
The resistance in your body can vary greatly. For example, if you have
sweaty hands and touch a live wire with one hand while the other hand rests
on a metal table, this is a very dangerous situation. Because you have
moisture on your hands — which lowers your contact resistance — a higher
current will flow through your body for a given voltage. If you have dry hands
— one hand touching a live wire, the other hand in your pocket — and your
feet on a dry, rubber mat, there's far less danger from the same amount of
voltage because your resistance is higher. However, if a higher voltage
comes your way, even with the higher resistance, you could die. Bottom line:
There is no iron clad rule as to what level of voltage will kill or seriously injure
a person because of all the variables.
Regardless of how much voltage you work with, develop safe work habits
now.
Common sense: Protecting yourself from getting shocked
Although you should always use care working with electricity, especially avoid
some common situations that could turn your body into a super conductor.
You know you shouldn't stick your finger into an electrical outlet, but you
should also get into some other good habits. Read on.
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Rings are out
Metal is a dandy conductor. Wearing rings or other metal jewellery around
electricity is a lousy idea. For example, when the skin on your finger is
surrounded by a ring (a terrific contact point) and you touch a voltage source,
your body's resistance can be very low. In that state, even a lower voltage jolt
could do you serious damage. Leave jewellery somewhere else — including
your wedding ring — when working with electricity.
Another good reason to avoid jewellery is that it can snag on things. Imagine
working on a breadboard filled with wires and tiny components, only to have
your ring or necklace catch on something and yank it out. At the least, you
have to put the component back in place; at the worst, you could damage the
component and have to replace it.
Beware of water!
Don't work in a wet environment (say, outdoors on a rainy day, or while
standing on a damp garage floor). This prevention might seem obvious, but
consider that cup of coffee on your workbench. What would happen if you
knocked it over while working with electricity? You need to become super
careful about anything wet or moist in or near your work area. This includes
you: If you just came in out of the rain or from a run, dry off before working on
electrical equipment.
Respect electricity
Here's one simple rule that you should memorize right now: Never touch a
component in a circuit that has power (an energized circuit). Turn off all
power sources or remove the source from the circuit entirely before touching
it.
One trick that electricians use is to keep their left hands in their pockets when
working with electrical equipment. If a zap occurs, it will flow from their right
hands to the ground — not from hand to hand, passing right through the
heart. You shouldn't be working with live electricity — ever! — but this trick of
trade used by more advanced users shows how important it is to understand
how electricity works and respect its authority.
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Even when the source is removed, some electricity might remain. To be
absolutely sure, before you touch anything, test the circuit with your
multimeter. And don't take somebody else's word that the power is off; always
check and double-check this yourself!
Don't work with AC-operated circuits unless you absolutely have to. And if
you do, it might not be a bad idea to have a friend nearby who is trained in
CPR. The Red Cross has more information about CPR training.
HOME
Marine Planned Maintenance for Windows
The system consists of a series of planned maintenance job cards

(PM JobCard), covering the vessels equipment. Each PM JobCard
consists of 3 major elements:
 A set of up to 6 job routines each of which contains the

maintenance instructions for a particular task
 The maintenance schedule for the job routines, consisting of
interval and next due date or hours. Intervals can be calendar,
hours or events such as dry dock
 A history record of previous PM job completion reports and
directly entered comments
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Job Card Screen
The system issues lists of maintenance due, giving the user a choice
of how far to look ahead when including maintenance in the list. The
list will include all maintenance due, overdue and shortly due
according to the period ahead selected.
A similar list of maintenance due to be completed can be produced,
enabling users to quickly enter job completion reports in the easy to
use job completion module. PM job completions reschedule the job
for the next issue, by adding the interval to the completion date or
running hours. If linked to A MSKWin stock system, spare parts used
can be issued from the inventory listing.
Running hour due dates are controlled by Meters which record the
latest hours and have a configurable expected daily rate, used to
look ahead to predict expected due dates corresponding to next due
hours. The prediction looks ahead from the latest meter reading,
rather then the last maintenance job completion date, and so
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becomes more accurate the closer the next due date comes. Meters
can be physical devices or readings from running hour books.
Additionally users can enter comments directly into the maintenance

history, covering unscheduled maintenance and breakdowns. Each
comment is correctly inserted in the right chronological order.
Additional features of the system include a defect reporting module
covering the ISM requirements for defect reporting and a ship
information module where a mass of important general information
about the vessel can be stored. Calibration readings can be stored in
configurable templates.
A data transfer system enables the vessels to transfer their PM

database updates as an email message or directly to an external
memory stick. The central Office Planned Maintenance system
(OPMWin) can then easily import these data updates, enabling ship
managers and owners to monitor maintenance status onboard.
Simplicity is the key to success Practical DC Motors with all

computerised marine systems.
Vibration Analysis Link the Marine Planned Maintenance System

can optionally Link with RCM Mariner & RCM Voyager Units. This
allows the Planned Maintenance System to Schedule when the
reading needs to be taken and offer simple guidance on the
corrective actions to rectify the Alarm or Pre-Alarm Condition. The
crew do not need to be trained in Vibration Analysis techniques.
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Practical dc motors
As you have seen, dc motors are electrically identical to dc generators. In
fact, the same dc machine may be driven mechanically to generate a voltage,
or it may be driven electrically to move a mechanical load. While this is not
normally done, it does point out the similarities between the two machines.
These similarities will be used in the remainder of this chapter to introduce
you to practical dc motors.
You will immediately recognize series, shunt, and compound types of motors
as being directly related to their generator counterparts.
Series DC Motor
In a series dc motor, the field is connected in series with the armature. The
field is wound with a few turns of large wire, because it must carry full
armature current. The circuit for a series dc motor is shown in figure 2-3.
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Figure 2-3.—Series-wound dc motor.
This type of motor develops a very large amount of turning force, called
torque, from a standstill.
Because of this characteristic, the series dc motor can be used to operate
small electric appliances, portable electric tools, cranes, winches, hoists, and
the like.
Another characteristic is that the speed varies widely between no-load and
full-load. Series motors cannot be used where a relatively constant speed is
required under conditions of varying load.
A major disadvantage of the series motor is related to the speed
characteristic mentioned in the last paragraph. The speed of a series motor
with no load connected to it increases to the point where the motor may
become damaged.
Usually, either the bearings are damaged or the windings fly out of the slots
in the armature. There is a danger to both equipment and personnel. Some
load must ALWAYS be connected to a series motor before you turn it on.
This precaution is primarily for large motors. Small motors, such as those
used in electric hand drills, have enough internal friction to load themselves.
A final advantage of series motors is that they can be operated by using
either an AC or DC power source. This will be covered in the chapter on ac
motors.
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Q7. What is the main disadvantage of a series motor?
Q8. What is the main advantage of a series motor?
Shunt Motor
A shunt motor is connected in the same way as a shunt generator. The field
windings are connected in parallel (shunt) with the armature windings. The
circuit for a shunt motor is shown in figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4.—Shunt-wound dc motor.
Once you adjust the speed of a dc shunt motor, the speed remains relatively
constant even under changing load conditions. One reason for this is that the
field flux remains constant. A constant voltage across the field makes the field
independent of variations in the armature circuit.
If the load on the motor is increased, the motor tends to slow down. When
this happens, the counter e.m.f generated in the armature decreases. This
causes a corresponding decrease in the opposition to battery current flow
through the armature. Armature current increases, causing the motor to
speed up.
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The conditions that established the original speed are re-established, and
the original speed is maintained.
Conversely, if the motor load is decreased, the motor tends to increase
speed; counter e.m.f increases, armature current decreases, and the speed
decreases.
In each case, all of this happens so rapidly that any actual change in speed is
slight.
There is instantaneous tendency to change rather than a large fluctuation in
speed.
Q9. What advantage does a shunt motor have over a series motor?
Compound Motor
A compound motor has two field windings, as shown in figure 2-5. One is a
shunt field connected in parallel with the armature; the other is a series field
that is connected in series with the armature. The shunt field gives this type
of motor the constant speed advantage of a regular shunt motor. The series
field gives it the advantage of being able to develop a large torque when the
motor is started under a heavy load. It should not be a surprise that the
compound motor has both shunt- and series-motor characteristics.
Figure 2-5.—Compound-wound dc motor

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When the shunt field is connected in parallel with the series field and
armature, it is called a "long shunt" as shown in figure 2-5, (view A).
Otherwise, it is called a "short shunt", as shown in figure 2-5, (view B).
TYPES OF ARMATURES
As with dc generators, dc motors can be constructed using one of two types

of armatures. A brief review of the Gramme-ring and drum-wound armatures
is necessary to emphasize the similarities between dc generators and dc
motors.
Gramme Ring Armature
The Gramme-ring armature is constructed by winding an insulated wire
around a soft-iron ring (fig.2.6)
Eight equally spaced connections are made to the winding. Each of these is
connected to a commutator segment. The brushes touch only the top and
bottom segments. There are two parallel paths for current to follow — one up
the left side and one up the right side. These paths are completed through
the top brush back to the positive lead of the battery.
Figure 2-6.—Gramme-ring armature

To check the direction of rotation of this armature, you should use the right-
hand rule for motors.
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Hold your thumb, forefinger, and middle finger at right angles. Point your
forefinger in the direction of field flux; in this case, from left to right. Now turn
your wrist so that your middle finger points in the direction that the current
flows in the winding on the outside of the ring.
Note that current flows into the page (away from you) in the left-hand
windings and out of the page (toward you) in the right-hand windings. Your
thumb now points in the direction that the winding will move.
The Gramme-ring armature is seldom used in modem dc motors. The
windings on the inside of the ring are shielded from magnetic flux, which
causes this type of armature to be inefficient. The Gramme-ring armature is
discussed primarily to help you better understand the drum-wound armature.
Drum Wound Armature

The drum-wound armature is generally used in ac motors. It is identical to the
drum winding discussed in the chapter on dc generators.
If the drum-wound armature were cut in half, an end view at the cut would
resemble the drawing in figure 2-7, (view A), Figure 2-7, (view B) is a side
view of the armature and pole pieces. Notice that the length of each
conductor is positioned parallel to the faces of the pole pieces. Therefore,
each conductor of the armature can cut the maximum flux of the motor field.
The inefficiency of the Gramme-ring armature is overcome by this positioning.
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Figure 2-7.—Drum-type armature
The direction of current flow is marked in each conductor in figure 2-7, (view
A) as though the armature were turning in a magnetic field. The dots show
that current is flowing toward you on the left side, and the crosses show that
the current is flowing away from you on the right side.
Strips of insulation are inserted in the slots to keep windings in place when
the armature spins. These are shown as wedges in figure 2-7, (view A).
Q10. Why is the Gramme-ring armature not more widely used?
Q11. How is the disadvantage of the Gramme-ring armature overcome in the
drum-wound armature?
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Direction of rotation
The direction of rotation of a dc motor depends on the direction of the
magnetic field and the direction of current flow in the armature. If either the
direction of the field or the direction of current flow through the armature is
reversed, the rotation of the motor will reverse. However, if both of these
factors are reversed at the same time, the motor will continue rotating in the
same direction. In actual practice, the field excitation voltage is reversed in
order to reverse motor direction.
Ordinarily, a motor is set up to do a particular job that requires a fixed
direction of rotation.
However, there are times when it is necessary to change the direction of
rotation, such as a drive motor for a gun turret or missile launcher. Each of
these must be able to move in both directions. Remember, the connections of
either the armature or the field must be reversed, but not both. In such
applications, the proper connections are brought out to a reversing switch.
Q12. In a dc motor that must be able to rotate in both directions, how is the
direction changed?
Motor speed
A motor whose speed can be controlled is called a variable-speed motor; dc
motors are variable- speed motors. The speed of a dc motor is changed by
changing the current in the field or by changing the current in the armature.
When the field current is decreased, the field flux is reduced, and the counter
emf decreases. This permits more armature current. Therefore, the motor
speeds up. When the field current is increased, the field flux is increased.
More counter emf is developed, which opposes the armature current. The
armature current then decreases, and the motor slows down.
When the voltage applied to the armature is decreased, the armature current
is decreased, and the motor again slows down. When the armature voltage
and current are both increased, the motor speeds up.
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In a shunt motor, speed is usually controlled by a rheostat connected in
series with the field windings, as shown in figure 2-8. When the resistance of
the rheostat is increased, the current through the field winding is decreased.
The decreased flux momentarily decreases the counter emf. The motor then
speeds up, and the increase in counter emf keeps the armature current the
same.
In a similar manner, a decrease in rheostat resistance increases the current

flow through the field windings and causes the motor to slow down.
Figure 2-8.—Controlling motor speed.

In a series motor, the rheostat speed control may be connected either in
parallel or in series with the armature windings. In either case, moving the
rheostat in a direction that lowers the voltage across the armature lowers the
current through the armature and slows the motor. Moving the rheostat in a
direction that increases the voltage and current through the armature
increases motor speed.
Q13. What is the effect on motor speed if the field current is increased?
Armature reaction
You will remember that the subject of armature reaction was covered in the
previous chapter on dc generators. The reasons for armature reaction and
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the methods of compensating for its effects are basically the same for dc
motors as for dc generators.
Figure 2-9.—Armature reaction.
Figure 2-9 reiterates for you the distorting effect that the armature field has on
the flux between the pole pieces. Notice, however, that the effect has shifted
the neutral plane backward, against the direction of rotation. This is different
from a dc generator, where the neutral plane shifted forward in the direction
of rotation.
As before, the brushes must be shifted to the new neutral plane. As shown in
figure 2-9, the shift is counter clockwise. Again, the proper location is reached
when there is no sparking from the brushes.
Q14. Armature reaction in a dc motor causes a shift of the neutral plane in
which direction?
Compensating windings and inter-poles, two more "old" subjects, cancel
armature reaction in dc motors. Shifting brushes reduces sparking, but it also
makes the field less effective. Cancelling armature reaction eliminates the
need to shift brushes in the first place.
Compensating windings and inter-poles are as important in motors as they
are in generators. Compensating windings are relatively expensive; therefore,
most large dc motors depend on inter-poles to correct armature reaction.
Compensating windings are the same in motors as they are in generators.
Inter-poles, however, are slightly different. The difference is that in a
generator the inter-pole has the same polarity as the main pole AHEAD of it
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in the direction of rotation. In a motor the inter-pole has the same polarity as
the main pole FOLLOWING it.
The interpole coil in a motor is connected to carry the armature current the
same as in a generator. As the load varies, the interpole flux varies, and
commutation is automatically corrected as the load changes. It is not
necessary to shift the brushes when there is an increase or decrease in load.
The brushes are located on the no-load neutral plane. They remain in that
position for all conditions of load.
Q15. What current flows in the interpole windings?

