Gowri Raj Varma

HS19H016
Course: Film Theory & Practice (HS7410)

THE UNRELIABLE NARRATOR IN FILM

INTRODUCTION

“Kids, you may be wondering how many of these stories I’m telling you are actually true. It’s a
fair question. After all, there’s a fine line between a great story and a bald-faced lie.”
- Ted Mosby, How I Met Your Mother (2005-14)

While he may have been prone to flights of fancy, one would hardly call Ted Mosby an
unreliable narrator. However, this quote aptly captures the sentiment of this paper- that the art of
narration need not always conform to the tenuous, often flimsy idea of “the truth.” The
‘unreliable narrator’ is a popular genre in literature and film; when done cleverly, there is a
perverse thrill associated with being absorbed in a story, only to discover that readers and
viewers were presented with a manipulated version of events.

Before delving into the specifics of the genre, it is important to define certain terms, starting with
the word ‘narrative.’ According to Claude Brémond, a French semiologist, a message conveys a
narrative when it situates a subject at a certain point in time (t) and goes on to tell us what
predicaments befall the subject as time passes (t + n) after the events of the moment ‘t’ (Bal
2004, 351). This somewhat formulaic definition, though general, provides a broad outline. Jakob
Lothe adds to this by listing the three elements that make a narrative film- time, space, and
causality (Lothe 2000, 9). An unreliable narrator distorts these elements to come up with a tale
that is, in varying degrees, different from what is presented later in the film as the objective truth,
and hence, their credibility comes under scrutiny.
The term was first coined in 1961 by Wayne C. Booth in his seminal work, ‘The Rhetoric of
Fiction’. Booth posits that an unreliable narrator “tends to conceal or distort important
information, consciously or unconsciously, to manipulate the reader’s response to the events and
characters” (Booth 1961, xxviii). The use of unreliable narrators in film can be traced back to the
earliest days of cinema, but it is difficult to determine the first exact example. The Cabinet of Dr
Caligari (1920), a German Expressionist classic directed by Robert Weine, is considered an early
example that employs a frame narrative where a young man tells a story of murder and lunacy.
The utilisation of distorted sets, unusual camera angles, and odd, dreamlike imagery all add to
the movie’s impression of unpredictability and instability (Elsaesser 2001, 153). A nascent
example from Hollywood, where unreliability is a central narrative device, is Citizen Kane
(1941), directed by Orson Welles. In this film, the story is told through the perspectives of
different characters, all of whom offer conflicting accounts of the life of the focal figure, Charles
Foster Kane (Bordwell 2000, 150-53).

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

Films frequently employ the critical and intricate device of unreliable narration, which may be
studied using a variety of theoretic frameworks. These conceptualisations provide many angles
for understanding the narrator’s point of view, the director’s aims, and the larger cultural and
social setting in which the movie was produced. In this essay, postmodern, psychoanalytic, and
feminist ideologies are examined as the three schemas.

Postmodernist theory is especially helpful in understanding how an unreliable narrator questions

the idea of a single, objective truth in cinema. The rejection of grand narratives and embracing
fragmentation, irony, and self-reflection define this intellectual and cultural movement. This is
frequently depicted in literature and film by the employment of unreliable narrators who give a
personal account of events that may conflict with the viewer’s perspective (Farhan 2019, 2-4).
The work of filmmakers like Anurag Kashyap has generated countless examples of
postmodernist filmmaking in Indian cinema. One of the best examples of postmodernist cinema’s
use of unreliable narrators is Kashyap’s 2004 film Black Friday, which is based on the 1993
Bombay bombings (The Hindu 2007). Each individual in the movie offers their own version of
the truth as it relates to the events preceding the bombings, providing a variety of viewpoints on
the subject. No definitive explanations are given, leaving the audience to build together their own
interpretation of the events.