The dc motor is reversed by reversing the direction of the current in the
armature. When the armature current is reversed, the current through the
interpole is also reversed. Therefore, the interpole still has the proper polarity
to provide automatic commutation.
Manual and automatic starters
Because the dc resistance of most motor armatures is low (0.05 to 0.5 ohm),
and because the counter emf does not exist until the armature begins to turn,
it is necessary to use an external starting resistance in series with the
armature of a dc motor to keep the initial armature current to a safe value. As
the armature begins to turn, counter emf increases; and, since the counter
emf opposes the applied voltage, the armature current is reduced. The
external resistance in series with the armature is decreased or eliminated as
the motor comes up to normal speed and full voltage is applied across the
armature.
Controlling the starting resistance in a dc motor is accomplished either
manually, by an operator, or by any of several automatic devices. The
automatic devices are usually just switches controlled by motor speed
sensors. Automatic starters are not covered in detail in this module.
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Q16. What is the purpose of starting resistors?
Summary
This chapter presented the operating principles and characteristics of direct-
current motors. The following information provides a summary of the main
subjects for review.
The main PRINCIPLE OF A DC MOTOR is that current flow through the
armature coil causes the armature to act as a magnet. The armature poles
are attracted to field poles of opposite polarity, causing the armature to rotate.
The CONSTRUCTION of a dc motor is almost identical to that of a dc
generator, both physically and electrically. In fact, most dc generators can be
made to act as dc motors, and vice versa.
COMMUTATION IN A DC MOTOR is the process of reversing armature
current at the moment when unlike poles of the armature and field are facing
each other, thereby reversing the polarity of the armature field. Like poles of
the armature and field then repel each other, causing armature rotation to
continue.
COUNTER-ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE is generated in a dc motor as

armature coils cut the field flux. This emf opposes the applied voltage, and
limits the flow of armature current.
In SERIES MOTORS, the field windings are connected in series with the
armature coil. The field strength varies with changes in armature current.
When its speed is reduced by a load, the series motor develops greater
torque. Its starting torque is greater than other types of dc motors. Its speed
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varies widely between full-load and no-load. Unloaded operation of large
machines is dangerous.
In SHUNT MOTORS, the field windings are connected in parallel (shunt)

across the armature coil.
The field strength is independent of the armature current. Shunt-motor speed
varies only slightly with changes in load, and the starting torque is less than
that of other types of dc motors.
In COMPOUND MOTORS, one set of field windings is connected in series

with the armature, and one set is connected in parallel. The speed and torque
characteristics are a combination of the desirable characteristics of both
series and shunt motors.
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LOAD on a motor is the physical object to be moved by the motor.
DC MOTOR ARMATURES are of two types. They are the Gramme-ring and
the drum-wound types.
THE GRAMME-RING ARMATURE is inefficient since part of each armature
coil is preventedfrom cutting flux lines. Gramme-ring wound armatures are
seldom used for this reason.
THE DRUM-WOUND ARMATURE consists of coils actually wound around

the armature core so that all coil surfaces are exposed to the magnetic field.
Nearly all dc motors have drum-wound armatures.
MOTOR REVERSAL in a dc motor can be accomplished by reversing the

field connections or by reversing the armature connections. If both are
reversed, rotation will continue in the original direction.
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SPEED CONTROL IN A DC MOTOR is maintained by varying the resistance
either in series with the field coil or in series with the armature coil. Increasing
shunt-field circuit resistance increases motor speed. Increasing the armature
circuit resistance decreases motor speed.
ARMATURE REACTION is the distortion of the main field in a motor by the

armature field. This causes the neutral plane to be shifted in the direction
opposite to that of armature rotation. Interpoles and compensating windings
are used to reduce the effect of armature reaction on motor operation.
STARTING RESISTORS are necessary since the dc resistance of a motor
armature is very low.
Excessive current will flow when dc voltage is first applied unless current is
limited in some way. Adding resistance in series with the armature windings
reduces initial current. It may then be removed after counter emf has been
built up.
Safe working practices with electrical installations
 Safety-related work practices shall be employed

to prevent electric shock or electrical contacts, when work is performed near
or on equipment or circuits which are or may be energized. Live parts
shall be de-energized before the employee works on them unless it can
be established that de-energizing introduces additional or increased
hazards or is not feasible due to design of equipment or operational
limitations. If exposed live parts are not de-energized for the above
174 | P a g e

reasons, other safety practices shall be used to protect employees.
Only qualified persons may work on energized circuits or equipment.
They shall be capable of working safely on energized circuits and be
familiar with the proper use of special precautions, personal protective
equipment, insulating and shielding materials, and insulated tools.
 Working on or near exposed de-energized parts
(A) Application - This applies to work on exposed de-

energized parts or near enough to them to expose
employees to any electrical hazard present. Conductors
and parts of electric equipment that have been de-
energized but have not been locked out or tagged shall be
treated as energized.
(B) Lockout and tagging - While any employee is exposed to

contact
with parts of fixed electric equipment or circuits which have
been de-energized, the circuits shall be locked out or
tagged or both.
Note: Lockout and tagging that comply with paragraphs (c) through (f) of 1910.147 (Lockout &
Tagging Standard) will comply with these requirements provided:
 The procedures address electrical hazards
 Stored non-electrical energy that could re-energize electrical circuits shall be
effectively blocked or relieved
 A qualified person shall use test equipment (volt-ohm meter, etc.) and shall verify
that the circuit and equipment are de-energized. If the circuit is over 600 volts, the
test equipment shall be checked for proper operation immediately before and
immediately after this test.
(C) Procedures - These written procedures shall be available for

inspection by employees and by the Commissioner of Labor or
authorized representatives.
(D) De-energizing equipment - Safe procedures for de-energizing

circuits and equipment shall be determined before circuits or
equipment are de-energized.
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(E) The circuits and equipment to be worked on shall be disconnected
from all electric energy sources. Control circuit devices, such as
push buttons, selector switches, and interlocks may not be used
as the sole means for de-energizing circuits or equipment.
Interlocks for electric equipment may not be used as a substitute
for lockout and tagging procedures.
(F) Stored electric energy which might endanger personnel shall be

released. Capacitors shall be discharged and high capacitance
elements shall be short-circuited and grounded, if the stored
electric energy might endanger personnel.
(G) Stored non-electrical energy in devices that could re-energize

electric circuit parts shall be blocked or relieved so that the circuit
parts could not be accidentally energized.
 Application of lock and tags
(A) A lock and a tag shall be placed on each disconnecting

means used to de-energize circuits and equipment on
which work is to be performed, except as provided in
paragraphs C and E below. The lock shall be attached so
as to prevent persons from operating the disconnecting
means unless they resort to undue force or the use of
tools, (bolt cutter, etc.).
(B) Each tag shall contain a statement prohibiting unauthorized

operation of the disconnecting means and removal of the tag.
(C) If a lock cannot be applied, or tagging procedures will provide a
level of safety equivalent to that obtained by the use of a lock, a
tag may be used without a lock.
(D) A tag used without a lock, as permitted by paragraph C above, shall

be supplemented by at least one additional safety measure that
provides a level of safety equivalent to that obtained by the use
of a lock. Examples of additional safety measures include the
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removal of a fuse, blocking a controlling switch, or opening an
extra disconnect.
(E) A lock may be placed without a tag only under the following
conditions:
1. Only one circuit or piece of equipment is de-energizing, and

2. The lockout period does not extend beyond the work shift, and
3. Employees exposed to the hazards associated with re-energizing
the circuit or equipment are familiar with this procedure.
 Verification of de-energizing condition
The requirements of this paragraph shall be met before any circuits or

equipment can be worked as de-energizing.
o A qualified person shall operate the equipment controls or

otherwise verify that the equipment cannot be restarted.
o A qualified person shall use test equipment (volt-ohm meter, etc.)

to test the circuit elements and electrical parts of equipment to
which employees will be exposed and shall verify that the circuit
elements and equipment parts are de-energized. The test shall
also determine if any energized condition exists as a result of
inadvertently induced voltage or unrelated voltage back feed
even though specific parts of the circuit have been de-energized
and presumed to be safe. If the circuit to be tested is over 600
volts, the test equipment shall be checked for proper operation
immediately before and immediately after this test.
 Re-energizing equipment
These requirements shall be met, in the order given, before circuits or

equipment are re-energized, even temporarily.
o A qualified person shall conduct tests and visual inspections to

verify that all tools, electrical jumpers, shorts, grounds, and other
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such devices have been removed, so that the circuits and
equipment can be safety energized.
o Employees exposed to the hazards of re-energizing the circuit or

equipment shall be warned to stay clear of circuits and
equipment.
o Each lock and tag shall be removed by the employee who

applied it or under his or her direct supervision. However, if this
employee is absent from the workplace, then the lock or tag may
be removed by a qualified person designated to perform this task
provided that:
 The employer ensures that the employee who applied the

lock or tag is not available at the workplace, and
 The employer ensures that the employee is aware that the

lock or tag has been removed before he or she resumes
work at that workplace.
 There shall be a visual determination that all employees are clear of he

circuits and equipment.
Terms and definitions for intrinsic safety

Intrinsically safe circuit
A circuit in which no spark and no thermal effect can cause the ignition
of a potentially explosive atmosphere.
Intrinsically safe electrical equipment
All circuits of the electrical equipment are intrinsically safe. The voltage
and the current in the intrinsically safe circuit are low enough such that
a short circuit, interruption or short circuit to ground will not ignite the
potentially explosive atmosphere.
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Intrinsically safe electrical equipment is suitable for operation direct in
hazardous area.
Typical marking:Exib IIC
Associated electrical equipment
At least one circuit of the associated electrical equipment is intrinsically
safe. Actuators and sensors connected to this intrinsically safe circuit
can be located in the hazardous area.
However, the associated electrical equipment must not be located in
the hazardous area without further protection types. In the marketing of
associated electrical equipment, the type of protection is placed in
brackets.
Typical marking:[Ex ib] IIC
Minimum ignition energy
The minimum ignition energy of gas and vapour/air mixture is the
smallest possible electrical energy discharge by a capacitor that can
ignite the most ignitable mixture of a gas or vapour with air at
atmospheric pressure and 20 degree centigrade.
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THE PRACTICAL DC GENERATOR
The actual construction and operation of a practical dc generator differs

somewhat from our elementary generators. The differences are in the
construction of the armature, the manner in which the armature is wound, and
the method of developing the main field.
A generator that has only one or two armature loops has high ripple voltage.
This results in too little current to be of any practical use. To increase the
amount of current output, a number of loops of wire are used. These
additional loops do away with most of the ripple. The loops of wire, called
windings, are evenly spaced around the armature so that the distance
between each winding is the same.
The commutator in a practical generator is also different. It has several

segments instead of two or four, as in our elementary generators. The number
of segments must equal the number of armature coils.
GRAMME-RING ARMATURE
The diagram of a GRAMME-RING armature is shown in figure 1-12, view A.

Each coil is connected to two commutator segments as shown. One end of
coil 1goes to segment A, and the other end of coil 1 goes to segment B. One
end of coil 2 goes to segment C, and the other end of coil 2 goes to segment
B. The rest of the coils are connected in a like manner, in series, around the
armature. To complete the series arrangement, coil 8 connects to segment A.
Therefore, each coil is in series with every other coil.
Figure 1-12.—Gramme-ring armature
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Figure 1-12, view B shows a composite view of a Gramme-ring armature. It
illustrates more graphically the physical relationship of the coils and
commutator locations.
The windings of a Gramme-ring armature are placed on an iron ring. A

disadvantage of this arrangement is that the windings located on the inner
side of the iron ring cut few lines of flux. Therefore, they have little, if any,
voltage induced in them. For this reason, the Gramme-ring armature is not
widely used.
DRUM TYPE ARMATURE
A drum-type armature is shown in figure 1-13. The armature windings are

placed in slots cut in a drum-shaped iron core. Each winding completely
surrounds the core so that the entire length of the conductor cuts the main
magnetic field. Therefore, the total voltage induced in the armature is greater
than in the Gramme-ring. You can see that the drum-type armature is much
more efficient than the Gramme-ring. This accounts for the almost universal
use of the drum-type armature in modem dc generators.
Figure 1-13.—Drum-type armature
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Drum-type armatures are wound with either of two types of windings — the
LAP WINDING or the WAVE WINDING.
The lap winding is illustrated in figure 1-14, view A This type of winding is
used in dc generators designed for high-current applications. The windings
are connected to provide several parallel paths for current in the armature.
For this reason, lap-wound armatures used in dc generators require several
pairs of poles and brushes.
Figure 1-14.—Types of windings used on drum-type armatures
Figure 1-14, view B, shows a wave winding on a drum-type armature. This

type of winding is used in dc generators employed in high-voltage
applications. Notice that the two ends of each coil are connected to
commutator segments separated by the distance between poles. This
configuration allows the series addition of the voltages in all the windings
between brushes. This type of winding only requires one pair of brushes. In
practice, a practical generator may have several pairs to improve
commutation.
Q16. Why are drum-type armatures preferred over the Gramme-ring

armature in modern dc generators?
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Q17. Lap windings are used in generators designed for what type of
application?
FIELD EXCITATION
When a dc voltage is applied to the field windings of a dc generator, current
flows through the windings and sets up a steady magnetic field. This is called
FIELD EXCITATION.
This excitation voltage can be produced by the generator itself or it can be

supplied by an outside source, such as a battery. A generator that supplies its
own field excitation is called a SELF-EXCITED GENERATOR. Self-excitation
is possible only if the field pole pieces have retained a slight amount of
permanent magnetism, called RESIDUAL MAGNETISM. When the generator
starts rotating, the weak residual magnetism causes a small voltage to be
generated in the armature. This small voltage applied to the field coils causes
a small field current. Although small, this field current strengthens the
magnetic field and allows the armature to generate a higher voltage. The
higher voltage increases the field strength, and so on. This process continues
until the output voltage reaches the rated output of the generator.
CLASSIFICATION OF GENERATORS
Self-excited generators are classed according to the type of field connection

they use. There are three general types of field connections — SERIES-
WOUND, SHUNT-WOUND (parallel), and COMPOUND-WOUND.
Compound-wound generators are further classified as cumulative-compound

and differential-compound. These last two classifications are not discussed in
this chapter.
 Series-Wound Generator
In the series-wound generator, shown in figure 1-15, the field windings are
connected in series with the armature. Current that flows in the armature
flows through the external circuit and through the field windings. The external
circuit connected to the generator is called the load circuit.
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A series-wound generator uses very low resistance field coils, which consist
of a few turns of large diameter wire. The voltage output increases as the
load circuit starts drawing more current. Under low-load current conditions,
the current that flows in the load and through the generator is small. Since
small current means that a small magnetic field is set up by the field poles,
only a small voltage is induced in the armature. If the resistance of the load
decreases, the load current increases. Under this condition, more current
flows through the field. This increases the magnetic field and increases the
output voltage.
Figure 1-15.—Series-wound generator.

A series-wound dc generator has the characteristic that the output voltage
varies with load current. This is undesirable in most applications. For this
reason, this type of generator is rarely used in everyday
practice.
The series-wound generator has provided an easy method to introduce you

to the subject of self- excited generators.
 Shunt-Wound Generators
In a shunt-wound generator, like the one shown in figure 1-16, the field coils
consist of many turns of small wire. They are connected in parallel with the
load. In other words, they are connected across the output voltage of the
armature.
Figure 1-16.—Shunt-wound generator.
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Current in the field windings of a shunt-wound generator is independent of
the load current (currents in parallel branches are independent of each other).
Since field current, and therefore field strength, is not affected by load
current, the output voltage remains more nearly constant than does the
output voltage of the series-wound generator.
In actual use, the output voltage in a dc shunt-wound generator varies

inversely as load current varies. The output voltage decreases as load
current increases because the voltage drop across the armature resistance
increases (E = IR).
In a series-wound generator, output voltage varies directly with load current.

In the shunt-wound generator, output voltage varies inversely with load
current. A combination of the two types can overcome the disadvantages of
both. This combination of windings is called the compound-wound dc
generator.
 Compound-Wound Generators
Compound-wound generators have a series-field winding in addition to a

shunt-field winding, as shown in figure 1-17. The shunt and series windings
are wound on the same pole pieces.
Figure 1-17.—Compound-wound generator
In the compound-wound generator when load current increases, the armature

voltage decreases just as in the shunt-wound generator. This causes the
voltage applied to the shunt-field winding to decrease, which results in a
decrease in the magnetic field.
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This same increase in load current, since it flows through the series winding,
causes an increase in the magnetic field produced by that winding.
By proportioning the two fields so that the decrease in the shunt field is just
compensated by the increase in the series field, the output voltage remains
constant. This is shown in figure 1-18, which shows the voltage
characteristics of the series-, shunt-, and compound-wound generators. As
you can see, by proportioning the effects of the two fields (series and shunt),
a compound-wound generator provides a constant output voltage under
varying load conditions. Actual curves are seldom, if ever, as perfect as
shown.
Figure 1-18.—Voltage output characteristics of the series-, shunt-, and

compound-wound dc generators
Q18. What are the three classifications of dc generators?

Q19. What is the main disadvantage of series generators?
Generator construction
Figure 1-19, views A through E, shows the component parts of dc generators.

Figure 1-20 shows the entire generator with the component parts installed.
The cutaway drawing helps you to see the physical relationship of the
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components to each other.
Figure 1-19.—Components of a dc generator.
Figure 1-20.—Construction of a dc generator (cutaway drawing).
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Voltage regulation
The regulation of a generator refers to the VOLTAGE CHANGE that takes

place when the load changes. It is usually expressed as the change in
voltage from a no-load condition to a full-load condition, and is expressed as
a percentage of full-load. It is expressed in the following formula:
where E nL is the no-load terminal voltage and E fL is the full-load terminal

voltage of the generator. For example, to calculate the percent of regulation
of a generator with a no-load voltage of 462 volts and a full-load voltage of
440 volts
Given:
 No-load voltage 462 V
 Full-load voltage 440 V
Solution:
NOTE: The lower the percent of regulation, the better the generator. In the above example, the 5% regulation
represented a 22-volt change from no load to full load. A 1% change would represent a change
of 4.4 volts, which, of course, would be better.
Q20. What term applies to the voltage variation from no-load to full-load
conditions and is expressed as a percentage?
Voltage control
Voltage control is either (1) manual or (2) automatic. In most cases the
process involves changing the resistance of the field circuit. By changing the
field circuit resistance, the field current is controlled.
Controlling the field current permits control of the output voltage. The major
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difference between the various voltage control systems is merely the method
by which the field circuit resistance and the current are controlled.
Voltage regulation should not be confused with voltage control. As described
previously, voltage regulation is an internal action occurring within the
generator whenever the load changes. Voltage control is an imposed action,
usually through an external adjustment, for the purpose of
increasing or decreasing terminal voltage.
 Manual Voltage Control
The hand-operated field rheostat, shown in figure 1-21, is a typical example

of manual voltage control. The field rheostat is connected in series with the
shunt field circuit. This provides the simplest method of controlling the
terminal voltage of a dc generator.
Figure 1-21.—Hand-operated field rheostat.
This type of field rheostat contains tapped resistors with leads to a multi-
terminal switch. The arm of the switch may be rotated to make contact with
the various resistor taps. This varies the amount of resistance in the field
circuit. Rotating the arm in the direction of the LOWER arrow (counter-
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clockwise) increases the resistance and lowers the output voltage. Rotating
the arm in the direction of the RAISE arrow (clockwise) decreases the
resistance and increases the output voltage.
Most field rheostats for generators use resistors of alloy wire. They have a
high specific resistance and a low temperature coefficient. These alloys
include copper, nickel, manganese, and chromium. They are marked under
trade names such as Nichrome, Advance, Manganin, and so forth. Some
very large generators use cast-iron grids in place of rheostats, and motor-
operated switching mechanisms to provide voltage control.
What is alternating current (AC)?
Most students of electricity begin their study with what is known as direct
current (DC), which is electricity flowing in a constant direction, and/or
possessing a voltage with constant polarity. DC is the kind of electricity
made by a battery (with definite positive and negative terminals), or the
kind of charge generated by rubbing certain types of materials against each
other.
As useful and as easy to understand as DC is, it is not the only “kind” of

electricity in use. Certain sources of electricity (most notably, rotary electro-
mechanical generators) naturally produce voltages alternating in polarity,
reversing positive and negative over time. Either as a voltage switching
polarity or as a current switching direction back and forth, this “kind” of
electricity is known as Alternating Current (AC): Figure below
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Direct vs alternating current
Whereas the familiar battery symbol is used as a generic symbol for any DC
voltage source, the circle with the wavy line inside is the generic symbol for
any AC voltage source.
One might wonder why anyone would bother with such a thing as AC. It is
true that in some cases AC holds no practical advantage over DC. In
applications where electricity is used to dissipate energy in the form of heat,
the polarity or direction of current is irrelevant, so long as there is enough
voltage and current to the load to produce the desired heat (power
dissipation). However, with AC it is possible to build electric generators,
motors and power distribution systems that are far more efficient than DC,
and so we find AC used predominately across the world in high power
applications. To explain the details of why this is so, a bit of background
knowledge about AC is necessary.
If a machine is constructed to rotate a magnetic field around a set of

stationary wire coils with the turning of a shaft, AC voltage will be produced
across the wire coils as that shaft is rotated, in accordance with Faraday's
Law of electromagnetic induction. This is the basic operating principle of an
AC generator, also known as an alternator: Figure below
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Alternator operation
Notice how the polarity of the voltage across the wire coils reverses as the
opposite poles of the rotating magnet pass by. Connected to a load, this
reversing voltage polarity will create a reversing current direction in the
circuit. The faster the alternator's shaft is turned, the faster the magnet will
spin, resulting in an alternating voltage and current that switches directions
more often in a given amount of time.
While DC generators work on the same general principle of electromagnetic

induction, their construction is not as simple as their AC counterparts. With a
DC generator, the coil of wire is mounted in the shaft where the magnet is on
the AC alternator, and electrical connections are made to this spinning coil
via stationary carbon “brushes” contacting copper strips on the rotating shaft.
All this is necessary to switch the coil's changing output polarity to the
external circuit so the external circuit sees a constant polarity: Figure below
DC generator operation
The generator shown above will produce two pulses of voltage per revolution
of the shaft, both pulses in the same direction (polarity). In order for a DC
generator to produce constant voltage, rather than brief pulses of voltage
once every 1/2 revolution, there are multiple sets of coils making intermittent
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contact with the brushes. The diagram shown above is a bit more simplified
than what you would see in real life.
The problems involved with making and breaking electrical contact with a
moving coil should be obvious (sparking and heat), especially if the shaft of
the generator is revolving at high speed. If the atmosphere surrounding the
machine contains flammable or explosive vapours, the practical problems of
spark-producing brush contacts are even greater. An AC generator
(alternator) does not require brushes and commutators to work, and so is
immune to these problems experienced by DC generators.
The benefits of AC over DC with regard to generator design is also reflected

in electric motors. While DC motors require the use of brushes to make
electrical contact with moving coils of wire, AC motors do not. In fact, AC and
DC motor designs are very similar to their generator counterparts (identical
for the sake of this tutorial), the AC motor being dependent upon the
reversing magnetic field produced by alternating current through its stationary
coils of wire to rotate the rotating magnet around on its shaft, and the DC
motor being dependent on the brush contacts making and breaking
connections to reverse current through the rotating coil every 1/2 rotation
(180 degrees).
So we know that AC generators and AC motors tend to be simpler than DC

generators and DC motors. This relative simplicity translates into greater
reliability and lower cost of manufacture. But what else is AC good for?
Surely there must be more to it than design details of generators and motors!
Indeed there is. There is an effect of electromagnetism known as mutual
induction, whereby two or more coils of wire placed so that the changing
magnetic field created by one induces a voltage in the other. If we have two
mutually inductive coils and we energize one coil with AC, we will create an
AC voltage in the other coil. When used as such, this device is known as a
transformer.
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Figure below
Transformer “transforms” AC voltage and current
The fundamental significance of a transformer is its ability to step voltage up

or down from the powered coil to the unpowered coil. The AC voltage
induced in the unpowered (“secondary”) coil is equal to the AC voltage across
the powered (“primary”) coil multiplied by the ratio of secondary coil turns to
primary coil turns. If the secondary coil is powering a load, the current
through the secondary coil is just the opposite: primary coil current multiplied
by the ratio of primary to secondary turns. This relationship has a very close
mechanical analogy, using torque and speed to represent voltage and
current, respectively: Figure below
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Speed multiplication gear train steps torque down and speed up. Step-down
transformer steps voltage down and current up.
If the winding ratio is reversed so that the primary coil has less turns than the
secondary coil, the transformer “steps up” the voltage from the source level to
a higher level at the load: Figure below
Speed reduction gear train steps torque up and speed down. Step-up
transformer steps voltage up and current down.
The transformer's ability to step AC voltage up or down with ease gives AC

an advantage unmatched by DC in the realm of power distribution in figure
below. When transmitting electrical power over long distances, it is far more
efficient to do so with stepped-up voltages and stepped-down currents
(smaller-diameter wire with less resistive power losses), then step the voltage
back down and the current back up for industry, business, or consumer use.
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Transformers enable efficient long distance high voltage transmission of
electric energy.
Transformer technology has made long-range electric power distribution

practical. Without the ability to efficiently step voltage up and down, it would
be cost-prohibitive to construct power systems for anything but close-range
(within a few miles at most) use.
As useful as transformers are, they only work with AC, not DC. Because the
phenomenon of mutual inductance relies on changing magnetic fields, and
direct current (DC) can only produce steady magnetic fields, transformers
simply will not work with direct current. Of course, direct current may be
interrupted (pulsed) through the primary winding of a transformer to create a
changing magnetic field (as is done in automotive ignition systems to produce
high-voltage spark plug power from a low-voltage DC battery), but pulsed DC
is not that different from AC.
Perhaps more than any other reason, this is why AC finds such widespread
application in power systems.
 DC stands for “Direct Current,” meaning voltage or current that

maintains constant polarity or direction, respectively, over time.
 AC stands for “Alternating Current,” meaning voltage or current that
changes polarity or direction, respectively, over time.
 AC electromechanical generators, known as alternators, are of simpler
construction than DC electromechanical generators.
 AC and DC motor design follows respective generator design principles
very closely.
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 A transformer is a pair of mutually-inductive coils used to convey AC
power from one coil to the other. Often, the number of turns in each coil
is set to create a voltage increase or decrease from the powered
(primary) coil to the unpowered (secondary) coil.
 Secondary voltage = Primary voltage (secondary turns / primary turns)
 Secondary current = Primary current (primary turns / secondary turns)
Threephase AC Induction motors
Most industrial motors are three phase. The main reason for this is that there
is very little maintenance of a three phase. Industrial motors do not have the
starting devices that single-phase motors have. The three phases of
alternating current that supply power for the motor produce the phase shift
needed to get the motor started and to keep it running once it is started. All
commercial power generated in the United States is generated as three
phase. It is converted to single-phase because the three phases can be
divided and sent into three different subdivisions or locations. It is cheaper to
distribute single phase AC than three-phase AC. Three-phase power requires
at least three, and sometimes four, wires for proper distribution.
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Uses of Three-Phase Motors
Three phase motors (3ø) are perfect for machine-tool and general uses
where dust and dirt are prevalent. Polyphase motors have operating
characteristics that enable them to operate any device that may be powered
by equivalently rated single-phase motors. Three-phase motors are available
in sizes of ¼, 1/3, ½, and ¾ horsepower. They may be used for pumps,
compressors, fans, blowers, conveyors, farm machinery, saws and machine
tools.
Motors that are totally enclosed are built to handle heavy thrust loads. The
grease used in the ball bearings is resistant to oxidation and moisture so
these motors should last 10 years under normal operating conditions so they
are rated for continuous duty in temperatures up to 108°F. These motors are
made by General Electric in1/4, 1/3, ½, and ¾ horsepower sixes. They have
a speed of 1725 rpm. They weigh from 15 pounds for the ¼-horsepower
motor to 33-lb for the ¾-horsepower motor.
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Explosion-proof, three-phase motors are used in hazardous locations where
a spark could start a fire or cause an explosion. The explosion-proof motor is
ideal for use in locations requiring motors that are UL listed for hazardous
locations.
How Three-Phase Motors work
The stator has windings around it that are placed 120° apart. The rotor is a
form-wound type or cage type. The SQUIRREL CAGE rotor is standard for
motors smaller than 1 horsepower, which we are concerned with here.
The rotor will

rotate with the
rotating field produced by the stator. The stator is nothing more than the
primary of a three-phase transformer. The magnetic field produced by the
stator revolves and cuts across the rotor conductor. This induces voltage and
causes the rotor current to flow. So, motor torque is developed by the
interaction of the rotor current and the magnetic revolving field. The motor
stator and rotor are shown here to illustrate the details a little more clearly for
the large industrial type of three-phase motor. The diagram below illustrates
how the three phases are produced:
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The purpose of the iron rotor is to reduce the air-gap and concentrate the
magnetic flux through the rotor conductors. Induced current flows in one
direction in half of the rotor conductors and in the opposite direction in the
remainder. The shorting rings on the ends of the rotor complete the path for
rotor current. A two-pole field is assumed to be rotating in a counter-
clockwise direction at synchronous speed.
The stator of a polyphase (3ø) induction motor consists of a laminated steel

ring with slots on the inside circumference. The motor winding is similar to the
AC generator stator winding and is generally of the two-layer distributed,
preformed type. Stator phase windings are symmetrically placed on the stator
and may be either wye or delta connected.
Torque
The revolving field produced by the stator windings cuts through the rotor
conductors and induces a voltage in the conductors. Rotor currents flow
because the rotor end rings provide continuous metallic circuits. The resulting
torque tends to turn the rotor in the direction of the rotating field. This torque
is proportional to the product of the rotor current, the field strength, and the
rotor power factor.
By using the transformer comparison, it is possible to see that the primary is

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the stator and the secondary is the rotor. At start, the frequency of the rotor
current is that of the primary stator winding. The reactance of the rotor is
relatively large compared with its resistance, and the power factor is low and
lagging by almost 90°. The rotor current therefore lags the rotor voltage by
approximately 90°. Because almost half of the conductors under the south
pole carry current inward, the net torque on the rotor as a result of the
interaction between rotor and rotating field is small.
As the rotor comes up to speed in the same direction as the revolving field,
the rate at which the revolving field cuts the rotor conductors is reduced and
the rotor voltage and frequency of rotor currents are correspondingly
reduced. Hence, at almost synchronous speed the voltage induced in the
rotor is very small. The rotor reactance also approaches zero.
Applications of Three-Phase Motors
Three-phase motors are used in commercial and industrial applications for

machine tools, industrial pumps and fans, air compressors, and air-
conditioning equipment. They are recommended wherever polyphase power
supply is available. They provide high starting and breakdown torque with
smooth pull-up torque. They are efficient to operate and are designed for
208-230/460-V operation, with horsepower ratings from ¼ to the hundreds.
They can be obtained for 50-Hz as well as 60-Hz operation.
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COMPETENCY No. 7
Use of English & Written form
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WRITTEN REPORTS
Written reports are frequently used to convey information within the
workplace. Reports can be informal (e-mails, memos, letters, etc.) or formal.
This module focuses on formal reports.
SIX PRINCIPLES OF TECHNICAL WRITING
 Use good grammar
 Write concisely
 Use active voice
 Avoid long sentences
 Punctuate correctly
STRUCTURE OF REPORT WRITING
The information provided in reports needs to be easy to find, and
written in such a way that the marker/ reader/ client can understand it.
Reports utilize headings to divide information in to sections. The headings
help the reader to locate relevant information quickly. Below are some
guidelines for structuring your report.
The structure of a report and the purpose and contents of each section is
shown below.
TITLE PAGE Report title
Your name
Submission date
EXECUTE SUMMARY Over view of subject matter
Method of analysis
Findings
Recommendations
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of numbered sections in report and their page numbers
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 Introduction - Terms of reference outline of report’s structure
 Body - Headings and sub-headings which reflect the contents of each
sections
 Conclusion - States the major inferences that can be drawn from the
discussion
 Recommendation - Indicate any further work that needs to be done or
identifies the alternate you think best solves or improves the problems
 Reference list - List of reference material consulted during research
for report
 Appendix - Information that supports your analysis but is not
essential to its explanation.
PREPARING A FAIR DRAFT
SEA PROTEST
What is note of protest? When to note of protest?
NOTING PROTEST
Noting protest may help resist cargo loss or damage. Claims on the owner. A
protest is a solemn
Declaration made on oath by. Shipmaster that circumstances beyond his
control have, or may have ,given rise to loss and / or damage to his ship or its
cargo or have caused him to take action( such as leaving an unsafe port)
which may render his owner liable to legal action by another party.
A protest (without an extension) is a simple statement of fact, without added
details.
When note protest:
 After every general average
 After wind & /or sea condition have been encountered which
may have damaged cargo or caused failure to make a
cancelling date.
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 After cargo is shipped in a condition likely to deteriorate
during the fourth coming voyage.
 After a ship has been damage from any cause.
 After a serious breach of the c/p by the charterer or his agent
( e.g undue delay, refusal to load, cargo not of a sort)
 After the consignee fails to discharge or take delivery of the
cargo or fails to pay freight.
Protest should be noted as soon as possible after arrival and always
within 24h of arrival.
If in connection with cargo, it should be noted before breaking bulk.
VOYAGE REPORT IN NAPA OFFICE
Voyage reports include, for example, voyage, leg and port reports combining
information from various sources. The details of included information are
specified together with the customer and it can include for example the
following:
 Port names
 Captain and chief engineer names
 Durations
 Distances
 Loading condition (land meters, tons, pax)
 Average speed
 Weather and sea condition
 Fuel, energy, and fresh water production / consumption
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COMPETENCY No. 8
Maintain & repair Automation & Control system of Main
Propulsion & Auxiliary Machines
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Introduction to Programmable Controllers
It's always good to get an overview of where designs have been and were
they are going. To do this it's essential to get a bird's eye view of the
concepts and processes that make the PLC so valuable in industrial control.
Pitting PLCs against other control types will also serve to show the pros and
cons for different applications.
Definition of a PLC
What is a PLC?
A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC for short, is simply a special