Psychoanalytic theory, on the other hand, can assist us in comprehending the psychological
elements that affect an unreliable narrator’s perspective. The version of events given by an
unreliable narrator might be viewed as the result of their irrational impulses, worries, and fears.
In the 2000 movie American Psycho, Patrick Bateman plays the lead and is an unreliable narrator
who paints a false picture of reality. Using psychoanalytic theory, one can better comprehend
how Bateman’s narration reflects his underlying psychological state. For instance, it is possible
to interpret Bateman’s fixation on his physical appearance and his goods due to his underlying
fears and anxieties. Similarly, his violent dreams and deeds can be explained by his suppressed
wants and frustrations.

The use of unreliable narration in movies can be examined through the lens of feminist theory,
especially concerning questions of gender and power. It is possible to perceive an unreliable
narrator as a reflection of how gender roles and power dynamics influence a person’s
interpretation of events (Thornham 2022, 214-16). One of the best examples of how unreliable
narration may be studied via a feminist lens is the 1973 Japanese revenge film Lady Snowblood,
which follows a woman seeking retribution against people who harmed her family. Feminist
theory can assist us in comprehending how Yuki, the movie’s protagonist, represents the social
power structures at work in her narration. For instance, Yuki’s actions can be interpreted as a
reaction to the violence and systematic oppression that women experience in her culture. Her
inconsistent account of events can be seen as a sign of how gender norms affect how she
interprets what happened. Feminist theory can help us better understand Yuki’s character and
intentions by analysing the gendered power relations at work in her narration. In the end, this can
aid us in better understanding the film’s ideas and message and how it reflects more significant
cultural and social issues (Hampton 2016).

Scholars can evaluate a film’s meaning and influence and how it reflects more significant
cultural and societal issues by using these theoretical frameworks to analyse how the
employment of an unreliable narrator affects the narrative. Ultimately, these evaluations can
contribute to a deeper comprehension of the movie and its position within the larger cultural
conversation.

ARCHETYPES

In 1981, William Riggan wrote an entire book devoted to unreliable narration called ‘Picaros,
Madmen, Naifs, and Clowns: The Unreliable First-Person Narrator’. The title pretty much gives
away its central four archetypes. The Naif is probably the simplest to spot, as they are
characterised by a lack of awareness or understanding of the events they describe. Two famous
examples of Naifs stand out in Hollywood- Forrest Gump (1994) ’s titular character and Briony
Tallis in Joe Wright’s adaptation of Atonement (2007) (Anderson 2016, 18-19). Forrest Gump,
played by Tom Hanks, is a beloved character in American films and has been praised for its
portrayal of a kind and sincere protagonist in a world full of chaos and cynicism. However, many
of his tales involving significant historical events seem outlandish and inconsistent, and viewers
believe this is because of his IQ, which is below average. Meanwhile, Atonement is narrated by
an older Briony who recounts a series of tragic events in her youth, where she accuses her
sister’s lover of a crime he did not commit because her childishness leads her to misinterpret her
surroundings.

The Clown archetype in Riggan’s typology is a character often seen as comic relief but also has a
darker side that can be revealed through their unreliable narration (Anderson 2016, 10-11).
Langda Tyagi from Omkara (2006), a Bollywood movie, is a great example. Tyagi, played by
Saif Ali Khan, is known for his clownish antics but is also a master manipulator and deceptive
character who constantly lies and schemes to achieve his goals. The film uses Langda Tyagi’s
unreliable narration to create tension and keep the audience guessing about his true motivations.

There are countless precedents of the Madman narrator who is not in control of their mental
faculties, leading to a distorted perception of reality (Anderson 2016, 14). DC’s Joker (2019),
which won Joaquin Phoenix an Oscar, is the first and most obvious example that comes to mind.
In The Cabinet of Dr Caligari, we have Cesare, a sleepwalker under the control of the sinister Dr
Caligari, who uses him to carry out murders in a small German town. Other notable examples
include Nina Sayers and Teddy Daniels, the protagonists of two popular 2010 movies, Black
Swan and Shutter Island, respectively. Meanwhile, the Picaro character in Riggan’s typology is
typically a wanderer, rogue or adventurer often involved in criminal activities. They are also
braggarts. One example is the titular Baron Munchausen from Terry Gilliam’s The Adventures of
Baron Munchausen (1988), known for his tall tales and boasting about his heroic deeds, which
often turn out to be exaggerated or wholly fabricated (Anderson 2016, 8).