computer device used for industrial control systems. They are used in many
industries such as oil refineries, manufacturing lines, conveyor systems and
so on. Where ever there is a need to control devices the PLC provides a
flexible way to "software" the components together.
The basic units have a CPU (a computer processor) that is dedicated to run
one program that monitors a series of different inputs and logically
manipulates the outputs for the desired control. They are meant to be very
flexible in how they can be programmed while also providing the advantages
of high reliability (no program crashes or mechanical failures), compact and
economical over traditional control systems.
A Simple Example
Consider something as simple as a switch that turns on a light. In this system

with a flick of the switch the light would turn on or off. Beyond that though
there is no more control. If your boss came along and said I want that light to
turn on thirty seconds after the switch has been flipped, then you would need
to buy a timer and do some rewiring. So it is time, labour and money for any
little change.
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A PLC Saves the Day
Now consider the same device with a PLC in the middle. The switch is fed as
an input into the PLC and the light is controlled by a PLC output.
Implementing a delay in this system is easy since all that needs to be
changed is the program in the PLC to use a delay timer.
This is a rather simple example but in a larger system with many switches
and lights (and a host of other devices) all interacting with each other this
kind of flexibility is not only nice but imperative. Hopefully a light bulb has
now turned on over your head.
How PLCs Work
A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control

machines and processes. It therefore shares common terms with typical PCs
like central processing unit, memory, software and communications. Unlike a
personal computer though the PLC is designed to survive in a rugged
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industrial atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it interfaces with inputs
and outputs to the real world.
The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.
 The power supply and rack

 The central processing unit (CPU)
 The input/output (I/O) section
PLCs come in many shapes and sizes. They can be so small as to fit in your
shirt pocket while more involved controls systems require large PLC racks.
Smaller PLCs (a.k.a. “bricks”) are typically designed with fixed I/O points. For
our consideration, we’ll look at the more modular rack based systems. It’s
called “modular” because the rack can accept many different types of I/O
modules that simply slide into the rack and plug in.
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The Power Supply and Rack
So let’s start off by removing all our modules which leaves us with a naked
PLC with only the power supply and the rack.
The rack is the component that holds everything together. Depending on the
needs of the control system it can be ordered in different sizes to hold more
modules. Like a human spine the rack has a backplane at the rear which
allows the cards to communicate with the CPU. The power supply plugs into
the rack as well and supplies a regulated DC power to other modules that
plug into the rack. The most popular power supplies work with 120 VAC or
24 VDC sources.
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The CPU
The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. This module typically lives in
the slot beside the power supply. Manufacturers offer different types of CPUs
based on the complexity needed for the system.
The CPU consists of a microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated

circuits to control logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU has
different operating modes. In programming mode it accepts the downloaded
logic from a PC. The CPU is then placed in run mode so that it can execute
the program and operate the process.
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Since a PLC is a dedicated controller it will only process this one program
over and over again. One cycle through the program is called a scan time
and involves reading the inputs from the other modules, executing the logic
based on these inputs and then updated the outputs accordingly. The scan
time happens very quickly (in the range of 1/1000th of a second). The
memory in the CPU stores the program while also holding the status of the
I/O and providing a means to store values.
I/O System
The I/O system provides the physical connection between the equipment and
the PLC. Opening the doors on an I/O card reveals a terminal strip where the
devices connect.
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There are many different kinds of I/O cards which serve to condition the type
of input or output so the CPU can use it for logic. It's simply a matter of
determining what inputs and outputs are needed, filling the rack with the
appropriate cards and then addressing them correctly in the CPUs program.
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Inputs
Input devices can consist of digital or analog devices. A digital input card
handles discrete devices which give a signal that is either on or off such as a
pushbutton, limit switch, sensors or selector switches. An analog input card
converts a voltage or current (e.g. a signal that can be anywhere from 0 to
20mA) into a digitally equivalent number that can be understood by the CPU.
Examples of analog devices are pressure transducers, flow meters and
thermocouples for temperature readings
Outputs
Output devices can also consist of digital or analog types. A digital output
card either turns a device on or off such as lights, LEDs, small motors, and
relays. An analog output card will convert a digital number sent by the CPU
to it’s real world voltage or current. Typical outputs signals can range from 0-
10 VDC or 4-20mA and are used to drive mass flow controllers, pressure
regulators and position controls.
Programming a PLC
In these modern times a PC with a specially dedicated software from the PLC
manufacturer is used to program a PLC. The most widely used form of
programming is called ladder logic. Ladder logic uses symbols, instead of
words, to emulate the real world relay logic control, which is a relic from
the PLC's history. These symbols are interconnected by lines to indicate the
flow of current through relay like contacts and coils. Over the years the
number of symbols has increased to provide a high level of functionality.
The completed program looks like a ladder but in actuality it represents an

electrical circuit. The left and right rails indicate the positive and ground of a
power supply. The rungs represent the wiring between the different
components which in the case of a PLC are all in the virtual world of the
CPU. So if you can understand how basic electrical circuits work then you
can understand ladder logic.
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In this simplest of examples a digital input (like a button connected to the first
position on the card) when it is pressed turns on an output which energizes
an indicator light.
The completed program is downloaded from the PC to the PLC using a

special cable that’s connected to the front of the CPU. The CPU is then put
into run mode so that it can start scanning the logic and controlling the output.
PLC Programming
The most elementary objects in ladder diagram programming are
contacts and coils, intended to mimic the contacts and coils of
electromechanical relays. Contacts and coils are discrete programming
elements, dealing with Boolean (1 and 0; on and off; true and false) variable
states. Each contact in a ladder diagram PLC program represents the reading
of a single bit in memory, while each coil represents the writing of a single bit
in memory.
Discrete input signals to the PLC from real-world switches are read
by a ladder diagram program by contacts referenced to those input channels.
In legacy PLC systems, each discrete input channel has a specific address
which must be applied to the contact(s) within that program. In modern PLC
systems, each discrete input channel has a tag name created by the
programmer which is applied to the contact(s) within the program. Similarly,
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discrete output channels – referenced by coil symbols in the ladder diagram –
must also bear some form of address or tag name label.
To illustrate, we will imagine the construction and programming of a

redundant flame-sensing system to monitor the status of a burner flame using
three sensors. The purpose of this system will be to indicate a “lit” burner if at
least two out of the three sensors indicate flame. If only one sensor indicates
flame (or if no sensors indicate flame), the system will declare the burner to
be un-lit. The burner’s status will be visibly indicated by a lamp that human
operators can readily see inside the control room area.
Our system’s wiring is shown in the following diagram:
Each flame sensor outputs a DC voltage signal indicating the

detection of flame at the burner, either on (24 volts DC) or off (0 volts DC).
These three discrete DC voltage signals are sensed by the first three
channels of the PLC’s discrete input card. The indicator lamp is a 120 volt
light bulb, and so must be powered by an AC discrete output card, shown
here in the PLC’s last slot.
To make the ladder program more readable, we will assign tag names
(symbolic addresses) to each input and output bit in the PLC, describing its
real-world device in an easily interpreted format4. We will tag the first three
discrete input channels as IN sensor A, IN sensor B, and IN sensor C, and
the output as OUT burner lit.
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A ladder program to determine if at least two out of the three sensors
detect flame is shown here, with the tag names referencing each contact and
coil:
Series-connected contacts in a ladder diagram perform the logical

AND function, while parallel contacts perform the logical OR function. Thus,
this two-out-of-three flame-sensing program could be verbally described as:
“Burner is lit if either A and B, or either B and C, or A and C”
An alternate way to express this is to use the notation of Boolean algebra,

where multiplication represents the AND function and addition represents the
OR function:
Burner lit = AB + BC + AC
To illustrate how this program would work, we will consider a case where
flame sensors B and C detect flame but the sensor A does not. This
represents a two-out-of-three condition, and so we would expect the PLC to
turn on the “Burner lit” indicator light as programmed. From the perspective of
the PLC’s rack, we would see the indicator LEDs for sensors B and C lit up,
as well as the indicator LED for the lamp’s output channel:
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Examining the ladder diagram program with status indication enabled,
we would see how just one of the series-connected contact pairs are passing
“power” to the output coil:
(Note that the colour highlighting does not indicate a virtual contact is
conducting virtual power, but merely that it is able to conduct power. Color
highlighting around a virtual coil, however, does indicate the presence of
virtual “power” at that coil.)
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Contacts and relays are not just useful for implementing simple logic
functions, but they may also perform latching functions as well. A very
common application of this in industrial PLC systems is a latching start/stop
program for controlling electric motors by means of momentary-contact
pushbutton switches. As before, this functionality will be illustrated by means
of an hypothetical example circuit and program:
In this system, two pushbutton switches are connected to discrete

inputs on a PLC, and the PLC in turn energizes the coil of a motor contactor
relay by means of one of its discrete outputs.
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An overload contact is wired directly in series with the contactor coil to
provide motor over-current protection, even in the event of a PLC failure
where the discrete output channel remains energized.
The ladder program for this motor control system would look like this:
Pressing the “Start” pushbutton energizes discrete input channel 6 on

the PLC, which “closes” the virtual contact in the PLC program labelled IN
switch Start. The normally-closed virtual contact for input channel 7 (the
“Stop” pushbutton) is already closed by default when the “Stop” button is not
being pressed, & so the virtual coil will receive “power” when the “Start”
pushbutton is pressed and the “Stop” pushbutton is not.
Note the seal-in contact bearing the exact same label as the coil: OUT
contactor. At first it may seem strange to have both a contact and a coil in a
PLC program labelled identically, since contacts are most commonly
associated with inputs and coils with outputs, but this makes perfect sense if
you realize the true meaning of contacts and coils in a PLC program: as read
and write operations on bits in the PLC’s memory. The coil labelled OUT
contactor writes the status of that bit, while the contact labelled OUT
contactor reads the status of that same bit. The purpose of this contact, of
course, is to latch the motor in the “on” state after a human operator has
released his or her finger from the “Start” pushbutton.
This programming technique is known as feedback, where an output

variable of a function (in this case, the feedback variable is OUT contactor) is
also an input to that same function. The path of feedback is implicit rather
than explicit in ladder diagram programming, with the only indication of
feedback being the common name shared by coil and contact. Other
graphical programming languages (such as Function Block) have the ability
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to show feedback paths as connecting lines between function outputs and
inputs, but this capacity does not exist in ladder diagram
A step-by-step sequence showing the operation and status of this

simple program illustrates how the seal-in contact functions, through a
start-up and shut-down cycle of the motor:
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This sequence helps illustrate the order of evaluation or scan order of
a ladder diagram program. The PLC reads a ladder diagram from left to right,
top to bottom, in the same general order as a human being reads sentences
and paragraphs written in English. However, according to the IEC 61131-3
standard, a PLC program must evaluate (read) all inputs (contacts) to a
function before determining the status of a function’s output (coil or coils).
In other words, the PLC does not make any decision on how to set
the state of a coil until all contacts providing power to that coil have been
read. Once a coil’s status has been written to memory, any contacts bearing
the same tag name will update with that status on subsequent rungs in the
program.
Step 5 in the previous sequence is particularly illustrative. When the

human operator presses the “Stop” pushbutton, the input channel for IN
switch Stop becomes activated, which “opens” the normally-closed virtual
contact IN switch Stop. Upon the next scan of this program rung, the PLC
evaluates all input contacts (IN switch Start, IN switch Stop, and OUT
contactor) to check their status before deciding what status to write to the
OUT contactor coil.
Seeing that the IN switch Stop contact has been forced open by the
activation of its respective discrete input channel, the PLC writes a “0” (or
“False”) state to the OUT contactor coil. However, the OUT contactor
feedback contact does not update until the next scan, which is why you still
see it highlighted in blue during step 5.
A potential problem with this system as it is designed is that the

human operator loses control of the motor in the event of an “open” wiring
failure in either pushbutton switch circuit. For instance, if a wire fell off a
screw contact for the “Start” pushbutton switch circuit, the motor could not be
started if it was already stopped.
Similarly, if a wire fell off a screw contact for the “Stop” pushbutton
switch circuit, the motor could not be stopped if it was already running. In
either case, a broken wire connection acts the same as the pushbutton
switch’s “normal” status, which is to keep the motor in its present state.
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In some applications, this failure mode would not be a severe
problem. In many applications, though, it is quite dangerous to have a
running motor that cannot be stopped. For this reason, it is customary to
design motor start/stop systems a bit differently from what has been shown
here.
In order to build a “fail-stop” motor control system with our PLC, we

must first re-wire the pushbutton switch to use its normally-closed (NC)
contact:
This keeps discrete input channel 7 activated when the pushbutton is

not pressed. When the operator presses the “Stop” pushbutton, the switch’s
contacts will be forced open, and input channel 7 will de-energize. If a wire
happens to fall off a screw terminal in the “Stop” switch circuit, input channel
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7 will de-energize just the same as if someone pressed the “Stop”
pushbutton, which will automatically shut off the motor.
In order for the PLC program to work properly with this new switch
wiring, the virtual contact for IN switch Stop must be changed from a
normally-closed (NC) to a normally-open (NO).
As before, the IN switch Stop virtual contact is in the “closed” state

when no one presses the “Stop” switch, enabling the motor to start any time
the “Start” switch is pressed. Similarly, the IN switch Stop virtual contact will
open any time someone presses the “Stop” switch, thus stopping virtual
“power” from flowing to the OUT contactor coil.
Although this is a very common way to build PLC-controlled motor

start/stop systems – with an NC pushbutton switch and an NO “Stop” virtual
contact – students new to PLC programming often find this logical reversal
confusing. Perhaps the most common reason for this confusion is a mis-
understanding of the “normal” concept for switch contacts, be they real or
virtual. The IN switch Stop virtual contact is programmed to be normally-open
(NO), but yet it is typically found in the closed state. Recall that the “normal”
status of any switch is its status while in a condition of minimum stimulus, not
necessarily its status while the process is in a “normal” operating mode.
The “normally-open” virtual contact IN switch Stop is typically found in

the closed state because its corresponding input channel is typically found
energized, owing to the normally-closed pushbutton switch contacts, which
pass real electrical power to the input channel while no one presses the
switch. Just because a switch is configured as normally-open does not
necessarily mean it will be typically found in the open state! The status of any
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switch contact, whether real or virtual, is a function of its configuration (NO
versus NC) and the stimulus applied to it.
Another concern surrounding real-world wiring problems is what this

system will do if the motor contactor coil circuit opens for any reason. An
open circuit may develop as a result of a wire falling off a screw terminal, or it
may occur because the thermal overload contact tripped open due to an
over-temperature event. The problem with our motor start/stop system as
designed is that it is not “aware” of the contactor’s real status. In other words,
the PLC “thinks” the contactor will be energized any time discrete output
channel 2 is energized, but that may not actually be the case if there is an
open fault in the contactor’s coil circuit.
This may lead to a dangerous condition if the open fault in the contactor’s coil
circuit is later cleared. Imagine an operator pressing the “Start” switch but
noticing the motor does not actually start. Wondering why this may be, he or
she goes to look at the overload relay to see if it is tripped. If it is tripped, and
the operator presses the “Reset” button on the overload assembly, the motor
will immediately start because the PLC’s discrete output has remained
energized all the time following the pressing of the “Start” switch. Having the
motor start up as soon as the thermal overload is reset may come as a
surprise to operations personnel, and this could be quite dangerous if anyone
happens to be near the motor-powered machinery when it starts.
What would be safer is a motor control system that refuses to “latch”

on unless the contactor actually energizes when the “Start” switch is pressed.
For this to be possible, the PLC must have some way of sensing the
contactor’s status.
In order to make the PLC “aware” of the contactor’s real status, we may
connect the auxiliary switch contact to one of the unused discrete input
channels on the PLC, like this:
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Now, the PLC has a way of sensing the contactor’s actual status.
We may modify the PLC program to recognize this status by

assigning a new tag name to this input (IN contactor aux) and using a
normally-open virtual contact of this name as the seal-in contact instead of
the OUT contactor bit:
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Now, if the contactor fails to energize for any reason when the
operator presses the “Start” switch, the PLC’s output will fail to latch when the
“Start” switch is released. When the open fault in the contactor’s coil circuit is
cleared, the motor will not immediately start up, but rather wait until the
operator presses the “Start” switch again, which is a much safer operating
characteristic than before.
A special class of virtual “coil” used in PLC ladder programming that

bears mentioning is the latching” coil. These usually come in two forms: a set
coil and a reset coil. Unlike a regular “output” coil that continually writes to a
bit in the PLC’s memory with every scan of the program, “set” and “reset”
coils only write to a bit in memory when energized. Otherwise, the bit is
allowed to retain its last value.
Note the use of normally-open (NO) pushbutton switch contacts

(again!), with no auxiliary contact providing status indication of the contactor
to the PLC. This is a very minimal program, shown for the strict purpose of
illustrating the use of “set” and “reset” latching coils in ladder diagram PLC
programming.
“Set” and “Reset” coils7 are examples of what is known in the world of
PLC programming as retentive instructions. A “retentive” instruction retains its
value after being virtually “de-energized” in the ladder diagram “circuit.”
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A standard output coil is non-retentive, which means it does not “latch”
when de-energized. The concept of retentive and non-retentive instructions
will appear again as we explore PLC programming, especially in the area of
timers.
Ordinarily, we try to avoid multiple coils bearing the same label in a

PLC ladder diagram program. With each coil representing a “write”
instruction, multiple coils bearing the same name represents multiple “write”
operations to the same bit in the PLC’s memory.
Here, with latching coils, there is no conflict because each of the coils
only writes to the OUT contactor bit when its respective contact is energized.
So long as only one of the pushbutton switches is actuated at a time, there is
no conflict between the identically-named coils.
This begs the question: what would happen if both pushbutton

switches were simultaneously pressed? What would happen if both “Set” and
“Reset” coils were “energized” at the same time?
The result is that the OUT contactor bit would first be “set” (written to a
value of 1) then “reset” (written to a value of 0) in that order as the two rungs
of the program were scanned from top to bottom. PLCs typically do not
typically update their discrete I/O registers while scanning the ladder diagram
program (this operation takes place either before or after each program
scan), so the real discrete output channel status will be whatever the last
write operation told it to be, in this case “reset” (0, or off).
Even if the discrete output is not “confused” due to the conflicting

write operations of the “Set” and “Reset” coils, other rungs of the program
written between the “Set” and “Reset” rungs might be. Consider for example
a case where there were other program rungs following the “Set” and “Reset”
rungs reading the status of the OUT contactor bit for some purpose.
Those other rungs would indeed become “confused” because they

would see the OUT contactor bit in the “set” state while the actual discrete
output of the PLC (and any rungs following the “Reset” rung) would see the
OUT contactor bit in the “reset” state:
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Multiple (non-retentive) output coils with the same memory address
are almost always a programming faux-pax for this reason, but even retentive
coils which are designed to be used in matched pairs can cause trouble if the
implications of simultaneous energization are not anticipated.
Multiple contacts with identical addresses are no problem

whatsoever, because multiple “read” operations to the same bit in memory
will never cause a conflict.
The IEC 61131-3 PLC programming standard specifies transition-

sensing contacts as well as the more customary “static” contacts. A
transition-sensing contact will “actuate” only for adulation of one program
scan, even if its corresponding bit remains active. Two types of transition-
sensing ladder diagram contacts are defined in the IEC standard: one for
positive transitions and another for negative transitions.
The following example shows a wiring diagram, ladder diagram

program, and a timing diagram demonstrating how each type of transition-
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sensing contact functions when stimulated by a real (electrical) input signal to
a discrete channel:
When the pushbutton switch is pressed and the discrete input

energized, the first test lamp will blink “on” for exactly one scan of the PLC’s
program, then return to its off state. The positive transition contact (with the
letter “P” inside) activates the coil OUT test1 only during the scan it sees the
status of IN test transition from “false” to “true,” even though the input
remains energized for many scans after that transition.
Conversely, when the pushbutton switch is released and the discrete

input de-energizes, the second test lamp will blink “on” for exactly one scan of
the PLC’s program then return to its off state. The negative-transition contact
(with the letter “N” inside) activates the coil OUT test2 only during the scan it
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sees the status of IN test transition from “true” to “false,” even though the
input remains de-energized for many scans after that transition:
It should be noted that the duration of a single PLC program scan is

typically very short: measured in milliseconds. If this program were actually
tested in a real PLC, you would probably not be able to see either test lamp
light up, since each pulse is so short-lived. Transitional contacts are typically
used any time it is desired to execute an instruction just one time following a
“triggering” event, as opposed to executing that instruction over and over
again so long as the event status is maintained “true.”
Contacts and coils represent only the most basic of instructions in the
ladder diagram PLC programming language. Many other instructions exist,
which will be discussed in the following subsections.
RPM sensor
RPM PICK UPS
Completely self-powered, RPM (magnetic) sensor, rugged devices that do

not require an external voltage source for operation. They are generally used
to provide speed, timing or synchronization data to a display (or control
circuitry) in the form of a pulse train.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The output signal of a sensor is an AC voltage that varies in amplitude and
wave shape as the speed of the monitored device changes, and is usually
expressed in peak to peak voltage (V P-P). One complete waveform (cycle)
occurs as each actuator passes the sensing area (pole piece) of the sensor.
The most commonly used actuator is a metal gear, but also appropriate are
bolt heads (cap screws are not recommended), keys, keyways, magnets,
holes in a metal disc, and turbine blades. In all cases, the target material
must be a ferrous metal, preferably unhardened.
A permanent magnet is the heart of a sensor and establishes a fixed

magnetic field. An output signal is generated by changing the strength of this
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field. This is caused by the approach and passing of a ferrous metal target
near the sensing area (pole piece). The alternating presence and absence of
ferrous metal (gear tooth) varies the reluctance, or “resistance of flow” of the
magnetic field, which dynamically changes the magnetic field strength. This
change in magnetic field strength induces a current into a coil winding which
is attached to the output terminals. If a standard gear is used as an actuator,
this output signal would resemble a sine wave if viewed on an oscilloscope.
APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
RPM sensors are not designed for sensing extremely low speeds. The target
passing the pole piece of the sensor must be travelling at a minimum velocity,
or surface speed, to provide an adequate output voltage. Typical minimum
surface speeds for each sensor type can be found in the specifications
section.
The bottom line in proper RPM sensor selection is to choose one that will
meet the following two conditions:
 Provide the required peak to peak voltage at the minimum speed of

interest.
 Will still function properly at the maximum operating frequency of the
application.
To choose an appropriate sensor, the following data must be obtained:

 Minimum and maximum speed of interest.
 Diameter of gear (or shaft) and number of teeth (or actuators) per
revolution.
 Load resistance &the input resistance of the device being driven.
 Air gap setting (pole piece clearance) &distance between sensor face
(pole piece) and top of gear tooth (or other actuator).
 Minimum acceptable peak to peak voltage level (V PP) of the device
being driven &typically a display or frequency to DC convertor.
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SCADA
SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) generally refers Industrial

Control System (ICS): computer systems that monitor and control industrial,
infrastructure, or facility-based processes, as described below:
 Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power

generation fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch,
repetitive, or discrete modes.
 Infrastructures processes may be public or private, and include water
treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and
gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and distribution, wind
farms, civil defence siren systems, and large communication systems.
 Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones,
including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and
control HVAC (Heating, Ventilation &Air Conditioning) access, and energy
consumption.
Common system components

A SCADA system usually consists of the following subsystems:
 A human machine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which

presents process data to a human operator, and through this, the human
operator monitors and controls the process.
 SCADA is used as a safety tool as in lock-out tag-out
 A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the
process and sending commands (control) to the process.
 Remote terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the
process, converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data
to the supervisory system.
 Programmable logic controller (PLCs) used as field devices because
they are more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than
special-purpose RTUs.
 Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the
remote terminal units.
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 Various process and analytical instrumentation
Systems concepts
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and
control entire sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large areas
(anything from an industrial plant to a nation). Most control actions are
performed automatically by RTUs or by PLCs. Host control functions are
usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level intervention. For
example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part of an
industrial process, but the SCADA system may allow operators to change the
set points for the flow, and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow and
high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. The feedback control loop
passes through the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system monitors the
overall performance of the loop.
Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings
and equipment status reports that are communicated to from logic and
SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that
a control room operator using the HMI can make supervisory decisions to
adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls.
Data may also be fed to a Historian, often built on a commodity Database
Management System, to allow trending and other analytical auditing contains
data elements called tags or points.
A point represents a single input or output value monitored or controlled by
the system. Points can be either SCADA systems typically implement a
distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag database, which "hard"
or "soft". A hard point represents an actual input or output within the system,
while a soft point stored as value-timestamp pairs: a value, and the
timestamp when it was recorded or calculated. A series of value results math
operations applied to other points. (Most implementations conceptually
remove the distinction by making every property a "soft" point expression,
which may, in the simplest case, equal a single hard point.).
Points are normally se-timestamp pairs gives the history of that point. It is
also common to store additional metadata with tags, such as the path to a
field device or PLC register, design time comments, and alarm information.
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SCADA systems are significantly important systems used in national
infrastructures such as electric grids, water supplies and pipelines. However,
SCADA systems have many security vulnerability. Any attacks or damages to
the SCADA systems can affect society severely.
A human–machine interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process
data to a human operator, and through which the human operator controls
the process.
An HMI is usually linked to the SCADA system's databases and software
programs, to provide trending, diagnostic data, and management information
such as scheduled maintenance procedures, logistic information, detailed
schematics for a particular sensor or machine, and expert-system
troubleshooting guides.
The HMI system usually presents the information to the operating personnel
graphically, in the form of a mimic diagram. This means that the operator can
see a schematic representation of the plant being controlled. For example, a
picture of a pump connected to a pipe can show the operator that the pump is
running and how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe at the moment.
The operator can then switch the pump off. The HMI software will show the
flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time. Mimic diagrams may
consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process
elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment
overlain with animated symbols.
The HMI package for the SCADA system typically includes a drawing
program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change
the way these points are represented in the interface. These representations
can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of
an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display
representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the
trains on a railway.
An important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm handling. The
system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine
when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected,
one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm
indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that
management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a
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SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may
deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active
until the alarm conditions are cleared. Alarm conditions can be explicit—for
example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value
NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in
other analogue and digital points—or implicit: the SCADA system might
automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high
and low limit values associated with that point. Examples of alarm indicators
include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a
screen (that might act in a similar way to the "fuel tank empty" light in a car);
in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention
to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken. In
designing SCADA systems, care must be taken when a cascade of alarm
events occurs in a short time, otherwise the underlying cause (which might
not be the earliest event detected) may get lost in the noise. Unfortunately,
when used as a noun, the word 'alarm' is used rather loosely in the industry;
thus, depending on context it might mean an alarm point, an alarm indicator,
or an alarm event.
Hardware solutions
SCADA solutions often have distributed control system (DCS) components.
Use of "smart" RTUs or PLCs, which are capable of autonomously executing
simple logic processes without involving the master computer, is increasing.
A standardized control programming language, IEC 61131-3 (a suite of 5
programming languages including Function Block, Ladder, Structured Text,
Sequence Function Charts and Instruction List), is First generation:
"Monolithic"
What are Pt100, Pt500 and Pt1000 Sensors?

They are all types of RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) sensor that are
made from Platinum. The Pt100 sensor has a resistance of 100 ohms at 0°C
and is by far the most common type of RTD sensor. The Pt500 sensor has a
resistance of 500 ohms at 0°C and the Pt1000 has 1000 ohms resistance at
0°C. These sensors are normally fitted into some type of protective sheath or
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mounting to form a probe, and these are commonly referred to as PRT
(Platinum Resistance Thermometer) or RTD probes.
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with

temperature, more so than in standard resistors. Thermistors are widely used
as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors self-resetting over-current
protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.
Thermistor differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the

material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs
use pure metals. The temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful
over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a higher
precision within a limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to 130c
Thermocouple - A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring temperature. It

consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end. When the
junction of the two metals is heated or cooled a voltage is produced that can
be correlated back to the temperature.
Pressure Transmitters: It is a sub-group of pressure transducers, feature

additional reset and calibration options. With some sensor types it is possible,
for example, to re-set the measuring span over large ranges. This calibration
option is usually referred to by such terms as “scale down”, “span reset” or
“turn down”. For instance, a transmitter with a measuring range of 0 to 400
psi and a range reset 1/10 can be calibrate to a measuring range of 0 - 40 psi
while still giving a full output signal (4 - 20 mA, for example).
It is also possible to shift the zero point over a wide range and to calibrate
the damping of the output signal between 0 and 32 seconds.
Smart transmitters such as Hart, which also have logging capabilities, can be
calibrated, tested and reset via the control desk or hand terminals.
Transmitters are often used in process applications where they can be

combined with various chemical seals.
Flow Switches Basic Operating Principle

Flow through the horizontal pipeline causes the pivoted vane assembly to
swing in the direction of the flow. The vane assembly lifts an attraction sleeve
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which in turn causes the magnet to pull in and actuate the switch.
The o-ring sealed adjusting screw in the top of the enclosing tube
compresses the range spring located above the attraction sleeve. Turning the
adjusting screw clockwise increases the flow rate.
Differential pressure sensor
This sensor measures the difference between two pressures, one connected
to each side of the sensor. Differential pressure sensors are used to measure
many properties, such as pressure drops across oil filters or air filters, fluid
levels (by comparing the pressure above and below the liquid) or flow rates
(by measuring the change in pressure across a restriction). Technically
speaking, most pressure sensors are really differential pressure sensors; for
example a gauge pressure sensor is merely a differential pressure sensor in
which one side is open to the ambient atmosphere where the switch actuates.
Adjustments can be made while the flow switch is in service.
Pressure Switches
Pressure switches serve to energize or de-energize electrical circuits as a
function of whether the process pressure is normal or abnormal. The electric
contacts can be configured as single pole double throw (SPDT), in which
case the switch is provided with one normally closed (NC) and one normally
open (NO) contact. Alternately, the switch can be configured as double pole
double throw (DPDT), in which case two SPDT switches are furnished, each
of which can operate a separate electric circuit.
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COMPETENCY No. 9
Maintain & Repair Bridge Navigation Equipment & ship’s
communication systems
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Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System
BNWAS is a monitoring and Alarm system which notify other navigation

officers or master of the ship if the officer on watch (OOW) does not responds
or he/she is incapable of performing the watch duties efficiently which can
lead to maritime accidents.
Why ships need BNWAS?