Rob Nixon criticises William Riggan for offering an incomplete taxonomy of unreliable
narrators. Nixon argues that Riggan’s focus on the first-person narrator ignores the complexities
of third-person narration and undermines the diversity of unreliable narrators in literature and
film. Nixon further suggests that Riggan’s classifications are overly simplistic and fail to account
for the psychological dimensions of unreliable narration (Nixon 1982, 88-90).

Riggan’s categories are blurry and overlapping and do not include some critical times of
unreliable narrators like the liars. Gone Girl (2014) features a married couple who accuse each
other of terrible crimes. However, as the movie progresses, viewers realise that both are actively
skewing facts, leading to a conclusion where no one knows what happened. Some lie for the
‘right reasons,’ like the pregnant Vidya Bagchi from Kahaani (2012), whose character is initially
searching for her missing husband. At the very end, viewers find out that her husband is, in fact,
dead and that she faked her pregnancy to seem harmless so she could avenge her husband’s
killers.

Nevertheless, archetypes can provide a valuable framework for scrutinising the motivations and
behaviours of unreliable narrators in film. They allow us to identify and contextualise recurring
patterns in storytelling and character development. By recognising archetypal patterns, we can
better understand the unreliable narrator’s psychological makeup and how it contributes to their
distorted perspective.
FILMOGRAPHY AND UNRELIABLE NARRATION

It is important to discuss the use of visual and aural cues in films to signal to the audience that
the narrator may not be trustworthy. One common visual cue is the use of subjective camera
shots, where the camera takes on the narrator’s point of view. This can be seen in Alfred
Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960), where the audience sees the world through the eyes of Norman
Bates. In the famous shower scene, the camera takes on Norman’s point of view as he watches
Marion Crane in the shower, leading the audience to believe that he is a trustworthy character,
only to be later revealed as the murderer (Maier 2022, 34-35).

Another visual cue is the use of mise-en-scène to create an unreliable atmosphere. In Mulholland
Drive (2001), director David Lynch uses dreamlike imagery in the opening scene, where the
camera pans over a pillow before cutting to a darkened room. This creates a sense of
disorientation for the viewer, suggesting that the narrator may not be reliable (Kukkonen 2017,
29-35). Impersonal filmic narration, executed through blended shots instead of “point of view”
shots like in Life of Pi (2012), enables directors to conceal whether the narrators are being
truthful or distorting facts (Maier 2022, 34).

Aural cues can also be used to signal unreliability, such as voiceover narration. In Fight Club
(1999), the narrator’s voiceover provides exposition and insight into his character’s mindset, but
as the film progresses, the voiceover becomes more unreliable as the narrator’s mental state
deteriorates. For example, in the famous twist ending, it is revealed that the narrator’s
“imaginary” friend Tyler Durden is a dissociated part of his own personality, and many of the
things the narrator has narrated are false (Maier 2022, 30).

Sound design can also be used to create an unreliable atmosphere. In Memento (2000), director
Christopher Nolan uses nonlinear storytelling, overlapping dialogue, disjointed sound effects,
and reversed audio to reflect the protagonist’s memory loss and confusion. Finally, the use of
unreliable mise-en-scène can also signal an unreliable narrator. In The Usual Suspects (1995),
nonlinear storytelling and distorted visual imagery create a sense of unreliability around the
narrator, Verbal Kint (Kukkonen 2017, 29-44).
CONCLUSION

Memory can deceive, perception can be subjective, and truth can be a matter of perspective. As
Orson Welles’ infamous character in Citizen Kane, Charles Foster Kane, once said, ‘I think it
would be fun to run a newspaper. I’ll make up the news.’ These words encapsulate the essence of
the unreliable narrator, a literary device that has found a home in cinema. From Akira
Kurosawa’s Rashomon to Christopher Nolan’s Memento, filmmakers have embraced the concept
of telling a story from the perspective of an untrustworthy narrator.

While the origins of this narrative technique can be traced back to early cinema, its evolution
through various film movements has been remarkable. From its early days in film noir and the
surrealism of The Cabinet of Dr Caligari to the postmodernism of Fight Club, filmmakers have
pushed the boundaries of the genre, using visual and aural cues to create intricate webs of
narrative deceit. Distorted camera angles, unreliable voiceovers, and nonlinear storytelling have
become hallmarks of the genre, allowing filmmakers to challenge the audience’s perceptions of
reality.

While looking towards the genre’s future, one can see an ever-expanding canvas of possibilities.
The rise of virtual reality and interactive cinema has opened up exciting new avenues for
storytelling, allowing filmmakers to create even more immersive and challenging narratives.
However, the timeless appeal of the unreliable narrator lies in its ability to reflect the intricacies
of the human experience and one’s innate desire to understand the world around them. In films,
unreliable narrators can add depth and complexity to the story, forcing the audience to question
the veracity of the events being presented. The unreliable narrator can also serve as a
commentary on the unreliability of memory and perception, adding a psychological dimension to
the story.

In the end, the unreliable narrator remains a fascinating and endlessly captivating element of
cinematic storytelling. Whether one is drawn to the duplicity of a Picaro or the insanity of a
Madman, the genre has given the world some of the most unforgettable characters in film history.
As filmmakers continue to explore the depths of the human psyche through the lens of the
unreliable narrator, one is often reminded that the boundaries of storytelling are limited only by
their imagination.

REFERENCES:

Anderson, Timothy Kent. 2016. "I Know Who I Am: Self-Constitution and the Unreliable
Narrator." PhD diss., University of Washington.

Bal, Mieke. 2004. Narrative theory: critical concepts in literary and cultural studies.
Oxfordshire: Routledge.

Booth, Wayne C. 1961. The Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press..

Elsaesser, Thomas. 2001. "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari: Icon of a Horror Film." Gothic studies 3,
no. 2: 149-165.

Bordwell, David. 2000. The Classics of the American Cinema. Berkeley: University of California
Press..

Currie, Gregory. “Unreliability Refigured: Narrative in Literature and Film.” The Journal of
Aesthetics and Art Criticism 53, no. 1 (1995): 19–29. https://doi.org/10.2307/431733.

Farhan, Ria. 2019. "Understanding postmodernism: Philosophy and culture of postmodern."

Journal International Social Sciences and Education, (October): 1-11.

Ferenz, Volker. 2005. “FIGHT CLUBS, AMERICAN PSYCHOS AND MEMENTOS.” New
Review of Film and Television Studies 3, no. 2 (November): 133–59.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17400300500213461.

Hampton, Howard. 2016. “The Complete Lady Snowblood: Flowers of Carnage.” The Criterion
Collection, January 5, 2016.
https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/3856-the-complete-lady-snowblood-flowers-of-carnage.
Kukkonen, Karin. 2010. "The Unreliable Narrator in Film." Style 44, no. 1: 32-47.
doi:10.1353/sty.0.0042.

Lothe, Jakob. 2000. Narrative in fiction and film: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Nixon, Rob. 1982. “Review of Pícaros, Madmen, Naifs, and Clowns: The Unreliable
First-Person Narrator,” by R. William. SubStance 11, no. 3: 88–90.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3684320.

“Realism at Its Best.” The Hindu, February 10, 2007.

https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/Realism-at-its-best/article1471
8837.ece.

Riggan, William. 1981. Pícaros, Madmen, Naīfs, and Clowns: The Unreliable First-person
Narrator. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Thornham, Sue. 2022. "Feminist media and film theory." In Contemporary feminist theories,
213-231. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

The Living Handbook of Narratology. “Unreliability.” December 31, 2013.

https://www-archiv.fdm.uni-hamburg.de/lhn/node/66.html.