There have been many incidents in the past wherein ship has collided or
grounded due to wrong decision or inefficiency in taking decision at the
correct time. If during an emergency situation navigational officer is not
capable to handle that situation it can lead to devastating scenarios. To avoid
this BNWAS is installed on bridge which acts similar to a dead man’s alarm in
the engine room.
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A series of alert and alarm is first sounded by BNWAS in the Navigation
Bridge to alert officer in watch. If there is no response to the series of alarms,
then BNWAS will alert other Deck officers, which may include Master of the
ship, so that someone can come out on bridge and handle the situation and
tackle the problem.
Regulation for BNWAS

SOLAS chapter V regulation 19 states that all passenger ship and cargo
ships 150 GT and above must install BNWAS on or after 1st July 2011 with
some waver in terms of installation period for old vessels. The system must
be approved by classification societies and should be easy to operate.
BNWAS must be operational when ship is heading on a voyage unless
instructed by the master of the ship.
Engine alarm and monitoring system

Alarm and Monitoring System provides monitoring of propulsion machinery,
Auxiliary machinery and ship-borne systems for commercial ships. The
System has DACU (Data Acquisition Control Unit), a rugged PC for alarm
monitoring and a printer. The system monitors various parameters like
Temperature, Pressure, Speed, etc. and generates Audio Visual alarms in
case of their abnormality. The system will indicate alarm conditions at
different locations on board vessel. The system includes engineers’ call
system, dead man alarm system and light calling columns in line with
customer and Class Requirements.
The Alarm and Monitoring system meet the requirements of DNV, BV, ABS,
GL IRS, LRS Classification survey or other Classification Society as required.
System will have communication facility to transfer data to Bridge, MCR,
Cargo Control Room, Mess Room, Chief Engineer Cabin and 2nd Engineer
Cabin etc. System will be fully automatic, rugged, & suitable for marine
environment. Brief Idea behind developing alarm & monitoring system is to
develop centralized system where status of all critical parameters from Main
Engines, Generators, Compressors & other critical systems can be
monitored, their alarm set points can be changed (password protected).
Graphical representation of various process values over long time period will
be monitored & will be printable.
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What is GMDSS?
The basic concept of GMDSS is that search and rescue authorities ashore,
as well as shipping in the immediate vicinity of the ship in distress, will be
rapidly alerted to a distress incident so that they can assist in a co-ordinated
SAR operation with the minimum delay. The system also provides for agency
and safety communications and the promulgation of Maritime Safety
Information (MSI) - navigational and meteorological warnings and forecasts
and other urgent safety information to ships. In other words, every ship is
able, irrespective of the area in which it operates, to perform those
communication functions which are essential for the safety of the ship itself
and of other ships operating in the same area.
Components of GMDSS
GMDSS consists of several different safety

systems based around different
communications technologies. These
include DSC, NAVTEX and INMARSAT.
Click the picture to enlarge.
Requirements
Full operation of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is
planned for February 1st 1999. Under IMO legislation, all passenger vessels
had to be fitted with the necessary equipment by 1995, and all vessels over
300grt to be GMDSS equipped by the 1st February deadline. National
administrations are also being encouraged to provide the necessary shore
based infrastructure in sufficient time.
Benefits
Under the GMDSS, all Distress and Safety communication will be automated
and watch keeping on traditional voice and Morse code frequencies become
history. At the press of a button, a ship can send its identity, position and
nature of distress by either satellite or terrestrial communication. It will then
be up to a shore based Rescue Co-ordination Centre (RCC) to alert vessels
in the area to go to the aid of the casualty. This co-ordinating role of the RCC
is a new one. Under the SOLAS 1974 system, ships in the area were
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required to monitor for distress alerts and then respond directly. The GMDSS
now makes this the responsibility of the RCC.
GMDSS also changes the nature of Routine and Safety Radio operation.
These become fully automatic, enabling ship’s officers with a General
Operator’s Certificate (GOC) to deal with all incoming and outgoing ship’s
radio communication. It will no longer be necessary to sail with a specialist
radio officer.
The ICS Approach
It is extremely important that both ship borne and land based equipment is
easy to operate. International specifications for GMDSS have sadly neglected
this important aspect. At ICS Electronics Ltd. we have consistently listened to
the needs of the operator, and confidently claim our GMDSS equipment is the
easiest to use in the world. This saves on training costs and the time required
to become familiar with the equipment.
Captain Coopers speech from the 5th International GMDSS Conference.
Other internet sites with more information on GMDSS are listed on our links
page.
What is DSC?
While Digital Selective Calling (DSC) is one of the most important parts of
GMDSS, it is the last to be fully implemented. DSC provides a means of
automating all day-to-day marine terrestrial calling - making marine radio as
easy to use as a telephone. DSC effectively provides the operator with a
digital dialling system capable of ringing an alarm at a distant radio station
when a call is addressed to that station.
Like a telephone, you do not need to know how the call has been routed or
even the frequency or channel being used. All you need is a means of
alerting the other party by calling their number, and then a means of talking to
them. Under GMDSS, all vessels are allocated a unique Maritime Mobile
Service Identity (MMSI), which is a unique nine digit code. The digital calling
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information is transmitted on specially designated channels. In the case of a
VHF radio, this is Channel 70. Channel 70 is dedicated for DSC use and
must under no circumstances be used for anything else.
An added benefit of DSC is that the digital dialling signal can also carry other
information, such as your vessel’s identity, position and the nature of the call
as well as information specifying the channel upon which subsequent
communication should take place. The entire message is transmitted in one
quick burst, thus reducing the demand time on the calling channel.
In a distress situation, all necessary information can be sent automatically at

the touch of a single button. The vessel’s position can be determined from a
GPS navigation receiver connected to the radio or entered manually. Its
identity is permanently coded into the radio in the form of the allocated
vessels MMSI number. The nature of distress can also be selected by the
operator if there is time to do so.
Using digital coding, DSC automates all the radio functions with which
existing marine operators are familiar. It also relieves the person at the other
end from the tedious task of manual watch keeping. All the old familiar
functions are still in place, but they now have English names and are
accessible at the touch of a button.
What is NAVTEX?
NAVTEX is a system for the broadcast and automatic reception of maritime

safety information by means of a narrow-band direct-printing telegraphy.
NAVTEX provides shipping with navigational and meteorological warnings
and urgent information through automatic printouts from a dedicated receiver.
NAVTEX is a component of the IMO/IHO Worldwide Navigational Warning

Service (WWNWS) defined by IMO Assembly resolution A.706(17). It has
also been included as an element of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety
System (GMDSS). Since 1 August 1993, NAVTEX receiving capability has
become part of the mandatory equipment which is required to be carried in
certain vessels under the provisions of the International Convention for the
Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).
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How does it work?
NAVTEX transmissions are sent via a single frequency from localized

stations situated worldwide. The power of each transmission is regulated so
as to avoid the possibility of interference between transmitters. Users can set
their NAVTEX receivers to receive specific message types and reject others.
Messages such as navigational and meteorological warnings and search and
rescue information are non-rejectable to ensure that ships equipped with
NAVTEX always receive the most vital information. Users can choose to
receive information from the single transmitter that serves the sea area
around their position, or from a number of transmitters.
NAVTEX Coverage
NAVTEX messages are transmitted worldwide from local stations, the

number of stations grows month by month. Information about all known
NAVTEX stations can be found in our NAVTEX Database which provides,
details including name, position, range, and operational status.
What is an MMSI?
Under GMDSS every vessel has its own unique Maritime Mobile Service
Identity (MMSI). An MMSI is composed of nine digits. A vessel's MMSI is built
into the DSC equipment and is not user-changeable. If a DSC unit is moved
to another vessel, or the vessel is sold, a technician must re-program the
MMSI.
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COMPETENCY No. 10
Maintain & repair electrical, electronic & control systems
of deck machinery & cargo handling equipment
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Cargo monitoring system
It is used for level gauging, temperature and pressure monitoring, valve and
pump control. It takes full advantage of large variety of reliable hardware and
software modules.
Following are application:
 Cargo tank level monitoring

.
 Cargo tank pressure monitoring
 Cargo tank temperature monitoring
 Ballast tank level monitoring
 Service tank level monitoring
 Draft, Trim and List monitoring
Tank gauging system is primarily intended to measure the ullage / level in

tanks onboard vessels, both offshore and marine applications. The standard
version can measure on any liquefied cargoes up to a distance of 50 metres.
The measurements can be made under extreme environmental conditions
with respect to temperature, pressure and humidity.
Cargo monitoring and control system operation
The Operator Station forms the Human-Machine-Interface. Alarms are

handled continuously in the background and ensure that the operator is
immediately alerted if any alarm limits are exceeded. Failures in the system
are immediately reported on the monitor. Reports on failures and alarms, as
well as history/trend reports on level, inert gas pressure and temperature are
logged and stored. Parameter values and alarm limit settings, plus graphic
presentations of ship specific data are displayed on the monitor.
Operator station functions
The following outlines the main functions of the cargo monitoring and control
system operator station:
 Cargo tank level monitoring

 Cargo tank pressure monitoring
 Cargo tank temperature monitoring
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 Ballast tank level monitoring
 Service tank level monitoring
 Draft, trim and list monitoring
 Handling of alarms and failures
 Configuration of the system
 Storage of measured parameter values
 Logging of History/Trend
 Calculation using measured parameter values
Gas Detection Systems
The most common method employed to continuously monitor for leakage of

hazardous gases is to place a number of sensors at the places where any
leaks are most likely to occur. These are often then connected electrically to a
multi-channel controller located some distance away in a safe, gas free area
with display and alarm facilities, event recording devices etc. This is often
referred to as a fixed point system. As its name implies, it is permanently
located in the area (e.g. an offshore platform, oil refinery, laboratory cold
storage etc).
The complexity of any gas detection system depends on the use to which the
data will be put. Data recording allows the information to be used to identify
problem areas and assist in the implementation of safety measures. If the
system is to be used for warnings only, then the outputs from the system can
be simple and no data storage is necessary. In choosing a system, therefore,
it is important to know how the information will be used so that the proper
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system components can be chosen. In toxic gas monitoring, the use of multi-
point systems has rapidly demonstrated their potential for solving a wide
variety of workplace exposure problems and is invaluable for both identifying
problems and for keeping workers and management aware of pollutant
concentrations in the workplace.
Tank Gauge, Instrumentation and Measurement Solutions

Every company that operates a tank farm, terminal, refinery or bulk storage
facility has its own business requirements for gauging the contents of a tank.
Meeting these requirements, while selecting the best in tank gauging
technology for the given application, has been our area of expertise for over
75 years. This includes all aspects of tank farm instrumentation and
automation covering design, production, commissioning and servicing.
What is Tank Gauging?
Tank gauging is the generic name given to the measurement of liquids

(product) in bulk storage tanks with the aim of quantifying how much product
is in the tank, "gauging the contents of a tank". Today, the oil & gas industry
uses the static measurement of the tank contents to account for product
stored and product moved into and out of the tank. In other industries, such
as food or beverage, chemical or waste water, the tank is subject to
continuous process conditions.
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COMPETENCY No. 11
Maintain & repair of control & safety systems of Hotel
equipment
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Terms and definitions for intrinsic safety
Intrinsically safe circuit
A circuit in which no spark and no thermal effect can cause the ignition of a
potentially explosive atmosphere.
Intrinsically safe electrical equipment
All circuits of the electrical equipment are intrinsically safe. The voltage and
the current in the intrinsically safe circuit are low enough such that a short
circuit, interruption or short circuit to ground will not ignite the potentially
explosive atmosphere.
Intrinsically safe electrical equipment is suitable for operation direct in
hazardous area.
Typical marking: Exib IIC
Associated electrical equipment
At least one circuit of the associated electrical equipment is intrinsically safe.
Actuators and sensors connected to this intrinsically safe circuit can be
located in the hazardous area.
However, the associated electrical equipment must not be located in the
hazardous area without further protection types. In the marketing of
associated electrical equipment, the type of protection is placed in brackets.
Typical marking: [Ex ib] IIC
Minimum ignition energy
The minimum ignition energy of gas and vapor/air mixture is the smallest
possible electrical energy discharge by a capacitor that can ignite the most
ignitable mixture of a gas or vapor with air at atmospheric pressure and 20
degree centigrade.
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OPERATING INSTRUCTION OF ELECTRIC COOKING RANGE
General
The oven and the griddle of the range are so design as to be well
regulated and uniformity heated.
it is recommended that the griddle should be sufficiently to be preheated prior
to use.
Set the switch at high position for quick preheating. Make sure that
oven is preheated up to the desirable temperature.
Oven
The oven is provided with upper heating unit located at the top of the
compartment and with a lower heating unit located under the bottom cover of
the compartment.
Each heating unit should be independently at respective temperature
according to baking or roasting, by mean of the switch in the switch box or at
body front. The oven is also provided with an adjustable automatic
temperature control, the dial of which is also located in the front surface.
The setting of this control dials effects average oven temperature to be
maintained. The oven must be thoroughly preheated prior to baking or
roasting otherwise resultant may unsatisfactory.
To preheat oven, set temperature control dial at temperature desired,
turn the two switches (for upper and lower heater) on keep the oven door
closed, with two switches on, the oven temperature will rise up to 250ºC in
approximately 40 minutes. To live in for further 15 to 20 minutes before
starting touse is recommended.
After preheating, set the switches at suitable temperature for baking or
roasting.
The oven is equipped with a shelf for baking or roasting. For baking
pies, place the pans directly on unit cover. For baking cakes or pastries, the
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shelf should be positioned at the higher level and pans to be placed on the
shelf at this higher position.
The following temperature, time and shelf position are suggested as the
guide for various kind of baking or roasting.
AVERAGE PAN (or

TIME
KIND OVENTEMPERATURE SHELF)
(MINUTES)
IN ( ºC) POSITION
One unit
PIES 190 ˜ 220 25 ˜ 60
cover
Lower
ROOLS 190 ˜ 210 10 ˜ 20
support
Lower
CAKE 180 ˜ 210 20 ˜ 45 support or
unit cover
Lower
PASTRIES 160 ˜ 190 8 ˜ 20
support
On unit
BREAD 220 ˜ 240 25 ˜ 40
cover
ROAST On unit
150 ˜ 170 30 ˜ 40
BEAF cover
Always keep oven doors close as much as possible. Excessive door

opening will cool front section of the oven and stuffs near the door are likely
to be baked or roasted poorly.
Do not permit air from the window or fan in to the oven, it will cause
uneven heating.
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Range Top
Griddle (hot plate) i98s suitable for oblong pot or saute’, cooking,
griddle and general surface may used for cooking operation.
Each griddle operation is independently controlled by rotary 3- position
switch located in switch box.
 When turned switch the rotary switch to [ 0→1→2 →3] or
[OFF→LOW→HIGH]
Don’t do [0→3] or [OFF→HIGH] the fuse is broken down.
Care and cleaning
The range should be thoroughly cleaned at least once a week. Keep
inside of oven and unit cover scrapped cleaned, take away dirt on griddle
surfaces or in spaces between plates. Inspect and test electrical circuits
monthly, and make sure that wire connections are tight. As an electrical
apparatus function efficiently only when it is clean, be attentive to keep it
clean so that a high efficiency is exerted.
Note- when cleaning or exchanging the parts, please always confirm the main
switch is OFF.
Pots or pans with flat bottom should be used. Convex bottom pots or
pans are not suited.
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Working
REFREGERATION PLANT
The compressor acting as a circulation pump for refrigerant has two safety
cut-outs- Low pressure (LP) and High Pressure (HP) cut outs. When the
pressure on the suction side drops below the set valve, the control unit stops
the compressor and when the pressure on the discharge side shoots up, the
compressor trips.
LP or low pressure cut out is controlled automatically i.e. when the suction
pressure drops, the compressor stops and when the suction pressure rises
again, the control system starts the compressor. HP or high pressure cut out
is provided with manually re-set
The hot compressed liquid is passed to a receiver through a condenser to
cool it down. The receiver can be used to collect the refrigerant when any
major repair work has to be performed.
The master solenoid is fitted after the receiver, which is controlled by the
control unit. In case of sudden stoppage of compressor, the master solenoid
also closes, avoiding the flooding of evaporator with refrigerant liquid.
The room or hold solenoid and thermostatic valve regulate the flow of the
refrigerant in to the room to maintain the temperature of the room. For this,
the expansion valve is controlled by a diaphragm movement due to the
pressure variation which is operated by the bulb sensor filled with expandable
fluid fitted at the evaporator outlet.
The thermostatic expansion valve supplies the correct amount of refrigerants
to evaporator where the refrigerants takes up the heat from the room and
boils off into vapours resulting in temperature drop for that room.
This is how temperature is maintained in the refrigeration plant of the ship.
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Air Conditioning & Heating System
Air conditioners and refrigerators work the same way. Instead of cooling just
the small, insulated space inside of a refrigerator, an air conditioner cools a
room, a whole house, or an entire business.
Air conditioners use chemicals that easily convert from a gas to a liquid and
back again. This chemical is used to transfer heat from the air inside of a
home to the outside air.
The machine has three main parts. They are a compressor, a condenser
and an evaporator. The compressor and condenser are usually located on
the outside air portion of the air conditioner. The evaporator is located on the
inside the house, sometimes as part of a furnace. That's the part that heats
your house.
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The working fluid arrives at the compressor as a cool, low-pressure gas. The
compressor squeezes the fluid. This packs the molecule of the fluid closer
together. The closer the molecules are together, the higher its energy and its
temperature.
The working fluid leaves the compressor as a hot, high pressure gas and flows into
the condenser. If you looked at the air conditioner part outside a house, look for the
part that has metal fins all around. The fins act just like a radiator in a car and
helps the heat go away, or dissipate, more quickly.
When the working fluid leaves the condenser, its temperature is much cooler and it
has changed from a gas to a liquid under high pressure. The liquid goes into the
evaporator through a very tiny, narrow hole. On the other side, the liquid's pressure
drops. When it does it begins to evaporate into a gas.
As the liquid changes to gas and evaporates, it extracts heat from the air around it.
The heat in the air is needed to separate the molecules of the fluid from a liquid to
a gas.
The evaporator also has metal fins to help in exchange the thermal energy with the
surrounding air. By the time the working fluid leaves the evaporator, it is a cool, low
pressure gas. It then returns to the compressor to begin its trip all over again.
Heat Pump
Connected to the evaporator is a fan that circulates the air inside the house to blow
across the evaporator fins. Hot air is lighter than cold air, so the hot air in the room
rises to the top of a room.
There is a vent there where air is sucked into the air conditioner and goes down
ducts. The hot air is used to cool the gas in the evaporator. As the heat is removed
from the air, the air is cooled. It is then blown into the house through other ducts
usually at the floor level. This continues over and over and over until the room
reaches the temperature you want the room cooled to. The thermostat senses that
the temperature has reached the right setting and turns off the air conditioner. As
the room warms up, the thermostat turns the air conditioner back on until the room
reaches
. the temperature.
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Heat Pump
Imagine that you took an air conditioner and flipped it around so that the hot
coils were on the inside and the cold coils were on the outside. Then you would
have a heater. It turns out that this heater works extremely well. Rather than
burning a fuel, what it is doing is "moving heat."
A heat pump is an air conditioner that contains a valve that lets it switch
between "air conditioner" and "heater." When the valve is switched one way,
the heat pump acts like an air conditioner, and when it is switched the other
way it reverses the flow of the liquid inside the heat pump and acts like a
heater.
Heat pumps can be extremely efficient in their use of energy. But one problem
with most heat pumps is that the coils in the outside air collect ice. The heat
pump has to melt this ice periodically, so it switches itself back to air
conditioner mode to heat up the coils. To avoid pumping cold air into the house
in air conditioner mode, the heat pump also lights up burners or electric strip
heaters to heat the cold air that the air conditioner is pumping out. Once the ice
is melted, the heat pump switches back to heating mode and turns off the
burners.
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COMPETENCY No. 12
Application of Leadership & Team working skills
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Time Management
It is a fairly straight forward concept. It’s a process of arranging and controlling how
you and your subordinates spend time at work. By controlling this time you can cut-
out non – essential activities and achieve more, thus enhancing the efficiency of the
system. It can also make your job productive and neglect impossible work load.
Time management is a highly important matter for most profession has demands are
placed upon any hard working person with responsibility – demands that strain one’s
diary and one’s character. If you are sometimes too busy, if you have deadlines that
are impossible to meet, if you are dis-organized and just can’t seem to find the time
to sort out your inbox, then the time management can help you.
How to manage your time
Star by recording how the time is consumed in various jobs on board ship. Calculate
the amount of time taken for completing each job. Simply form a system, of
recording down the day to day activities in the engine room in order to monitor where
time is being lost unnecessary. At the end of a week, review the schedule. Now, how
much time was wasted? This is where you need to be strict. Consciously cutting out
un productive meetings, numerous tea or coffee breaks, or any of the other little time
wasters in the schedule takes some will power but it is worth it. Of course, everybody
still need human contact and a cup of joy every now and again, but being aware of
how much time you are spending on those things will help you to control your
activities.
Meetings
How many regular meeting you have with colleagues? Again, you should be strict
here but how many of those were actually necessary or productive? Controlling your
meetings is a vital step in time management.
Colleagues
Well-meaning colleagues can be further resource of wasted time. In the spirit of
camaraderie, you should want to help your colleagues if there is a problem if that
needs your attention. Pointless, or even friendly, conversation can easily fell your
schedule if you don’t employ strict time management.
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Workload
Take another look at your schedule. How much time is spent on work that someone else could
or should be doing? Menial task, such as filter cleaning , printouts , or filing work o are often
duties which consume more time, which can be managed after the job is completed even is
senior management level staff have been doing it, training or delegating someone else to take
his duty will save you much time in the long run.
Second Engineers
It’s unfortunate that sometimes management level officers contribute to wasted time. Within
the proper bounds of respect and good humour, helping your management level engineers to
see how they are unnecessarily taking up the time can help to ease strain on the engine room
schedule. Poorly defined tasks and unclear communication is a key source of time wastage. If
your second engineer doesn’t define duties clearly then the crew will end up going back to him
with questions. Try to get clarity from the start. Communication being the biggest barrier with
the multinational crew, it is all the more essential to ensure good communication.
Being prepared
Being well prepared for essential emergencies will help you to save time. How many time have
you attended without proper preparations. On the other hand mental preparation for response
in case of emergency helps in quick and efficient measures being taken. Decisions can be
made and actions assigned only if you have clear thoughts on the issue and are aware of
what’s going on.
Deadlines
Of all the things that are knocking your balance, deadline are probably having the biggest
effect. And it is probably the most difficult thing for you to change. Organising your projects in
terms of priority and not just the closeness of the deadline will help you to keep a balance.
Communications
Being organized in terms of communications is also vital. Paperwork can easily get out of
hand. A simple and effective system is necessary here. You only need two folders for
paperwork- the ‘to do ‘folder and the ‘to file’ folder. Anything else can be thrown away. Taking
immediate action when you receive paperwork is vital to being organized. Sort your paperwork
into the appropriate folder and schedule time to deal with the folders regularly.
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Email can be equally cumbersome. Having separate folders in your inbox folders
for different types of emails will keep you organized.
Benefits
Is managing your time really worth the hassle? Resoundingly, yes, it is on a day-
to-day level, it will make your routine more practical and organized. It will make
your long-term view clearer, as you are in control of upcoming projects and tasks.
It even has health benefits. It’s scientifically proven that we get highly stressed
when we don’t achieve tasks and goals that we wanted to reach. Stress, in turn, is
detrimental to sleep, digestion and mental activities.
On the other hand, balanced work load and controlled use of time will negate
stress and make your system more capable.
TOP TIPS
 Make a record of how time is spent. What can be cut out? Also, always write down ‘to
do’ list and organize it according to priority
 Managing communications- make effective meetings and keep a tidy inbox with
multiple folders for different types of e-mail, don’t let yourself be disturbed by
colleagues if inappropriate.
 Managing meetings – attend only meetings that it is necessary or advantageous to

attend. Make sure you are prepared for it so that it achieves something.
 Be organized- a tidy workplace, a tidy to do list, and a tidy e-mail inbox show a tidy
organized mind and person.
 Prioritize- even if you have multiple jobs on the go and a lot of tasks to achieve, a
clearly defined list of priorities will keep on top of things and will help you to meet
deadlines.
 Delegate tasks- don’t be afraid to pass duties on other capable people. The time
spent teaching someone else to do one of your tasks is soon made up for.
 Maintain a record- a dairy or planner will help you to keep an eye on where your time
is going. If it is spent badly you can change things. Making a written note of how you
spend your time is one of the key steps.
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TEAM WORKING SKILLS
THE JOHARI WINDOW
The Johari window is a communication model that is used to improve
understanding between individuals. The word “Johari” is taken from the names
of Joseph Luftans Harry Ingham, who developed the model in 1995.
There are two key ideas behind the tool:

 That you can build trust with others by disclosing information
about yourself.
 That, with the help of feedback from others, you can learn
about yourself and come to terms to personal issues.
By explaining idea of Johari window, you can help team members to

understanding the values of self-disclosure, and you can encourage them to
give, and accept, constructive feedback.
Done sensitively, this can help people better, more trusting relationships with
one another, solve issues, and work more effectively as a team.
Explaining the Johari window

It is showing as a four-quadrant grid, which you can see the diagram below
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The four quadrants are:
 Open Area (Quadrant 1 )
This quadrant represents the things that you know about yourself,
and the things that others know about you. This includes your
behavior, knowledge, skills, attitudes and “public” history.
 Blind Area (Quadrant 2)
This quadrant represents things about you that you aren’t aware
of, but that are known by others.
This include simple information that you do not know, or it can
involve deep issue (for example, feelings of inadequacy,
incompetence, unworthiness, or rejection), which are often difficult
for individual to face directly, and yet can be seen by others.
 Hidden Area (Quadrant 3)
This quadrant represents things that you know about yourself, but
that others don’t know.
 Unknown Area(Quadrant 4)
This last quadrant represents things that are unknown by you, and
are unknown by others.
The End Goal
The ultimate goal of the Johari Window is to enlarge the Open Area, without
disclosing information that is too personal. The Open Area is the most
important quadrant, as, generally, the more your people know about each
other, the more productive, cooperative, and effective they’ll be when working
together.
The process of enlarging the Open Area quadrant is called “self-disclosure”,
and it’s a give-and-take process that takes place between yourself and the
people that you’re interacting with.
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As you share information, your Open Area expands vertically and your
Hidden Area gets smaller. As people on your team provide feedback to you
about what they know or see about you, your Open Area expands
horizontally, and your Blind Area gets smaller. Done well, the process of give
and take, sharing, and open communication builds trust within the group.
At first glance, the Johari Window may look like a complex tool, but it’s
actually very easy to understand with just a little effort. As such, it provides a
visual reference that people can use to look at their own character, and it
illustrates the importance of sharing, being open, and accepting feedback
from others.People who have a large Open Area are usually very easy to
talk to, they communicate honestly and openly with others, and they get
along well with a group. People who have a very small Open Area are
difficult to talk to, they seem closed off and uncommunicative, and they often
don’t work well with others, because they’re not trusted.
Other people might have a large Blind Area, with many issues that they
haven’t identified or dealt with yet. However, others can see these issues
clearly. These people might have low self-esteem, or they may even have
anger issues when working with others.
Decision Making
Problem solving and decision-making are important skill for business and
life. Problem-solving often involves decision-making, and decision-making is
especially important for management and leadership. These are processes
and techniques to improve decision-making and the quality of decisions.
Decision-making is more natural to certain personalities, so these people
focus more on improving the quality of their decisions. People that are less
natural decision-makers are often able to make quality assessments, but
then need to be more decisive in acting upon the assessments made.
Problem-solving and decision-making are closely linked, and each requires
creativity in identifying and developing options, for which the brain-storming
technique is particularly useful. Also the SWOT analysis technique and
PEST analysis technique help in decision-making and problem-solving.
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SWOT analysis helps assess the strength of a company, a business
proportion or idea; Pest analysis helps to assess the potential and suitability
of a market. Good decision-making requires a mixture of skills: creative
development and identification of options, clarity of judgment, firmness of
decision, and effective implementation.
Decision-making process
 Define and clarify the issue- does it warrant action? If so, now? Is the
matter urgent, important or both. Like the Pareto Principle.
 Gather all the facts and understand their causes.
 Think about or brain storm possible options and solutions.
 Consider and compare the pros and cons of each option- consult if
necessary- it probably will be.
 Select the best option- avoid vagueness or ‘foot in both camps’
compromise.
 Explain your decision to those involved and affected, and follow up to
ensure proper and effective implementation.
Pros and Cons of Decision-making Method

 Another simple process for decision-making is the pros and cons list.
 Pro means ‘for’, and con means ‘against’. In other words, advantages
and disadvantages.
 This method also applies to all sorts of problem-solving where issues
and implications need to be understood and a decision has to be
made.
Some decisions are a simple matter of whether to make a change or not,
such as moving, taking a new job, or buying something, selling something,
replacing something, etc. other decisions involve number of options, and are
concerned more with how to do something, involving a number of choices.
Use the brain-storming process to identify and develop options for decision-
making and problem-solving.
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 First you will need a separate sheet for each identified option.
 On each sheet write clearly the option concerned, and then beneath it
the headings ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ (or ‘advantages’ and ‘disadvantages’, or
simply ‘for’ and ‘against’). Many decisions simply involve the choice of
whether to go ahead or not, to change or not; in these cases you need
only one sheet.
 Then write down as many effects and implications of the particular
option that you (and others if appropriate) can think of, placing each in
the relevant column.
 If helpful ‘weight’ each factor, by giving it a score out of three or five
points (e.g. 5 being extremely significant, and 1 being of minor
significance).
 When you have listed all the points you can think of for the option
concerned compare the number or total score of the items/ effects /
factors between the two columns.
 This will provide a reflection and indication as to the overall
attractiveness and benefit of the option concerned. If you scored each
item you will actually be able to arrive at a total score, being the
difference between the pros and cons column totals. The bigger the
difference between the total pros and total cons then the more
attractive the option.
 If you have a number of options and have complete a pros and cons
sheet for each option, compare the attractiveness- points difference
between pros and cons- for each option. The biggest positive
difference between pros and cons is the most attractive option.
N.B. If you don’t like the answer that the decision-making sheet(s) reflect back to you, it means you
haven’t included all the cons- especially the emotional ones, or you haven’t scored the factors
consistently, so revisit the sheet(s) concerned.
You will find that writing things down in this way will help you to see things
more clearly, become more objective and detached, which will help you to
make clearer decisions.
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Outline of ISO 9000
ISO 9000 is a family of standards for quality management systems. ISO

9000 is maintained by ISO, the International Organization for
Standardization and is administered by accreditation and certification
bodies. Some of the requirements in ISO 9001 (which is one of the
standards in the ISO 9000 family) include,
 a set of procedures that cover all key processes in the business;
 monitoring processes to ensure they are effective;
 keeping adequate records;
 checking output for defects, with appropriate and corrective action
where necessary;
 regularly reviewing individual processes and the quality system itself
for effectiveness; and
 facilitating continual improvement
A company or organization that has been independently audited and

certified to be in conformance with ISO 9001 may publicly state that it is
"ISO 9001 certified" or "ISO 9001 registered." Certification to an ISO 9000
standard does not guarantee the compliance (and therefore the quality) of
end products and services; rather, it certifies that consistent business
processes are being applied. Indeed, some companies enter the ISO 9001
certification as a marketing tool.
ISO 9000 family
ISO 9000 includes standards:
 ISO 9000:2000: Quality Management Systems – Fundamentals and
Vocabulary.
Covers the basics of what quality management systems are and also
contains the core language of the ISO 9000 series of standards. A guidance
document, not used for certification purposes, but important reference
document to understand terms and vocabulary related to quality
management systems. In the year 2005, revised ISO 9000:2005 standards
has been published, so it is now advised to refer to ISO 9000:2005.
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ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management Systems
Requirements is intended for use in any organization which designs,
develops, manufactures, installs and/or services any product or provides
any form of service. It provides a number of requirements which an
organization needs to fulfil if it is to achieve customer satisfaction through
consistent products and services which meet customer expectations. It
includes a requirement for the continual (i.e. planned) improvement of the
Quality Management System, for which ISO 9004:2000 provides many
hints. This is the only implementation for which third-party auditors may
grant certification. It should be noted that certification is not described as
any of the 'needs' of an organization as a driver for using ISO 9001 (see
ISO 9001:2000 section 1 'Scope') but does recognize that it may be used
for such a purpose (see ISO 9001:2000 section 0.1 'Introduction').
ISO 9004:2000 Quality Management Systems - Guidelines for
Performance Improvements
This gives you advice on what you could do to enhance a mature system.
This standard very specifically states that it is not intended as a guide to
implementation. There are many more standards in the ISO 9001 family
(see "List of ISO 9000 standards" from ISO), many of them not even
carrying "ISO 900x" numbers. For example, some standards in the 10,000
range are considered part of the 9000 family: ISO 10007:1995 discusses
Configuration management, which for most organizations is just one
element of a complete management system.
ISO notes: "The emphasis on certification tends to overshadow the fact
that there is an entire family of ISO 9000 standards ... Organizations stand
to obtain the greatest value when the standards in the new core series are
used in an integrated manner, both with each other and with the other
standards making up the ISO 9000 family as a whole".
Note that the previous members of the ISO 9000 family, 9001, 9002 and
9003, have all been integrated into 9001. In most cases, an organization
claiming to be "ISO 9000 registered" is referring to ISO 9001.
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History of ISO 9000
Pre ISO 9000
During World War II, there were quality problems in many British industries such as
munitions, where bombs were exploding in factories during assembly. The adopted
solution was to require factories to document their manufacturing procedures and to
prove by record-keeping that the procedures were being followed. The name of the
standard was BS 5750, and it was known as a management standard because it
specified not what to manufacture, but how the manufacturing process was to be
managed. According to Seddon, "In 1987, the British Government persuaded the
International Organization for Standardization to adopt BS 5750 as an international
standard. BS 5750 became ISO 9000.
1987 version
ISO 9000:1987 had the same structure as the UK Standard BS 5750, with three
'models' for quality management systems, the selection of which was based on the
scope of activities of the organization. ISO 9001:1987 Model for quality assurance in
design, development, production, installation, and servicing was for companies and
organizations whose activities included the creation of new products. ISO 9002:1987
Model for quality assurance in production, installation, and servicing had basically
the same material as ISO 9001 but without covering the creation of new products. So
9003:1987 Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test covered only the
final inspection of finished product, with no concern for how the product was
produced. ISO 9000:1987 was also influenced by existing U.S. and other Defense
Standards ("MIL SPECS"), and so was well-suited to manufacturing. The emphasis
tended to be placed on conformance with procedures rather than the overall process
of management — which was likely the actual intent.
1994 version
ISO 9000:1994 emphasized quality assurance via preventive actions, instead of just
checking final product, and continued to require evidence of compliance with
documented procedures.
As with the first edition, the down-side was that companies tended to implement its
requirements by creating shelf-loads of procedure manuals, and becoming burdened
with an ISO bureaucracy. In some companies, adapting and improving processes
could actually be impeded by the quality system.
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2000 version
ISO 9001:2000 combines the three standards 9001, 9002, and 9003 into
one, called 9001. Design and development procedures are required only
if a company does in fact engage in the creation of new products. The
2000 version sought to make a radical change in thinking by actually
placing the concept of process management front and center ("Process
management" was the monitoring and optimizing of a company's tasks
and activities, instead of just Inspecting the final product). The 2000
version also demands involvement by upper executives, in order to
integrate quality into the business system and avoid delegation of quality
functions to junior administrators. Another goal is to improve
effectiveness via process performance metrics — numerical
measurement of the effectiveness of tasks and activities. Expectations of
continual process improvement and tracking customer satisfaction were
made explicit.
Certification
ISO does not itself certify organizations. Many countries have formed
accreditation bodies to authorize certification bodies, which audit
organizations applying for ISO 9001 compliance certification. Although
commonly referred to as ISO 9000:2000 certifications, the actual
standard to which an organization's quality management can be certified
is ISO 9001:2000. Both the accreditation bodies and the certification
bodies charge fees for their services. The various accreditation bodies
have mutual agreements with each other to ensure that certificates
issued by one of the Accredited Certification Bodies (CB) are accepted
world-wide. The applying organization is assessed based on an extensive
sample of its sites, functions, products, services and processes; a list of
problems ("action requests" or "non-compliances") is made known to the
management. If there are no major problems on this list, the certification
body will issue an ISO 9001 certificate for each geographical site it has
visited, once it receives a satisfactory improvement plan from the
management showing how any problems will be resolved.
An ISO certificate is not a once-and-for-all award, but must be renewed

at regular intervals recommended by the certification body, usually
around three years. In contrast to the Capability Maturity Model there are
no grades of competence within ISO 9001.
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COMPETENCY No. 13
Ensure Compliances with pollution prevention requirements
275 | P a g e

Prevention of Pollution
 Double Hull Requirements
 SOPEP
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277 | P a g e

ANNEX V: Prevention of Pollution by Garbage
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279 | P a g e

COMPETENCY No. 14
Prevention, Control & Fight fire onboard
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Ionization Smoke Detector - Fire Detectors
An ionisation using a single radioactive source is shown diagrammatically

in figure above. The detector has a chamber that is open to the air and is
divided into two regions by a perforated electrode known as the collector. A
small radioactive source ionises the air in these two regions and the
electrical potential between them is balanced on the collector. When
smoke enters the chamber, the balance is disturbed by an amount
dependent on the smoke density. This change forms the basis of the
analogue output to the trigger circuit.
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Sensitivity and False Alarms
Ionisation detectors responds best to invisible (below 5 micro meter diameter)

particles. The sensitivity can be varied by adjusting the threshold value or
varying the configuration of the closed chamber characteristics. Their
sensitivity is very high for particles of one micrometer and below but falls off
with increase in particle size.
Susceptibility to false alarms is decreased by the use of pulse type detectors
in which the voltage is applied in pulses and the alarm trigger is operated only
after the threshold potential has been maintained during a specified
percentage of pulses.
Light Obscuration and Light Scattering Smoke Detectors
Obscuration Smoke Detector
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A diagrammatic arrangement of an obscuration smoke detector is shown in
figure above. An infrared light beam, at an operating frequency of 1000 pulses
per second, is received by a photoelectric cell and analysed. In a fire, smoke
rises and spreads below ceiling level and the intensity of the light falling on the
receiver is reduced due to light scattering or absorption. The fire alarm sounds
when the signal strength is reduced to between 40 - 90 % for a period of about
5 seconds. Using a pulsed light source saves power and allows the use of a
receiver turned to the pulse frequency to reduce false alarm caused by
sunlight or illumination. Such detectors are suitable for covering large areas
with flat ceilings. They are not suitable for outside use.
Light Scattering Smoke Detectors
Light Scattering Smoke Detectors
283 | P a g e

When the sizes of small particles are greater than the wave length of the
incident radiation, the light is scattered in different directions. Known as
the 'Tyndall Effect', named after its discoverer, this is used for smoke in
several different arrangements, however, all depend on light being
scattered by smoke onto a photoelectric cell that is obscured from the
light beam in normal circumstances.
In the arrangement shown above, the detector is placed in line with the
pulsed infrared light source. In the absence of smoke, the masking disk
casts a shadow over the circular region of diameter 'AB' and prevents
light from emitting diode from falling onto the detecting photocell. In the
presence of smoke, light is scattered and some of it falls onto the
photocell. The evaluation circuit is arranged to trigger an alarm if the
threshold value is exceeded for a predetermined number of consecutive
pulses.
Thermal Fire Detectors
RATE OF RISE THERMAL FIRE DETECTOR
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Bimetal strips form the basis of heat detectors designed to operate at a fixed
temperature or a 'rate of rise' in temperature. When temperature increases,
the bimetal curves as the metal with higher coefficient of expansion lying on the
outer side of an arc undergoes a greater increase in length. With one end fixed,
the movement of the free end of the strip can be arranged to close an electric
circuit that operates an alarm. This principle is utilized in detectors designed to
operate at a fixed temperature or a 'rate of rise' in temperature.
Figure above shows how a 'rate of rise' detector operates using two bimetal
strips. One bimetal strip has a higher thermal inertia either because it is lagged,
as shown in the figure, or because it is thermally shielded from the space being
protected. On a appreciable rate of rise in temperature, the contact 'B' on the
faster response bimetal strip closes on contact 'C' of the slow acting bimetal
strip. This causes an alarm signal to be produced by an alarm circuit connected
between points 'A' and 'D'. In the case of a very slow rate of rise in
temperature, the difference in movements between contacts 'C' and 'B' will be
such that a high temperature will be reached before alarm sounds. To ensure
that the alarm signal is initiated before a temperature of 78 degree Celsius is
reached, a second contact 'F' is provided on the slow acting bimetal strip. At
the required space temperature, contact 'E' closes to contact 'F' and
n alarm signal is initiated. At low rates of temperature rise, (less than 1 degree
Celsius / minute) the alarm should not operate until the temperature exceeds
54 degree Celsius. Without the insulation, the upper bimetal strip would act as
a basic fixed temperature thermal detector.
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Thermal detectors are least sensitive type of detector. They have a high thermal
inertia and the fire has to produce large amount of heat before the temperature at
the detector is sufficient to cause it to operate. Consequently, they are normally
used in spaces such as laundries, drying rooms, galleys, and pantries, where
other detectors are susceptible to false alarm from water vapour or smoke.
In the most recent detector designs the bimetal strips have been replaced by
thermistors (solid state devices of, for example, nickel, manganese and cobalt,
whose electrical resistance changes significantly with temperature). The principle
of operation is, however, no different as one thermistor is exposed to the air and
one is shielded.
.
Prevent, Control & Fight Fire On board

Without doubt, one of the main causes of accidents on-board ships is fire.
This is because of the presence of high temperature, excess quantity of
flammable oil and other combustible materials. A ship is approved to sail only in
international waters only if it constructed as per Fire Safety System Code and
carries required fire fighting appliances approved by the concern authority.
A ship is fitted with various types of fire retardant and fire fighting equipments so
as to fight any kind of fire and extinguish as soon as possible before it turns to a
major catastrophic situation. In this article we bring to you a a list of important fire
fighting equipments and measures present on board.
 Fire retardant bulkhead: different classes of bulkhead such as Class-
A, Class-B and Class-C are used on board ships for construction of
bulkhead in areas like accommodation, machinery space, pump
room etc. the main application of such bulkhead are to contain or
restrict the spread of fires on sensitive areas.
 Fire Doors: fire doors are fitted in fire retardant bulkhead to provide
access from the same they are self-closing type doors with no hold
back arrangement.
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 Fire Dampers: it is provided in the ventilation system of cargo
holds, engine room, accommodation etc. in order to block out
excessive oxygen supply to the fire. For this it is necessary that
open and shut position clearly marked for fire dampers.
 Fire Pumps: as per regulation, a ship must have main fire pump
and emergency power pump of approved type and capacity.
Location of the emergency fire pump must be outside the space
where main fire pump is located.
 Fire Main Piping & Valves: it is connected to the main and

emergency fire pump must be of approved type and capacity.
Isolation and relief valves must be provided in the line to avoid
over pressure of the same.
 Fire Hose and Nozzles: fire hoses with length of at least 10m are
used in ships. Number and diameter of hoses are determined by
the classification society. Nozzle of diameters 12m, 16m and
19m used on ship are dual purpose types-jet and spray mode.
 Fire Hydrants: fire hoses are connected to fire hydrants from

which the water supply is controlled they are made up of heat
retardant material to get least affected from the sub-zero
temperatures and also to ensure that hoses can be easily
coupled with them.
 Portable Fire Extinguishers: portable fire extinguisher of CO2,

foam and dry chemical powder are provided in accommodation,
deck and machinery spaces carried along with number of spares
as given the regulation.
 Fixed Fire Extinguishing System: CO2, foam and water are used
in this type of system, which is installed at different locations on
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the ship and is remotely controlled from outside the space to be
protected.
 Inert Gas System: the inert gas system is provided in the oil
tankers of 20000 DWT and above and those which are fitted with
crude oil washing. The inert gas system is to protect cargo space
from any fire hazards.
 Fire Detectors and Alarms: fire detection and alarm systems are
installed in cargo area accommodation, deck areas and
machinery spaces along with alarm systems to notify any
outbreak of fire and smoke at the earliest.
 Remote Shut & Stop System: the remote station shut down is
provided to all fuel lines from fuel oil and diesel oil tanks in the
machinery spaces and which is done by quick closing valves.
Remote stop system is also provide to stop the machineries like
fuel pumps , purifiers, ventilation fans, boilers etc. in the event of
fire in the engine room or before discharging fixed fire-fighting
systems in the engine room.
 EEBD: EEBD (Emergency Escape Breathing Device) is used to

escape from a room on fire or filled with smoke. The location and
spare of the same must be as per the requirements given in FSS
code.
 Fire Fighter’s Outfit: it is used to fight the fire on the ship made
up of fire retardant material of approved type. For a cargo ship at
least two outfits and for passengers’ ship at least four outfits
must be present onboard.
 International Shore Connection (ISC): it is used to connect shore

water to the ship system to fight fire when the ship fire pump
system is not operational and is on port, lay off or dry dock. The
288 | P a g e

size and dimensions are standard for all the ship and at least one
coupling with gasket must be present on board.
 Means of Escape: escape routes and passages must be

provided at different location of the ship along with ladders and
supports leading to a safe location. The size and location are
designed as per the regulation.
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COMPETENTCY No.

Monitoring the Operation of Electrical, Electronic &

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Aux.Engine shut down safeties :

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Alarm monitoring and logging Systems

Alarm and monitoring system benefits

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Boilers Alarm and Trip Functions

The most important alarm and trip functions on marine boilers

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Solid material usually in sacks, is burnt by an automatic cycle of operation.

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Systems may easily be extended by adding additional hardware units such as

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Bearing Wear Monitoring System - BWCM is designed according to the

Oily water separators

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Figure 8 Oily water separator

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When a centrifuge is set up as a purifier,

As marine fuel oil normally contains a small quantity of water, it is necessary

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Propulsion control system

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

How is Power Generated and Supplied on a Ship

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Power Distribution on board

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© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

SIGNIFICANCE OF EARTH FAULTS:

If an earth fault occurs in an "earthed distribution system", it would be equivalent

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

circuit for the fault current to flow.

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

BULK CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

LIQUID CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Working principle of Anchor windlass

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© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Release Start Button

Pushing Stop Button

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Star Delta Starter

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© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

Auto transformer starter

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© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College

© Electro Technical Officer’s Department, Coimbatore Marine College